THE 


WORLD'S  RELIGIONS 


A  Comprehensive  Popular  Account  of  all  the  Principal 
Religions  of  Civilised  and  Uncivilised  Peoples; 


DESCRIBING 


THEIR  DOCTRINES,  RITES,  PRIESTHOODS, 
SACRED     BOOKS,    AND    MORAL    TEACHINGS, 


TOGETHER    WITH 


LIVES  OF  THEIR  FOUNDERS,  GREAT  TEACHERS  AND  REFORMERS. 


G.  T.  BETTANY,  M.A.,  B.Sc, 

Author  of  "  The  World's  Inhabitants"  etc. 
WITH   AN   INTRODUCTION   BY 

THE    REV.    JOHN   HALL,    D.D.,   LL.D., 

?hance//or  of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New   York,  and  Pastor  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  Presbyterian  Church. 


Copioushj  |IIustratcb  frntrj  Jnll-page  ana  other  Ornqrabings. 


NEW  YORK : 

THE   CHRISTIAN    LITERATURE  COMPANY 

1 891. 


Copyright,  1891,  by 
The  Christian  Literature  Company. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction v 

Preface xi 

Authorities  Quoted xiii 

BOOK  I. 


RELIGIONS  OF  UNCIVILISED  PEOPLES. 


CHAPTER 

I.     Races 


in    Australasia,     Polynesia,    and 


without  a  Religion 
II.     Religious    Beliefs    and     Practices 

Melanesia  . ' 

III.  Aboriginal  Religions  op  Africa 

IV.  Aboriginal  Religions  of  America 

V.     Aboriginal  Religions  of  India  and  other  Parts  of  Asia 


23 

25 
43 
61 

83 


BOOK   II. 

RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA  AND  JAPAN 

I.     Life  of  Confucius 102 

II.     The  Chinese  Sacred   Books 115 

III.  The  Chinese  Modern  State  Religion,    and  Confucianism         .        .        .  132 

IV.  Lao-tze 144 

V.     Development  and   Present  Condition  of  Taoism 150 

VI.    Shin-toism  (Japan) 167 


BOOK   III. 


BRAHMANISM,  BUDDHISM,  AND  PAESEEISM. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 


The  Early  Vedic  Religion 

The  Brahmanism   of  the   Codes       .                          . 
Modern   Hinduism.    I.                                   ... 
Modern   Hinduism.     II. 

The   Buddhist  Doctrines,    Order,    and  Sacred   Books 

Modern   Buddhism.     I. 

Modern  Buddhism.     II 

Zoroaster  and  the  Zend-Avesta     .        .  •     . 

176 
106 

23 1 

274 
203 
313 
337 
343 
356 
365 

CONTENTS. 


BOOK    IV. 
EUROPEAN  ARYAN  RELIGIONS. 

CHAPTER 

I.  The  Ancient  Greek   Religion  :   The   Gods 

II.  Greek   Sacrifices,   Priests,   Temples  and   Festivals,  and  Morals 

III.  Socrates,    Plato,   and  other  Greek   Philosophers 

IV.  The  Roman   Religion 

V.  The  Religion  op  the  Teutons  (including   Scandinavians) 

VI.     The  Religion  ok  the   Slavonians 

VII.     Celtic  Religion 


PAGE 

an 

387 
407 
418 
439 
451 
456 


BOOK   V 

EGYPTIAN  AND  SEMITIC  RELIGIONS. 

I.  Tnic  Egyptian   Religion 

II.  The   Babylonian,    Assyrian,   and  Phoenician   Religions 

III.  Like  of  Mahomet.     Part    I. 

IV.  Life  of   Mahomet.     Part  II. 
V.  The  Koran  and  its  Teachings 

VI.     Modern   Islam.     Part  I. 
VII.     Modern   Islam.     Part   II.    . 


462 
483 
500 
515 
527 
539 
565 


BOOK  VI. 

THE  JEWISH  RELIGION. 

I.     Early  History— Moses 585 

II.     The  Jewish   Religion:    Legislation,    Festivals,    Morals   ....  601 

III.  The  Jewish  Priesthood   and   Temples;    the   Psalms  and  Philosophical 

Wisdom 621 

IV.  Tin:   Prophets  of   Israel 637 

V.     J  v da  ism  after  the  Prophets 649 

VI.     Modern  Jewish  Ritual— The  Karaites  and   Samaritans    ....  670 


BOOK  VII 

THE  CHRISTIAN  RELIGION. 

I.  'I'm:  Founder  ok  Christianity 

II.  Tiii';  New  Testament 

III.  Tin;  Apostolic  Times 

IV.  Christianity  Persecuted  :  Second  and  Third  Centuries 
V.  Christianity  as  a  State  Church:   Fourth  Century    . 

VI.  Tin,  Church  in  the  Fifth  and  Sixth  Centuries. 

VII.  Christianity  to  the   Separation  between  East  and  West  (Seventh  t 

Tenth  Centuries) 

viii.  'i'm;   ea8tern  church— russian  and  greek  . 

IX.  Tiik  Roman  Church  jn  the  Middle  Ages 

X.  Religh  i  -   Persecutions  and  the  Reformation 

XI.  'I'm;   Council  of   Trent  and   Modern   Romanism. 

XII.  'I'm;    Lutheran,    Reformed,   and  Presbyterian   Churches 

XIII.  'I'm;   Church   ok  England  and  the   Nonconformists  . 


687 
705 
717 
730 
755 
766 

784 
797 
813 
835 
849 
865 
881 


INTRODUCTION. 


BY  REV.  JOHN  HALL,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

CHANCELLOR     OF    THE    UNIVERSITY     OF    THE    CITY     OF     NEW     YORK     AND    PASTOR    OF    THE     FIFTH 

AVENUE     PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH. 

THE  influence  of  Paganism,  in  its  various  forms,  upon  struggling  Chris- 
tianity as  it  made  its  way  among  the  races  of  mankind  has  been 
noticed,  of  course,  by  thoughtful  writers,  but  has  not  received  the  careful 
attention  to  which  it  is  entitled.  This  is  due,  in  part,  to  the  little  attention 
given  to  early  Christian  literature,  and  in  still  greater  degree  to  the  little 
exact  knowledge  in  the  average  community  regarding  the  religious  beliefs 
and  rites  grouped  under  the  general  name  of  heathenism.  But  the  New 
Testament  does  not  ignore  the  manifestations  of  religious  feeling  among 
the  nations.  Paul,  an  educated  man  before  he  became  an  apostle,  speaking 
to  educated  men — typical  devotees  of  culture  and  philosophy  at  Athens — 
refers  to  men  "  feeling  after  God  if  haply  they  might  find  Him  ;"  but  he 
pays  no  compliments  to  their  enlightenment,  for  he  describes  their  days  as 
"  times  of  ignorance ;"  and  when  he  writes  to  churches  partly  Jewish,  but 
mainly  Gentile  in  their  constituent  elements,  he  does  not  hesitate  to  warn 
them  against  the  "  philosophy  and  vain  deceit"  which  sometimes  accepted 
Christianity  in  part  and  then  added  to  it  corrupting  elements  that  made  it 
"  of  none  effect."  These  statements  might  easily  be  verified  and  illustrated 
from  ecclesiastical  history,  and  they  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  even  in  this 
nineteenth  century  the  study  of  the  religions  of  human  devising  may  throw 
light  on  the  holy  oracles,  and  on  the  historical  modifications  of  our  divinely 
revealed  religion. 

The  notion  is  sometimes  vaguely  suggested  and  thoughtlessly  accepted 
that  the  religion  associated  with  the  prophetic  name  of  the  Son  of  God,  our 
Saviour,  is  one  of  the  many  forms  into  which  the  natural  religious  faculty 
of  man  has  developed,  higher  and  better,  indeed,  from  many  causes  than 
others,  but  yet  the  same  in  kind  as  in  origin.  How  the  acceptance  of  this 
view  as  a  proved  truth  would  work ;  how  it  would  weaken  the  force  of  all 
appeals  to  the  conscience  based  on  Bible  truth,  it  is  easy  to  calculate.  It 
is  all  the  more  plausible,  because,  like  many  popular  errors,  it  contains  some 
admitted  truth.  There  is  a  religious  element  in  man's  nature.  Explain 
it  as  men  may,  there   is   a  sense  of  dependence  upon   and   accountability 


THE   WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


to  some  other  higher  Power.  But  Christianity  is  the  completion  of  a  di- 
vine, distinct  revelation  to  us,  not  an  outcome  and  product  of  natural  man. 
'That  revelation  began  in  the  dispensations  reported  in  the  Old  Testament, 
was  completed  when,  in  these  last  days,  men  were  spoken  to  by  the  Son 
and  His  apostles,  and  is  commended  to  men  as  divine  by  adequate  and 
appropriate  evidence.  One  of  the  ways  in  which  the  supernatural  religion 
can  be  vindicated  as  such  is  by  the  careful  study  of  humanly  devised  sys- 
tem-. "  If  these  systems  be  the  best  that  men,  however  gifted,  can  devise, 
then  the  Gospel  of  God  predicted  in  the  Old  and  unfolded  in  the  New 
Testament  must  have  an  origin  higher  than  the  human."  So  a  candid 
student  of  The  World's  Religions  will  feel  and  say. 

For,  to  return  to  the  grain  of  truth  in  the  generalization  just  referred 
to,  men  everywhere  have  some  religious  feeling  more  or  less  definitely  ex- 
pressed. It  is  not  always  displayed,  say  to  a  Captain  Cook  touching,  for 
.1  day  or  two,  an  island  of  savages.  The  men  who  come  into  contact  with 
new  and  barbarous  tribes  are  not  always  interested  in  religious  matters,  and 
their  new  acquaintances,  with  bows  and  arrows  and  defective  dress,  are 
generally  thinking — not  so  much  of.  their  devotional,  as  of  their  material 
conditions;  not  so  much  of  the  amount  of  religious  light  they  can  give  the 
strangers,  as  of  the  attractive  goods  they  can  get  from  them.  The  writer 
once  sat  at  a  dinner-table  where  a  British  officer,  who  once  served  in  India, 
but  -had  long  resided  in  London,  was  decrying  the  work  of  Christian  mis- 
sionaries in  the  region  of  which  he  spoke  authoritatively.  He.  had  been 
there,  and  it  had  not  attracted  his  attention.  The  Christian  auditors  were 
a  little  discouraged  and  silent,  when  the  question  was  put  to  him:  "By 
the  way,  do  you  know  how  the  London  City  mission  goes  forward?"  "I 
never  heard  of  it,"  was  his  frank  reply.  He  had  lived  in  London,  was  an 
Englishman,  spoke  the  vernacular,  but  moved  on  a  plane  not  much  trav- 
ersed by  the  missionary.  No  more  was  said,  but  it  was  easy  to  see  that 
his  testimony  as  to  missions  in  Bengal  or  Katiawar  was  not  very  intelligent. 
Everywhere  the  religious  element  exists,  more  or  less  plainly  expressed*. 
(  >ur  author,  while  giving  place  to  the  common  impression  (p.  25)  that  the 
Australian  natives  when  discovered  by  Europeans  "had  no  worship,  nor 
any  idea  of  a  Creator,"  yet  furnishes  details  regarding  their  sorcerers,  their 
theories  of  creation,  their  notions  about  ghosts,  and  the  Tasmanian  hope 
that  in  the  future  life  they  would  be  happy  hunters  (p.  27),  or  go  to  the 
stars,  or  to  an  island  where  their  ancestors  were,  and  where  they  would  be 
turned  into  white  people.  So  races  everywhere  look  to  a  world  outside 
their  own,  and  believe  in  a  being  or  in  beings — sometimes  good  and  some- 
times malevolent— who  must  be  conciliated  or  guarded  against..  Men  some- 
times  set  aside  natural  laws  by  artificial  means,  and  so  individuals  may,  by 
intellectual  opiates,  deaden  the  religious  element  within  them.  But  God 
has  not  left  Himself  without  a  witness.  "The  heavens  declare  His  glory 
and  the  firmament  showeth  His  handywork."  Nor  is  it  only  by  His  works 
without   that  a  basis  is  laid  for  natural  religion.     "  Man  was  made   in  the 


IN  TROD  UC  TION.  v  i  i 


image  of  God,  and  he  reveals  his  parentage  as  unmistakably  as  any  class  of 
inferior  animals  reveal  the  source  from  whence  they  sprung."  The  outward 
and  sensible  signs  of  religion  may  be  obscure,  vague,  secret,  or,  to  a  casual 
observer,  even  conspicuous  by  their  absence;  but  the  religious  intuition 
exists  all  over,  and  vindicates  the  inspired  testimony.  This  truth  is  illus- 
trated in  the  volume  which  describes    The  World 's  Religions. 

In  examining  the  various  types  of  religious  thought,  one  finds,  as  might 
be  expected  from  the  facts  just  mentioned,  certain  elements  common  to 
many  of  them,  or,  to  make  the  idea  more  definite,  finds  points  in  them 
which  are  emphasised  in  the  divine  revelation.  Explanations  of  these 
coincidences  are  sometimes  at  hand.  Mohammed,  e.g.,  was  in  close  and  fre- 
quent contact  with  Hebrews  and  Christians,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  to  what 
an  extent  both  the  style,  the  method,  and  the  substance  of  his  alleged 
revelation  in  the  Koran  have  been  shaped  by  our  Scriptures.  In  other 
cases  the  materials  of  history  are  not  available,  but  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
accounting  for  the  coincidences.  God  hath  made  of  one  blood  all  nations 
of  men.  The  race  in  its  beginning  had  certain  deeply  seated  convictions, 
modified  by  circumstances,  and  becoming  more  obscure  and  indefinite  as 
the  generations  came  and  went,  but,  like  physical  features  and  common 
habits,  retaining  throughout  some  of  the  original  characteristics.  A  tribe 
has  its  deity,  and  it  forms  an  alliance  with  another  tribe,  which  also  had  its 
object  of  worship.  As  the  tribes  coalesce  their  deities  are  retained,  and  so 
"  lords  many  and  gods  many  "  are  perpetuated,  while  the  radical  ideas  of 
dependence  and  the  applications  of  the  religious  beliefs  to  the  affairs  of  life 
will  remain.  A  race  with  its  local  deities  is  vanquished  and  its  territory 
taken  by  another.  The  new-comers,  used  to  the  notion  of  local  deities, 
not  unnaturally  fall  into  the  belief  that  now  that  they  have  come  into  this 
new  region  it  is  politic  to  stand  well  with  the  deities  of  the  place,  mountain 
or  flood,  and  yet  they  will  retain  their  conceptions  of  the  divine,  and  of  the 
course  proper  for  them  to  pursue.  So  asceticism,  monastic  vows,  temples, 
shrines,  priests,  offerings,  and  other  expressions  of  devotion  are  common  to 
religions  widely  different.  The  early  Vedas  had  sacred  fires,  offerings  of 
rice  and  clarified  butter,  which  the  offerer,  after  washing  the  feet  of  the 
priests,  and  giving  them  perfumes,  invited  them  to  eat,  at  once  suggesting, 
arrangements  made  in  the  Hebrew  ritual.  But  the  earliest  date  assigned  to 
the  Rig-Veda  is  1200  B.C.,  and  many  bring  it  down  to  B.C.  800.  Take  which 
you  will,  and  you  have  centuries  intervening  between  its  rise  and  the  setting 
up  of  that  Mosaic  ritual  which  the  Queen  of  Sheba  had  the  curiosity  to  in- 
quire about  and  the  opportunity  to  see  ;  and  if  her  admiration  was  sincere, 
we  can  well  understand  her  spreading  it  among  the  northern  countries  from 
India  and  Africa,  whose  people,  with  their  gold  and  diamonds,  incense  and 
cassia,  traded  with  the  Sabaeans,  and  whose  Bedouin  population  at  a  later 
time  struck  out  and  founded  kingdoms  on  the  Euphrates,  and  in  the  Hauran 
Mountains.'  (See  Fr.  W.  Schultz  on  Arabia,  in  the  Schaff-Herzog  Encyc.) 
A  comparison   of  the  Latin  Dcus  and  the  Devas,  or  "  shining  ones,"  of  the 


THE   WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Vedas;  of  the  Zeus  of  Greece  and  the  Jupiter  of  Rome,  with  the  Dyansh- 
piter,  or  Heaven-father,  of  the  Sanscrit,  and  other  like  sacred  names,  will 
show  how  not  only  Greek  and  Latin  mythologies  coincide,  but  that  there 
was  much  in  common  between  the  European  and  Hindoo  Aryans,  whether 
they  are  demonstrably  of  one  stock  or  not.  The  human  race  was  one  at 
the  beginning,  and  the  religious  elements  of  the  early  history,  though  end- 
lessly modified  in  form  as  tribes  and  kindred  spread,  divided,  and  sometimes 
came  together  again,  are  perpetuated  in  essential  features  and  root  prin- 
ciples. There  is  something  suggestive  of  even  later  forms  of  worship  than 
the  Greek  and  Roman  in  the  invocations  and  "  adoration  of  the  beneficent 
Father  and  that  mighty  inherent  power  of  the  Mother  "  (p.  179).  On  one 
other  line  of  interesting  inquiry  the  reader  will  be  aided  by  the  study  of 
The  World's  Religions.  Did  the  religious  systems  develop  and  rise  in 
amount  of  truth  as  man  rose  from  animal  savagism  ?  or  did  they  lose 
their  simplicity,  become  varied,  complicated,  mixed,  and  the  reverse  of  ele- 
vating, as  man  has  gone  down  ?  In  other  words,  did  God  make  man  upright, 
man  sinning  and  wandering  and  seeking  out  many  inventions,  or  did  man 
come  into  existence  as  a  human  animal  in  a  condition  of  untrained  barba- 
rism, and  did  he  gradually  work  himself  up  religiously  and  otherwise,  as  the 
generations  proceeded  ?  The  evolution  theory  as  frequently,  though  not 
always  accurately  expounded,  raises  questions  like  these.  The  study  of 
man  on  the  religious  side  of  his  nature  furnishes  aids  to  a  definite  opinion. 

Turning  in  another  direction,  as  one  looks  at  the  latter  part  of  The  World's 
Religions  as  a  book,  one  must  expect  some  good  to  come  from  its  careful 
perusal.  Our  country  is  new.  We  have  been  making,  rather  than  reading 
history.  George  Washington's  hatchet  typifies  the  point  to  which  some 
have  gone  back,  and  have  gone  no  farther.  We  are  a  busy  people,  and  the 
present  gives  many  of  us  as  much  to  do  as  we  can  accomplish.  Various 
considerations,  including  our  differences  of  opinion  about  religious  things, 
have  kept  history,  even  civil  history,  from  a  prominent  place  in  our  com- 
mon schools.  It  is  not  wonderful,  then,  that  Church  History  is  confined  as 
a  study  to  seminaries  and  religious  teachers.  Now  our  author  has  aimed, 
as  he  tells  us,  at  reporting  facts  without  pronouncing  opinions ;  but  it  will 
be  a  gain  to  get  the  facts  into  the  minds  of  many  of  our  people.  Human 
conditions  and  "  environments  "  change,  but  human  nature  does  not.  Moral 
principles  are  the  same  in  this  century  as  in  the  nineteenth  before  Christ, 
and  He  who  controls  the  universe  is  "  without  variableness  or  shadow  of 
turning."  There  is,  in  a  true  sense,  nothing  new  under  the  sun.  Hence 
the  positive  gain  of  seeing  how  principles  have  worked  themselves  out  and 
how  men  have  been  affected  by  their  operation  in  the  ages  that  are  gone. 
The  study  cannot  fail  to  throw  light  on  the  present,  on  duty,  privilege,  and 
prospects.  The  history  of  churches  touches  man  on  the  deepest  side  of  his 
life,  and  unfolds  the  working  of  the  strongest  force  in  the  shaping  of  society. 
The  examination,  therefore,  of  the  religious  life  of  European  and  other  na- 
tions, and   the   comparison  of  moral,  and  even  civil  and  social   conditions 


IN  TROD  UCTION. 


since  the  Reformation,  as  here  presented,  of  course  with  necessary  concise- 
ness, will  be  profitable  in  a  high  degree  to  the  average  American  reader. 

But  there  are  other,  and  in  a  sense,  more  tender  and  even  practical  in- 
fluences under  which  one  may  come  in  the  reading  of  this  book,  and  a  rapid 
statement  of  these  will  fittingly  close  this  paper. 

The  common  elements  in  men's  religious  systems,  a  deity  or  deities 
outside  ourselves,  dependence  thereon,  and  accountability  thereto — these 
remind  us  that  the  race  is  one.  Then  we  have  a  basis  for  wide  humanity  of 
feeling.  Then  clime  or  color,  station  or  speech,  must  not  limit  our  sympathy 
or  our  regard.  Let  there  be  ignorance  anywhere  ;  we  must  try  to  banish 
it.  Let  there  be  misery  anywhere  ;  we  must  seek  to  lighten  it.  Let  there 
be  good  anywhere  ;  we  must  rejoice  over  it.  Let  there  be  opportunity  to 
do  good  anywhere  ;  then  we  must  try  to  do  it.  To  us  as  human  beings 
there  is  to  be  neither  Jew  nor  Greek,  barbarian  nor  Scythian,  bond  nor  free. 
As  in  God's  new-creating  grace  all  are  m^de  one  in  Christ  when  they  trust 
Him,  so  in  His  original  natural  creation  all  are  one. 

But  not  only  will  sympathy  with  our  brother-man  be  developed,  but  on 
the  way  to  make  it  practical  and  useful  some  light  will  be  cast.  It  is  not 
enough  that  we  pity,  and  would  fain  help.  How  to  do  it  is  a  practical 
point.  The  physician  has  to  make  the  diagnosis  before  he  decides  on  the 
remedies.  We  must  understand  the  moral  condition  of  our  fellow-men  and 
their  formative  beliefs  before  we  can  hope  to  do  them  enduring  good.  Now 
the  churches  throughout  Christendom  are  moving  in  the  direction  of  spread- 
ing Christianity.  To  think  and  feel  intelligently,  they  must  understand,  in 
some  degree,  the  mental  and  moral  state,  the  convictions  and  the  emotions 
of  their  fellow-men.  This  fact  is  well  appreciated  by  the  zealous  pro- 
ducers and  disseminators  of  our  religious  and  missionary  literature.  Never 
was  the  religion  of  the  Cross  so  aggressive  on  a  large  scale  as  at  this  time. 
What  a  gain  it  will  be  when  they  who  bear  the  name  of  the  Great  Divine 
Teacher  have  not  only  a  general  idea  of  the  superiority  of  their  faith,  but 
when  they  can  tell  the  reason  for  their  convictions,  and  assign  cause  for  self- 
denying  effort  to  enlighten  those  who  are  yet  without  its  light  !  What  a 
quickening  of  interest  in  certain  forms  of  disease  the  announcement  of  Dr. 
Koch's  specific  has  produced!  How  eagerly  it  is  scrutinised,  and  how 
anxiously  will  it  be  tested  by  actual  sufferers  !  Is  the  religion  of  the  Cross 
the  best  remedy  for  the  world's  evils  ?  Then  let  us  understand  them,  pity 
the  victims,  and  intelligently  seek  the  world-wide  application  of  the  remedy. 

For  how  easy  it  is  to  see  that  men  and  women  may  go  to  the  believers 
in  Confucius  or  to  the  followers  of  Mohammed,  full  of  zeal  and  earnestness, 
but  if  they  betray  ignorance  of  the  beliefs  they  would  fain  supplant  by 
Christian  truth,  they  will  not  only  be  disliked,  but  despised.  "  He  teach  us 
a  good  religion  better  than  ours!  Why,  he  does  not  know  what  ours  is!" 
How  natural  would  such  a  criticism  be  where  the  well-meaning  toiler  has 
never  learned  the  nature  of  the  errors  he  would  dispel ! 

And   finally,  the   eyes   of  many  are  on   the  hundreds  and  thousands  of 


THE  WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


men  and  women,  of  teachers  and  physicians,  who  are  facing  the  masses  of 
heathenism  ;  and  in  some  instances,  perhaps,  there  is  an  expectation  that  is 
not  quite  satisfied  with  the  results.  Let  such  anxious  ones  make  themselves 
acquainted  with  the  deeply  rooted,  long-continued,  widely  spread  systems 
against  which  the  Christian  laborer  has  to  work,  and  there  will  be  sympathy 
with  the  worker  ;  there  will  be  a  deep  sense  of  dependence  on  divine  aid  ; 
and  there  will  be  the  earnest  prayer  that  the  life-giving  Spirit  may  be  with 
the  laborer,  breathing  on  the  dead  that  they  may  live. 


PREFACE. 


THE  aim  of  this  work  is  to  give  an  account  of  the  principal  religions 
or  religious  systems  of  mankind,  past  and  present.  Historic  fact 
is  followed  as  far  as  it  can  be  ascertained,  and  theorising  has  little  place. 
The  author's  endeavour  has  been  to  state  simply  and  impartially  what  is  the 
faith  professed  by  various  peoples  or  associations,  what  are  the  objects  of 
their  worship,  what  are  their  practices,  their  ceremonies,  their  institutions. 
Where  they  have  religious  books,  some  account  of  them  is  given,  together 
with  the  history  of  and  main  doctrines  taught  by  their  principal  founders. 

It  has  seemed  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  various  opinions  held  as  to 
the  origin  of  religion  ;  whether  it  arose  from  a  divinely  implanted  instinct 
given  to  all  mankind,  or  from  distinct  verbal  revelation  to  particular  men, 
or  from  the  worship  of  natural  forces  felt  to  be  superior  to  man,  or  from 
the  honour  paid  to  chiefs  and  ancestors,  and  the  propitiation  of  their  ghosts 
as  seen  in  dreams.  It  has  been  the  author's  desire  to  produce  a  work 
useful  and  interesting  to  persons  of  all  shades  of  opinion,  and  one  tending 
to  make  them  better  acquainted  with  each  other.  A  disposition  to  recog- 
nise the  human  nature  in  all  man's  ways  and  thoughts — a  human  nature 
capable  of  error,  yet  having  good  impulses — a  human  nature  which,  in  the 
main,  progresses,  in  spite  of  all  drawbacks — a  human  nature  which  in  many 
ways  has  sought,  has  prayed  to,  has  worshipped  the  Power  which  created 
and  maintains  the  universe — a  disposition  toward  toleration  will,  it  is  be- 
lieved, be  found  pervading  these  pages.  The  intention  has  been  to  give 
such  an  account  of  various  religions  as  their  own  adherents  can>  acquiesce 
in,  and  their  critics  allow  to  be  just ;  a  difficult  task,  confessedly ;  but  im- 
perfection in  the  attainment  of  such  an  aim  is  better  than  a  distinctively 
partial  or  prejudiced  account.  The  author  believes  that  others  have  an 
equal  right  with  ourselves  to  respect  and  fair  treatment  as  to  their  religious 
opinions,  and  that  we  may  be  as  blameworthy  or  faulty  in  our  conceptions 
of  others  as  they  in  their  conceptions  of  us.  He  promises  what  Keshub 
Chunder  Sen,  the  founder  of  the  Brahmo  Somaj,  declared  as  principles  of 
his  Church  :  "  No  created  being  or  object  that  has  been  worshipped  by  any 
sect  shall  be  ridiculed  ;  no  book  which  has  been  acknowledged  by  any  sect 
to  be  infallible  shall  be  ridiculed  or  contemned  ;  no  sect  shall  be  vilified, 
ridiculed,  or  hated."  On  the  contrary,  the  study  of  religions  is  here  taken 
up  with  a  sympathetic  interest  in  all.     With   Max  Miiller,*  "  if  we  will  but 

*  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Religion,  iS82,  p.  14. 


xii  THE   WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

listen  attentively,  we  can  hear  in  all  religions  a  groaning  of  the  spirit,  a 
struggle  to  conceive  the  inconceivable,  to  utter  the  unutterable,  a  longing 
after  the  Infinite,  a  love  of  God."  And  if  in  many  cases  the  struggle  takes 
strange  forms  and  grotesque  attitudes,  and  the  religion  enforces  absurd 
beliefs  and  superstitious  observances,  we  are  compelled  to  own  that  man  is 
as  much  characterised  by  his  proneness  to  religion  as  by  his  being  a  tool- 
using  or  a  reasoning  creature. 

If  a  man  Is  a  reasoning  creature,  it  is  certainly  to  be  expected  that  he 
should  bring  his  reason  to  bear  upon  his  religion;  and  St.  Paul  recognised 
this,  and  asked  for  a  "service  of  the  reason"  (Rom.  xii.  i).  The  use  of  the 
reason  in  studying  religion,  its  doctrines,  its  observances,  its  benefits,  or  its 
variations  in  different  ages,  is  not  to  be  given  up  or  blamed  because  the 
name  "  Rationalism"  has  been  attached  to  it.  To  seek  to  explain,  to 
understand,  is  a  necessary  condition  of  the  growth  of  that  which  can  under- 
stand. 

Much  use  has  been  made  of  the  invaluable  "Sacred  Books  of  the  East," 
and  the  learned  introductions  prefixed  to  them.  Many  other  works  which 
have  been  consulted  are  mentioned  throughout  the  book.  Some  of  these 
have  been  named  simply  as  the  most  generally  accessible,  but  by  no  means 
as  the  only  or  the  chief  authorities  on  the  subject.  Many  other  books  have 
been  consulted  ;  but  it  has  been  thought  undesirable  to  overload  the  text 
with  references.  In  several  departments  living  specialists  have  been  re- 
ferred to  ;  and  the  author  desires  to  acknowledge  their  valuable  aid,  while 
he  refrains  from  naming  those  to  whom  he  is  under  obligation,  from  a  de- 
sire not  to  identify  them  with  any  opinions  or  representations  in  which  they 
may  not  concur,  or  for  which  the  author  ought  to  be  solely  responsible. 

The  history  of  Christianity  has  been  sketched  more  fully  than  that  of 
the  other  religions,  partly  because  Christianity,  as  now  understood,  has  very 
largely  resulted  from  a  long  process  of  development ;  and  partly  because 
the  various  branches  into  which  it  is  now  divided  can  be  best  understood 
by  studying  each  in  relation  to  the  period  when  it  originated.  At  best 
such  a  sketch  can  be  but  imperfect,  and  many  things  have  been  necessarily 
omitted  which  would  throw  much  light  on  difficulties  and  obscurities. 

The  author's  personal  opinions  have  been  obtruded  as  little  as  possible, 

impartiality  and  fairness  being  aimed  at.      No  doctrine  is  sought  to  be  en- 

forced,  no  creed  to  be   dictated.      Every  reader  is  left  to  draw  his  or  her 

own   conclusions.     But  it  is  hoped  that  in  return  the  author  may  not  have 

imputed  to  him  any  beliefs  or  opinions  which  he  does  not  clearly  avow. 

G.  T.  B. 
I)i  lwk  ii,  November  ro,  iS<jo. 


The  List  of  Authorities  Quoted  in  this  Volume. 


Titles  Filled  Out  and  Classified 

BY 

Rev.    Samuel    Macauley    Jackson,   M.A. 

Editor    of    The    Concise   Dictionary    of  Religious    Knowledge. 


The   place   of   publication   is   in   all    cases   London    where    not    otherwise   stated. 


I.     ON  THE  SUBJECT  IN  GENERAL. 

Dabwtn,  C.  :  "  Descent  of  Man,"  1871,  2  vols.  (17th  1000,  1883). 

Frazer,  J.  G.  :    "  On  Certain  Burial  Customs  as  Illustrations  of  the  Primitive  Theory  oJ 
the  Soul." 
"Totemism,"  1887. 
Lubbock,  Sir  J.  :  "  Prehistoric  Times,-'  4th  ed.  1878. 

"  "  "  Origin  of  Civilization,"  1874. 

Muller,  Max  :  "  Science  of  Religion,"  1873. 

"  "      "  Comparative  Mythology,"  1881,  2  vols. 

"      Edited    "Sacred    Books  of  the  East'!  series,  1879  sqq.  (taking  in  all  the 
Oriental  Nations  in  English  translation). 
Robertson,  J.  M.  :  "  Religious  Systems  of  the  World." 

Tiele,  C.  P.  :   "  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Religion,"  Eng.  trans.  4th  ed.  1888. 
Tylor,  E.  B.  :  "  Primitive  Culture,"  2d  ed.  1873,  2  vols. 

Wallace,  A.  R.  :  "  Contributions  to  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection"  2d  ed.  1871. 
The  Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute, 

II.     ON  THE  ISLANDS  IN  THE  PACIFIC. 

Codrington,  R.  H.  :   "  Religious  Belief  and  Practices  in  Melanesia." 

Ellis.  W.  :    "Tour  through  Hawaii,"  1826. 

Erskine,  J.  E.  :   "Journal  of  a  Cruise  among  the  Islands  of  the  Western  Pacific.  '  1883. 

Pitzroy  :  "  The  Fijians." 

Gill,  W.  Wygatt  :   "  Myths  and  Songs  from  the  South  Pacific,"  l*7!t. 

Low,  Hugh  :    "  Sarawak,"  1848. 

Saint  John,  S.  :  "  Life  in  the  Forests  of  the  Far  p]ast,"  1*62,  2  vols. 

Williams,  John,  and  Calvekt,  George  ;    "  Fiji  and  the  Fijians,"  24  ed.  I860,  2  vols 

III.     ON  SAVAGE  AFRICA. 

Andersson,  C.  J.  :  "Lake  Ngami,"  1856. 

Baker,  Sir  Samuel  :  "Albert  Nyanza,"  1*66,  2  vols. 

Beecham,  John  :  "  Ashantee  and  the  Gold  Coast,"  1841. 


xiv  THE  LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES   QUOTED. 


Bi  ETON,  K    1".  :   "  Two  Trips  to  Gorilla  Land."  1ST."),  2  vols. 

••  A  Mission  to  Gelele,"  n.  c.  1804,  2  vols. 
Ellis,   A.  B.  :  "The   Tsui-speaking  Peoples  of  the  Gold  Coast  of  West  Africa,"  1887. 
JOHNSTON,  H.  11.  :    "The  Kilimanjaro  Expedition,"  L886. 
<;  I.LTON,  FRA.  :    "  Narrat ive  of  an  Explorer  in  Tropical  South  Africa,"  1853. 

Livingstone,  David:  "Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Africa,"  1861. 
"Expedition  to  the  Zambesi,"  1865. 

Sm  kt(  iii.y.  .1.  A.  :  •'  Dahomey  as  it  is,"  1874. 

IV.     ON  THE  INDIANS  IN  GENERAL. 

BANCROFT,  II.  II.  :   "  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States,"  New  York,  1875,  sqq. 

BATES,  II.  W.  :   "  Naturalist  on  the  Amazon,"  3d  ed.  1873,  2  vols. 

Bri  it.  W.  II    :   "  Indian  Tribes  of  Guiana,"  2d  ed.  1868. 

Catlin,  George  :  "  Manners,  etc.,  of  American  Indians,"  1846,  2  vols. 

Charlevoix,    P.  P.  X.  de  :   "History  and  General   Description  of  New   France,"   Eng. 

trans.  New  York,  1866-72,  6  vols. 
PalKNER,  Thomas  ;   "  Patagonia,"  Hereford,  1774. 
hi   Tin  km,  Everard  :   "  Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana,"  1883. 
SCHOOL!  i:  u  r.  II.  R.  :   "  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States,"  Philadelphia,  1851-54,  5  vols. 

V.     ON  INDIA  AND  ADJACENT  COUNTRIES. 

A.LABASTER,  II.  :  -'The  Wheel  of  the  Law,"  1871. 

BOSE  :  "  The  Hindus  as  they  arc,"  2d  ed.  1884. 

l',i  i  ler,  .1.  :   "  Travels  and  Adventures  in  Assam,"  1855. 

Calcutta  /.'•  m  »•. 

Chevers,  X.  :  "  Medical  Jurisprudence  for  India,"-  Calcutta,  ls~o. 

PERGtJSSON,  James  :   "  History  of  Indian  Architecture,"  1876. 

Geiger,  W.  :   "  Civilization  of  the  Eastern  Iranians  in  Ancient  Times,"  Eng.  trans.  1885. 

(in. i..  \V.  :   "  River  of  Golden  Sand,"  1880,  2  vols. 

Bardt,  Spence  :  "Eastern  Monachism,  1850." 

"  Manual  of  Buddhism,"  1860. 
Bareness,  B.  :   "  A  Description  of  a  Singular  Aboriginal  Pace  Inhabiting  tbe  Summit  of 

the  Neiigherry  Hills,  South  India,"  1832. 
Bl&LOP,  S.  :   "  A.horiginal  Tribes  of  the  Central  Provinces,"  Nagpore,  1866. 
Bunter,  W.  W.  :    Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India,  2d  ed.  1885,  5  vols. 

"  Annals  of  Rural  Bengal,"  5th  ed.  1872. 

"  Statistical  Account  of  Bengal." 
,l,ii null  of  tin  Asiatic  Socii  t;i  of  II  ngal. 

K  \i:  \k  \,  Dosabh  \i  Pramji  :   "  Bistory  of  the  Parsis,"  1884,  2  vols. 
Miiz  :  "  Tribes  Inhabiting  the  Neiigherry  Hills." 
Mi  i  i:\.   L\i..\  :    "  Orissa,"  1880. 

Mill::  "Original  Sanskrit  Texts,"  1SCT-71,  T,  vols. 
Mi  i.i.i.k,  Max  :    "  Bistory  of  Ancient   Sanskrit    Literature,"  1859. 

"  Lectures    on   the   Origin  and  Growth   of  Religion  as  Illustrated  by  the 
Religions  of  India,"  IMS. 
Oldenberg,  II.  :  "  Buddha,''  Lug.  trans.  18s.'. 
Rhys,  Dw  n» :  "  Buddhism,"  1878 

"  Bibberl  Lectures,"  L881. 
Siwi.tt.  A.  I'.  "  Esoteric  Buddhism,"  6th  ed    1888. 
Slater,  T.  E. :  "  Life  of  Keshub  Chundra  Sen,"  L884. 
Transactions  of  tlu  Royal  Asiatic  Society. 
Ward,  W,  :  "View   of  the   History,  Religion  and   Literature  of   the   Hindus,"  3d  ed. 

1817-20,  1  vols 


THE  LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES  QUOTED.  xv 


Wilkins,  W.  J.  :  "  Hindu  Mythology,"  1882. 

"Modern  Hinduism,"  1887. 
Williams,  Monies  :  "  Indian  Wisdom,"  n.  e.  1876. 
"  "  "Hinduism,"  1877. 

"  Religious  Thought  in  India,"  1887. 
Wilson,  II.  II.  :  "  Hindu  Sects,"  Calcutta.  1846. 
Yoe,  Shway  :  "  The  Barman." 
Yule  :  "Mission  to  Ava,"  1858. 

VI.  ON  CHINA. 

Chalmers.  J.  :  "The  Speculations  on  Metaphysics  of  the  Old  Philosopher  Lau-tse,"  1868. 

Doolittle,  J.  :   "  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese,"  New  York,  I860,  2  vols. 

Douglas,  R.  K.  :  "  Confucianism  and  Taoism_J'  187_9. 

Kdkins  :   "  Religion  in  China,"  2d  ed.  1877. 

Pabeb,  E.  :    "  The  Mind  of  Mencius,"  1882. 

Giles,  H.  A.  :  "  The  San-Tzu  ching,"  1873. 

"  "         "Gems  of  Chinese  Literature,"  1884. 

Johnson  :  "  Oriental  Religions  :  China,"  Boston,  1877. 
Legge  :  "  Life  and  Teachings  of  Confucius,"  4th  ed.  1875. 

"         "  The  Religions  of  China,"  18S0. 
Williams,  S.  Wells  :  "  Middle  Kingdom,"  5th  ed.  1883,  2  vols. 
Williamson,  I.  :  "  Journeys  in  North  China,"  1884. 

VII.  ON   JAPAN. 

Murray  :  "  Handbook  for  Japan,"  2d  ed.  1884. 
Reports  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan. 

VIII.     ON  ANCIENT  GREECE  AND  ROME. 

Berens,  E.  M.  :   "  M3*ths  and  Legends  of  Greece  and  Rome,"  1879. 

Boissier,  G.  :  "  Roman  Religion  from  Augustus  to  the  Antonines  "  (in  French),   Paris, 

1874. 
Cox,  G.  W.  :  "  Mythology  of  the  Aryan  Nations,"  1870,  2  vols. 
Curtius,  E.  :  "History  of  Greece,"  Eng.  trans.  1870,  sqq. 
Duncker,  M.  W.  :  "History  of  Greece,"  Eng.  trans.  1883. 
Grote,  G.  :  "  History  of  Greece,"  n.  e.  1862,  8  vols. 
Lang,  A.  :  "  Myth,  Ritual  and  Religion,"  1887,  2  vols. 
Maiiaffy  :  "  Social  Life  in  Greece,"  2d  ed.  1877. 

"  Greek  Life  and  Thought,"  1887. 
Mommsen,  Theodore  :   "History  of  Rome,"  Eng.  trans.  1862,  sqq. 
Newton,  C.  T.  "  "  Greek  Religion  Illustrated  hy  Inscriptions." 
Xenophon  :  "Memorabilia  of  Socrates,"  Eng.  trans.,  n.  e.,  1862. 
Zeller,  E.  :  "  Socrates  and  the  Socratic  School,"  Eng.  trans.  1868. 
"        "      "Plato  and  the  Older  Academy,"  Eng.  trans.  1876. 

IX.  ON  THE  TEUTONS  AND  CELTS. 

Anderson,  R.  B.  :    "  Norse  Mythology,"  Chicago,  is?."). 
Grimm,  J.  :  "Teutonic  Mythology,"  Eng.  trans.  1879. 
Rhys  :  "  Celtic  Heathendom,"  1888. 
Rydberg  :  "Teutonic  Mythology." 
Saxo  :   "  Historia  Danica." 


THE  LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES  QUOTED. 


X.     ON  RUSSIA  (GREEK  CHURCH). 
Ekman,  G.  A.  :  "Travels  in  Siberia,"  L848,  2  vols. 

M  V(  i.i   \k    (J.   F.  :    "  Conversion  of  the  Slavs,"  1ST9. 

Mi  i.man  :    " Sects  of  the  Russian  Church." 

Ralston.  W.  R.  S.  :  "  Songs  of  the  Russian  People, "  2d  ed.  1872. 

"Russian  Folk-Tales,"  1873. 
Btanley,  A.  P.  :  "  Eastern  Church,"  2d  ed.  1862. 
Walla*  b,  D.  M.  :  "  Russia,"  1878. 

XI.     ON  THE  EGYPTIANS. 

Lank.  E.  W.  :   "  Modern  Egyptians,"  u.  e.,  1890. 

"  Memoirs  of  the  Egypl  Exploration  Fund." 

Mn;i;\v  :  "  Handbook  for  Egypt." 

Rl  NniK,  P.  L.  P.  :  "  Hibbert  Lectures  on  Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt,"  1880. 

Tiki.k,  C.  1'.  :  "  Egyptian  Religion,"  Eng.  trans.  1882. 

XII.     ON  THE  BABYLONIANS. 

])■•-■  awkn  :    "Religious  Systems  of  the  World." 

Rawlinson,  Henry:  "The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia." 

Rawi  cnson,  George  :   "  Five  Great  Monarchies,"  1862,  sqq. 

•  Religions  of  the  Ancient  World,"  1882. 
Bayi  e,  A.  II.  :   "  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Babylonians,"  1887. 

"  "  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East,"  1884. 

Smith.  George  :   "  Chaldean  Genesis"  (Sayce  edition).  2d  ed.  1884. 
Is  "/tin'  Past  (for  XI.  and  XII.),  2  series. 

XIII.     ON  MOHAMMEDANISM. 

Hunt,  Lady  Annk  :   "  A  Pilgrimage  to  Xejd,"  1881,  2  vols. 

Blub  r,  W.  S.  :  "  The  Future  of  Islam,"  lss2. 

Blyden  :  "  Christianity,  Islam  and  the  Negro  Race,"  1887. 

Beo-wn,  J.  P.  :  "The  Dervishes,"  Philadelphia,  1867. 

Hughes  :  "  Dictionary  of  Islam,"  1885. 

BioRiEB  :  "  Second  Journey  through  Persia." 

Ml  ik  :  "  Life  of  Mahomet,"  1858-61,  4  vol-. 

Mi  i. i.i.k.  A.  :    "  Sunnites  and  Shiites." 

Palmer,  E.  II.  :  "Oriental  Mysticism,"  1867. 

Translation  of  "The  Qur'an,"  1880,  2  vols. 
K..i.u  i.i.i.     Translation  of  "  The  Koran,"  2d  ed.  1876. 
Si  iiivi.i.k,  K.  :   "Turkestan."  1*7(5 -77.  2  vols. 

Smith,  R.  Bosworth  :   "  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism,"  3d  ed.  1889. 
WELLHAU8EN  :    "  Life  of  Mahomet." 

XIV.     ON  THE  BIBLE. 

Beet,  J.  A.  :    Commentaries   on  Romans  (5th  ed.  1885),   Corinthians  (3d  ed.  1885),  Gala- 

tians  (1885),  and  Ephesians  (1890). 
Dei  m  ii.  E.  :  "  Literary  Remains,"  1*7  i. 
Ewald,  II       '  History  (Eng.  trans.  1837-74,  5  vols.)  and  Antiquities  of  Israel,"  1876. 

Geden,  J.  I).  :  "  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life  as  Contained  in  the  Old  Testament  Scripture,' 

2:1   ed.    IN??. 

Ginsbubo,  C  I).  :  "The  Kabbalah,"  1865. 

Hershon,  I'    I.     '•tjeiiesis:  with  a  Talmudical  Commentary,"  1883. 


THE  LIST  OF  AUTHORITIES  QUOTED. 


HATcn,  E.  :  "The  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches,"  2d  ed.  1882. 
Kuenen  :   "  Prophet  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,"'  Eng.  trans.  1877. 
Ligiitfoot  :   "  Apostolic  Fathers  "  (Text  and  Commentary),  1809,  sqq. 
Mills,  John  :  "  The  British  Jews,"  18G2. 

"  Three  Months'  Residence  in  Nablous,"  1864. 
Nutt,  J.  W.  :  "  Fragments  of  a  Samaritan  Targum,"  1874. 
Salmon  :  "  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,"  4th  ed.  189(>. 
Schuerer  :  "  Jewish  People  in  the  Time  of  Christ,"  Eng.  trans.  1888,  sqq. 
Schwab  :  English  Translation  of  the  Palestinian  "  Talmud,"  1883,  sqq. 
Smith,  Robertson  :   "  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church,"  1881. 
"  Prophets  of  Israel,"  1882. 
"  Religion  of  the  Semites,"  1890. 
Stanley  :  "  Jewish  Church."  1863-79,  3  vols,  (later  edd.). 
Weiss  :  "Life  of  Christ,"  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1883-84,  3  vols. 
Westcott  :  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels,"  6th  ed.  1882. 

XV.     MISCELLANEOUS. 

Gilly,  W.  S.  :  "Excursion  to  the  Mountains  of  Piemont,"  3d  ed.  1826. 

"  "         "  Waldensian  Researches,"  1831. 

Rink  :  "Greenland,"  1877. 
Schaff's  Works. 


VIEW    OF    THE    COMPARATIVE    HEIGHTS    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    RELIGIOUS    AND    OTHER    BUILDINGS    OF    THE    WJELD. 


1  Cologne  Cathedral      

2  Old  St.  Paul',,  London 

3  Great  Pyramid  

4  Rouen  Cathedral  

5  St.  Martin,  Landshut ... 

6  St.  Peter's,  Rome        

7  Strasburg  Cathedral  ... 

8  2nd  Pyramid  (Ghizeh) 

0  St.  Stephen's  Cathedral,  Vienna 

10  St.  Stephen's  Abbey,  Oaou    ... 

11  Amiens  Cathedral       

12  Antwerp  Cathedral     ... 

13  Salisbury  Cathedral     ... 
14,  16  St.  Mary's,  Lubeok 

IB  Torazzo  of  Cremona 

17  Victoria  Tower,  Weitrniustor 


...  180 
...  160 
...  448 


Ma  linos  Cathedral 

Chartres  Cathedral      

I  8t.  Peter's.  Hamburg,  about  ... 

I''l  I'iLui,;    I  I  llllHril'll         

The  Ituomo,  Florence 
I  Hotel  do  Villo,  llrussels 
I  Torre  Asinelli,  Hologna 

i  SI.  Pauls,  London       

I  Frankfort  Cathedral 

St.  Isaac's  Church,  St.  Petersburg 
I  Bell  Tower,  SI-  Mark's,  Venice 

Si.  The  ibald'e,  Thaun 

Norwich  Cathedral     ... 

Hotel  dea  Invalid's,  Pans     ... 

Pantheon,  Paris  

Boll  Tower,  Florence 


38  Chichester  Cathedral 

S7  Central  Spire,  LichlloM  Cathedral  . 

88   laj  U  thai,  Airra         

•1'J  Iloll  Harry  Tower,  Canterbury-         . 

— '  In  Tower  (late),  Naukiu      ., 
mroh,  London  ... 

dnf  Mycorinus 
Transept,  Crystal  l',l  ,eo     . 


Foot, 
,..  2S0     ;.l    Loaning  Towor,  Pis! 
Column  ofjuly,  Pan- 


ic p,„ 


M, 


•of  St.  Sophia.  Constantinople   1.4> 
ho_las\  Newoastle-on-Tyno   ...  'Jill 


67 


Peter. burg  154  71 
..  Ill  ?i 
••  154    7,' 


•l»     '18  York  Cathedral 

'   Hi     H  nMba,;  M'™""»l.  Hyde  Park 
.  2b8  1  60  The  Baptistery,  Tisa  ... 


59   Part  of 

00    libel, -k 

Late: 
t>l  Trajan's  c  diuoo,  K  on  ■ 

Schools,  South  Kensington  110 

Asrifljeatam  U6 


llwlisk,  Lnior  

I,  SpatrVs  Needle     !"       "! 

i 
.rob  ol  Oonstantine,  Home... 

'irtbooou.  Athens     

'.enb  ol  Absalom.  Jerusalem 

i  iol  1'  i  el".  Ravenna,  i 


Temple 


'HI,     It  Hill.,.,. 

ii.  Liverpool  ...  sr. 

st  Htator,  Rom*  ...  us 

,  Alo\an..i'in  ...  UH) 


LOrfttu,  tVlhttDI  M 

nbunt  86 

I 


-T\      rv      O        o       O^L 


i  <^sV 


rn^i 


c^ 


BEGINNING    OF    ST.    JOHN'S    GOSPEL  :     WICLIF's    VERSION,    1380. 

THE  WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Introduction. 

Man  a  religious  being— Definitions  of  religion— Need  of  impartial  study— Development  in  all  re- 
ligions—Facts our  object— A  book  for  all  classes— A  very  modern  study— Human  interest  in 
all  religions— Relation  to  missionary  effort— Animism— Spirits  in  natural  forces— Spirits  of 
deceased  buman  beings— Conclusions  from  dreams— Continued  existence  of  the  dead— Angels 
and  demons  —  Ancestor-worship— Nature- worship  —Anthropomorphism— Idolatry — Fetishism — 
Totemism— Omens — Totem  ceremonies  —  The  taboo  —  Demonology — Witchcraft— Divination  — 
Shamanism— Priesthoods— Temples— Sacrifices— Gifts— Animal  and  human  sacrifices— Substitu- 
tion and  expiation — Sacramental  mysteries  —  Theism  —  Deism— Monotheism  —  Pantheism- 
Atheism— Theology— Science  of  religion  —  Theosophy— Classification  of  religions — Personal 
founders— Universal  or  missionary  religions— From  nature  religions  to  monotheism —Groups 
of  religions. 

THAT  man  in  his  present  condition  is  essentially  a  godfearing  and  god- 
worshipping  creature,  is  certain  in  spite  of  many  contradictory  appear- 
ances. That  he  has  been  largely  the  same  in  the  past  is  assured  ;  Man  a  re- 
that  he  will  be  so  in  the  future  is  most  highly  probable.  The  us1™3  beins 
rapt  devotion  of  the  mystic,  the  mortification  of  the  ascetic,  the  zealous 
benevolence  of  the  philanthropist,  the  ceremonial  of  the  ritualist,  the 
sublime  flights  of  the  theologian,  the  intense  cry  of  the  penitent,  and  the 
confident  trust  of  the  most  abject  in  a  benevolent  Ruler  of  the  universe,  all 
declare  that  in  modern  times  man  believes,  man  trusts,  that  somehow 
good  shall  be  the  final  goal  of  ill,  that  there  is  one  Almighty  Ruler  who 
also  cares  for  His  creatures.     Nay,  we  venture  to  claim  that  the  doubt  of 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  sceptic,  the  disbelief  of  the  atheist,  the  suspense  of  the  agnostic,  are  in 
themselves  noteworthy  signs  that  the  subject  is  one  of  great  importance, 
not  to  be  passed  over  with  neglect,  and  that  the  human  soul  feels  un- 
easy about  the  matter  and  is  not  content  without  some  attitude  towards 
the  great  questions :  "  "What  am  I  ?  Whither  am  I  going  ?  Does  any 
Providence  care  for  me  ?  "  The  more  true  that  it  ever  is,  that  man  can- 
not by  searching  find  out  God,  the  more  persistently  does  he  inquire, 
saying,  "  Who  will  show  me  any  good  thing  ?  "  And  so,  in  the  evolution 
of  things,  the  human  heart  puts  forth  all  the  varieties  of  thought  and  feel- 
ing of  which  it  is  capable,  "varies  in  every  direction,"  to  use  Darwin's 
phrase,  and  beneficent  forms  are  perpetuated.  So  large  a  space,  so  important 
an  influence  has  the  religious  attitude  of  man,  that  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it 
constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  factors,  perhaps  the  most  important, 
in  his  progress. 

We  may  define  religion  broadly  as  man's  attitude  towards  the  unseen, 
and  whatever  consequences  his  belief  or  attitude  produces  on  his  conduct  or 
Definitions  of  on  ms  relations  to  fellow-men.     It  has  been  otherwise  defined  as 

religion,  ^e  outer  form  and  embodiment  of  an  inward  devotion,  and  as  a 
system  of  doctrine  and  worship  which  its  adherents  regard  as  having  divine 
authority ;  but  these  are  definitions  too  limited  for  our  purpose.  Darwin, 
in  the  "  Descent  of  Man,"  Part  I.,  chap,  iii.,  describes  the  feeling  of  religious 
devotion  as  a  highly  complex  one,  consisting  of  love,  complete  submission 
to  an  exalted  and  mysterious  superior,  a  strong  sense  of  dependence,  fear, 
reverence,  gratitude,  hope  for  the  future,  and  perhaps  other  elements ;  and 
he  says  that  no  being  could  experience  so  complex  an  emotion  until  con- 
siderably advanced  in  his  intellectual  and  moral  faculties.  Consequently 
this  view,  including  only  the  higher  types  of  religion,  is  not  sufficiently 
comprehensive  for  our  purpose.  We  must  include  not  only  beliefs  in  un- 
seen spiritual  agencies,  fetishism,  polytheism,  monotheism,  etc.,  but  num- 
erous superstitions  and  customs  and  practices  associated  with  such  beliefs — 
human  sacrifices,  trials  by  ordeal,  witchcraft  and  sorcery.  Although  it  was 
long  the  fashion  to  condemn  unsparingly  all  these  beliefs  and  practices,  to 
leave  them  unstudied  and  term  them  worthless  and  degrading,  yet  we 
would  suggest  that  even  superstitions  should  be  tenderly  handled  in  dis- 
cussion (although  vigorously  opposed  or  discouraged  in  practice)  by  a  lover 
of  his  kind  ;  for  in  most  cases  they  may  be  considered  to  be  based  upon 
some  genuine  experience  of  mankind,  some  fear,  calamity,  or  uprising  of 
soul,  some  correspondence  with  felt  want,  some  desire  or  possibility  of 
improving  man's  position  in  the  present  or  in  a  future  state.  Of  course 
there  has  been  much  practising  upon  human  credulity,  much  quackery  and 
humbug  in  connection  with  superstitions.  But  we  would  seek  to  view 
religions,  not  from  the  standpoint  of  a  party  or  a  sect,  but  rather  from  that 
Need  of     °^  friends  of  all  mankind,   who  would  fain  find  some  good  in 

impartial   everything  ;  and  if  no  positive  good  be  discoverable  in  a  particular 

instance,  let  it,  if  possible,  be  the  negative  good  of  representing 

an  effort  or  a  desire  after  better  things.     There  is  need  of  all  the  charity, 


INTRODUCTION. 


all  the  impartiality  we  can  summon  to  our  aid  in  this  survey,  for  it  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  too  much  of  the  history  of  religion  is  a  history  of 
prejudice,  of  narrowness,  of  quarrelling,  of  passion,  of  evil  in  many  forms. 
Yet,  hoping  all  things,  we  would  hope  that  even  from  these  evils  a  better 
state  arises  than  could  have  arisen  otherwise.  As  in  the  general  affairs  of 
human  life,  so  in  religion,  there  is  needed  movement,  circulation,  some 
kind  of  change  or  progress,  if  life  is  to  continue.  Religions  stereotyped,  kept 
rigid  and  undeveloping  by  some  worldly  force  or  for  some  supposed  con- 
servative Tightness,  have  become  baneful  in  many  of  their  influences,  lead- 
ing ultimately  to  death  by  inanition  or  revolt. 

Thus  at  the  outset  we  must  note  that  development  marks  more  or  less 
all  religions  that  live  or  have  lived.  Just  as  mankind  has  grown  and 
developed  in  other  directions,  the  mental  and  emotional  faculties  Development 
becoming  developed  have  led  to  corresponding  religious  develop-  in  ail 
ments.  It  cannot  be  otherwise.  The  Christian  religion  is  not 
exempt  from  this  law,  which  is  recognised  by  the  greatest  teachers  in  all 
ages  of  the  Church.  Granting,  of  course,  that  the  documents  of  Christianity 
are  the  same  that  they  have  been  for  very  many  centuries,  the  conceptions 
derived  from  them  are  continually  developing  and  expanding ;  and  it  is  this 
expansion  and  expansibility  which  many  recognise  as  the  peculiar  glory  of 
Christianity.  That  this  development  takes  different  directions  in  different 
Churches  may  be  seen  by  the  modern  doctrines  of  the  immaculate  concep- 
tion of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  of  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope,  and  by  the 
assertion  of  the  right  of  private  judgment  and  of  refusal  to  swear  before 
courts  of  justice  in  Protestantism.  The  sooner  people  recognise  that  re- 
ligion develops,  like  everything  else,  the  sooner  improvement  will  be  pos- 
sible in  many  backward  communities.  How  often,  like  ostriches  burying 
their  heads  in  the  sand,  religious  bodies  have  died  out  because  they  ceased 
to  discern  the  march  of  events,  and  never  realised  that  there  might  be  other 
true  things  in  religion  besides  their  special  creed. 

Thus,  while  endeavouring  to  stick  rigidly  to  facts,  we  may  be  per- 
mitted in  some  measure  to  study  them  as  examples  of  the  development  of 
ideas  and  practices.  It  is  true  that  for  a  full  study  of  religious  development 
we  should  need  many  volumes,  and  must  include  all  extinct  as  well  as  exist- 
ing religions.  The  former  would  be  impossible,  for  it  can  hardly  le  doubted 
that  there  have  been  forms  of  religion  which  have  left  no  records.  But 
even  those  which  survive  in  records,  or  in  actual  existence,  are  so  numerous 
and  include  so  much  that  only  a  brief  review  of  some  of  them  is  possible. 

It  is  not  the  mission  or  aim  of  this  book  to  account  for  the  religions 
which  it  describes.  Its  aim  is  to  give  information — to  describe  what  is  seen 
or  known  about  their  external  phenomena,  their  present  influence,  Facts  our 
their  doctrines,  their  ordinances,  their  ritual,  with  a  brief  summary  ob^ect- 
of  their  history.  It  may  be  thought  that  the  study  of  the  religions  of  the 
world  for  the  purpose  of  giving  an  account  of  them,  should  lead  to  some 
explanation  of  them.  No  doubt  the  explanations  of  some  facts  are  so  obvious 
that  they  cannot  but  occur  to  an  observer.     But  we  disclaim  any  obligation 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


to  furnish  an  explanation  of  the  manifold  forms  of  religion,  and  leave  the 
task  to  those  who  may  be  more  confident  or  more  in-seeing.  The  time  during 
which  religions  have  been  studied  in  any  comparative  sense  is  too  short  as 
yet  to  afford  grounds  for  sound  general  reasoning  on  the  subject.  The  best 
history  available  is  the  best  explanation  ;  and  in  so  far  as  the  history  becomes 
perfect  and  accurate  may  the  explanation  be  approximately  true.  But  be- 
hind all  human  history,  as  behind  the  mystery  of  life,  is  that  other  side,  that 
infinite  unknown,  which  we  shall  none  of  us  know  in  this  life,  which  would 
most  probably  alter  so  many  of  our  notions. 

A  further  remark  must  be  addressed  to  those  who  look  for  their  own 
views  in  these  pages.     This  book  is  intended  to  be  read  by  all  classes  of 
a  book  for  readers,  of  all  schools  of  religious  thought.     It  cannot  therefore 
an  classes,  fitly  be  the  vehicle  of  any  special  school ;  it  cannot  take  up  the 
rationalist's  parable,  and  say  every  religion  is  a  human  or  a  natural  product, 
or  the  view  that  one  religion  is  exclusively  divine  and  true,  and  all  others 
are  false  and  born  of  evil,  or  the  other  view,  that  one  religion  is  as  good  as 
another.    As  far  as  possible  we  shall  deal  with  facts,  and  leave  them  to  teach 
their  own  lesson.     It  is  only  in  the  present  century  that   the  comparative 
study  of  religions  can  be  said  to  have  come  into  existence,  it  being  previously 
considered  useless  to  study  "  false  religions,"  or  forms  of  idolatry.     These 
were  very  curious  facts  noticed  by  travellers,   but  they  remained  merely 
curious  marks  of  the  savage  or  pagan  or  heathen  condition  of  the 
modem     countries  or  peoples  concerned.     Studies  of  anatomy,  of  language, 
s  u  y"      and  of  civilisation,  and  the  doctrines  of  evolution  or  development 
as  applied  to  mental  phenomena,  have  all  contributed  to  lead  up  to  the 
comparative  study  of  religions.     The  belief  that  man  forms  a  single  species, 
that  his  mental  constitution  is  fundamentally  the  same  everywhere,  and 
that  there  may  have  been  one  original  common  language  has  suggested 
the  study  of  the  common  elements  in  man's  religions  all  over  the  world. 
Indeed,  to  obtain  a  view  of  man's  development  from  a  primitive  condition,  it  is 
necessary  to  obtain  a  classification  of  his  religions,  and  to  find  out  what  part 
they  have  played  in  his  history.     In  this  age  we  cannot  rest  content  with 
Hum  n     knowing  our  own  race,  and  its  social  and  religious  history.     Our 
interest  in  sympathies  have  expanded,  our  inquisitiveness  has  grown,  till  we 
take  in  all  mankind,  and  want  to  explain  as  we  want  to  sym- 
pathise with  all.     And  to  justify  such  an  interest,  such  a  curiosity,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  prove  that  there  is  good  in  everything  and  in  every  form  of 
religion.     The  belief  that  there  is  much  that  is  bad  everywhere,  and  even 
that  some  forms  of  belief  or  practice  are  wholly  bad,  is  not  inconsistent  with 
a  keen  interest  in  knowing  what  our  fellow-men  have  thought  and  done  in 
matters  pertaining  to  religion.     Rather  should  we  say  with  the  old  Roman, 
"  I  am  a  man ;  I  consider  nothing  human  is  outside  my  sympathy  and 
interest." 

But  in  a  higher  sense  even  than  knowledge,  classification,  scientific  ex- 
planation, we  may  claim  that  the  study  of  religions  is  essential  in  reference  to 
all  efforts  at  evangelisation  of  non-Christian  peoples.   How  often  missionaries 


INTRODUCTION. 


have  found  that  their  efforts  have  been  fruitless  because  of  their  not  under- 
standing the  religious  state  of  mind  already  existing  in  the  people 
to  whom  they  have  preached.     How  often  they  have  denounced  missionary 
a  people  as  utterly  given  to  barbarism,  as  having  no  religion  but 
the  grossest  idolatry,  when   the  fact  was,  that  they  never  succeeded  in 
gaining  any  admission  to  their  religious  rites,  or  in  learning  from  the  people 
themselves  what  their  beliefs  were.     Let  us  imagine  the  attitude  which 
many  Christians  would  assume  if  a  foreign  missionary  of  some  unknown 
religion  should  advance  some  totally  different  conception  of  the  Deity  from 
that  which  they  and  many  generations  of  ancestors  had  believed  in  and 
reverenced,  with  which  their  most  cherished  hopes  and  aspirations  were 
bound  up,  and  which  was  ingrained  in  their  moral  and  spiritual  nature. 


ST.    PETER  S,    ROME,   AND   CASTLE    OF   ST.   ANGELO. 

We  can  realise  this  to  some  extent  by  recollecting  the  excitement  created 
in  modern  times  by  the  publication  of  the  works  of  Strauss,  Renan,  Matthew 
Arnold,  Colenso,  and  others.  How  then  can  we  expect  that  unlearned, 
prejudiced,  uncivilised  savages  should  patiently  listen  to  and  accept  what  a 
foreigner  teaches,  if  he  proves  that  he  knows  nothing  about  their  own  belief, 
and  does  not  appreciate  any  part  of  it?  Especially  is  this  important  in 
dealing  with  the  religious  views  of  old  and  highly-civilised  peoples  like 
the  Chinese,  the  Hindus,  and  others.  "We  believe  that  it  is  now  almost 
universally  recognised  that  missionaries  ought  to  begin  by  learning  all  they 
can  about  the  religious  beliefs  or  superstitions  of  the  peoples  to  whom  they 
are  sent,  and  showing  as  much  tolerance  as  possible  to  their  views,  and 
every  encouragement  to  what  is  correct  or  beneficial  in  them.     Not  less 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


important  is  it  for  English-speaking  people,  who  are  in  contact  with  men 
of  many  religions  all  over  the  globe,  to  have  a  knowledge,  tolerance,  and 
even  respect  for  the  religions  convictions  of  other  races.  Those  who  send 
out  missionaries  are  equally  bound  to  study  the  conditions  under  which 
they  are  expecting  these  devoted  men  to  work,  and  to  have  correct  views 
of  the  difficulties  they  may  experience.  Finally,  it  may  be  claimed  that 
'we  rise  in  the  scale  of  reasonable  beings  in  proportion  as  we  take  larger  and 
more  comprehensive  views  of  our  whole  species,  and  especially  of  the  atti- 
tude of  mankind  towards  religion ;  and  this  can  only  be  fully  done  after  a 
rational  study  of  the  forms  under  which  they  reverence  or  regard  the 
powers  above  and  about  them,  seen  or  unseen. 

Before  proceeding  to  give  a  rough  classification  of  religions,  there  are 
a  number  of  terms  which  it  is  desirable  to  explain  or  define,  and  which 
are  of  importance  in  our  study.  The  first  we  will  take  is 
"  animism  "  (Lat.  anima,  soul),  winch  has  been  brought  into  its 
present  use  by  one  of  our  greatest  anthropologists,  Dr.  E.  B.  Tylor,  and 
which  represents  in  a  convenient  way  the  part  played  by  the  doctrine  of 
souls  and  spiritual  beings.  No  other  term  includes  the  same  ideas  without 
some  other  special  reference :  thus,  "  spiritualism  "  has  acquired  quite  a 
peculiar  meaning  in  reference  to  the  doctrine  of  spirits,  indicating  a  belief 
in  the  possibility  and  actual  occurrence  of  direct  communications  between 
human  beings  and  the  spirits  of  the  dead  or  other  spirits. 

Some  kind  of  animism  is  found  to  be  almost  if  not  quite  universal, 

being  believed  to  have  two  main  sides — the  idea  of  spirits  being  in  natural 

,  .  .     .     objects  or  working  in  natural  phenomena  or  forces,  and  the  idea 

natural     of  a   spirit   or   soul  being  in   human  beings   when  living,  and 

forces,      becoming  separate  from  them  at  death.     It  is  the  most  natural 

reflection  for  mankind  to  make  when  viewing  the  dead  body  of  a  relative 

or  friend,  that  something  has  departed  from  it  which  was  the  animating 

principle.     When,  from  whatever  cause,  unconsciousness  has  occurred  in 

spirits  of    any  individual,  and  after  a   more  or  less  prolonged  period,  the 

human      consciousness  has  returned,  it  is  equally  natural  to  conclude  that 

beings,     the  spirit  had  for  a  time  departed ;  and  if  any  operations  have 

been  resorted  to,  be  they  prayers,  incantations,  divinations,  or  sacrifices, 

during  the  interval,  it  is  natural  to  believe  that  these  processes  have  been 

the  cause  of  the  return  of  the  spirit.     Then,  when  death  has  really  taken 

place,  there  is  a  tendency  to  repeat  the  same  performances,  in  hope  of 

bringing  back  the  spirit ;  and  thus  a  very  simple  origin  of  worship  (from 

the  natural  point  of  view)  is  given,  and  one  not  inconsistent  with  the  view 

of  those  who  see  in  worship  the  result  of  a  Divinely  implanted  instinct. 

The  phenomena  of  dreams  must  here  be  considered,  for  these  must 

from  the  first  have  had  a  powerful   influence.     The   absolute   reality   of 

c  n  lusi    s  tnmSs  seen  in  dreams  is  never  doubted  by  many  savage  races  ; 

from      and  the  fact  that  the  figures   of   themselves  and  other  human 

eam8,     beings,  and  also  those  of   animals  and   plants,  can   be  seen  i: 

dreams,  taking   part   in  natural  or  in  extraordinary  actions,   strengthen; 


INTRODUCTION. 


the  belief  in  a  spirit  world.  The  belief  in  a  ghostly  semblance  of  itself 
being  separable  from  the  body  may  be  inferred  from  appearances  in  dreams 
being  coincident  with  the  absence  of  a  person  at  a  great  distance,  or  taking 
place  when  the  body  is  dead,  buried,  or  even  wholly  disintegrated. 

Thus  the  ghost  or  spirit  is  imagined  to  be  an  image  of  the  human 
or  other  being,  unsubstantial  but  real ;  and  it  would  be  very  natural  to 
imagine  such  a  spirit  for  all  animals  ;  it  is  even  transferred  to  weapons  and 
objects  of  luxury,  or  food  and  drink,  for  these  are  sacrificed  to  the  dead  in 
order  that  their  "  spirits  "  may  be  bestowed  upon  the  dead.  The  bearing 
of  this  conception  of  spirits  upon  the  idea  of  ghosts  is  evident,  though  we 
will  here  express  no  opinion  as  to  the  reality  or  nature  of  such  phenomena 
as  apparitions  of  the  dead. 

It  is  obvious  that  if  animals  and  plants  can  be  conceived  to  have  souls 
or  spirits,  it  is  possible  to  transfer  the  same  conception  to  grand  material 
objects,  especially  such  as  perform  or  take  part  in  visible  changes  on  the 
earth  or  in  the  sky.  Thus  rivers,  seas,  clouds,  sun,  moon,  and  stars  are 
imagined  to  have,  or  be  inhabited  by,  spirits ;  and  the  basis  is  afforded  for 
all  kinds  of  religious  developments. 

From  this  soul-belief  has   arisen   a  whole  series  of  beliefs  about  the 
dead,  the  state  of  existence  of  the  departed,  their  relation  to  the  living, 
and  a  future  existence.     We  must  be  understood,  of  course,  here  Continued 
to  prejudge  no  question,  and   to  imply  nothing  as  to  this  having  extatanceof 
arisen  by  "inspiration"  of  the  Creator.    But  in  this  connection  we 
may  mention  the  ideas  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead  remaining  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  survivors,  or  being  removed  to  a  distance,  to  some  region 
where  they  continue  to  live  a  life  much  like  the  present,  or  a  life  either 
much  more  happy  or  much  more  miserable,  according  to  their  conduct  or 
merit  here.     So  that  much  of  all  moral  teaching  has  come  to  be  connected 
with  the  doctrine  of  a  future  life. 

Then  further,  from  such  an  idea  of  souls,  the  imagination  has  risen  to 
the  conception  of  a  number  of  spirits  of  more  or  less  power,  but  distinct  from 
any  being  represented  on  earth  or  in  the  material  heavens.     So  Angels  and 
we  get  angels  and  demons  and  varied  subordinate  deities.     Thus      emons. 
every  phenomenon  could  be  accounted  for  as  the  work  of  some  deity  or 
spirit,  without  any  belief  having  necessarily  arisen  in  a  supreme  Deity. 
Storms,  floods,  lightning,  diseases,  and  all  calamities  came  to  be  laid  to 
the  charge  of  special  spirits  ;  and  the  desire  to  expel  these  spirits  has  given 
rise  to  many  forms  of  sorcery,  divination,  exorcism,  etc.     Many  of  these 
spirits  are,— for  what  reason  it  is  difficult  to  say,— held  to  be  those  of  human 
beings,  living  or  deceased :  and  thus  the  appeasing  of  their  anger  or  se- 
curing of  their  propitious  action  has  been  combined  with  rites  for  or  in 
connection  with  death.     And  here   we  have  one  of  the  springs,  though 
probably  not  the  only  one,  of  the  widely-extended  ancestor-worship,  es- 
pecially that  of  powerful  men  or  leaders  of  tribes.     These  men    Ancestor- 
were  conspicuous  for  their  qualities  while  alive ;  and  their  souls    worsluP- 
are  judged  to  possess  the  same  great  or  powerful  qualities  (sometimes  ma- 


8  THE    WO  ELD'S  EEL1GI0NS. 

lignant)  after  death.  Tims  they  must  be  revered  and  propitiated,  or 
appeased,  in  the  manner  judged  most  desirable  or  successful. 

Nature  worship  in  its  infinite  variety  of  forms  arises  from  the  belief 
in  spirits  animating  everything,  or  from  a  reverence  for  the  inexplicable 
Nature  powers  at  work  in  the  world.  A  flood  bearing  away  with  irre- 
worsnip.  sistible  force  the  works  of  man,  the  fire  which  in  torrid  climates 
burns  up  vegetation  and  devours  man  and  beast,  the  lightning  which  kills 
in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  the  sun  which  prostrates  at  noonday,  all  these 
were  mysteries  which  we  cannot  be  surprised  that  man  in  a  low  state 
of  civilisation  should  worship.  Nor  is  it  astonishing  to  find  that  these 
spirits  are  classified  into  good  and  evil,  favourable  and  malignant,  or  that 
the  phenomena  of  the  universe  are  attributed  to  great  antagonistic  powers 
of  good  and  evil  deities.  By  whatever  influence  it  arises,  we  shall  see  how, 
in  communities  worshipping  many  gods,  some  one  has  gained  pre-eminence, 
while  in  others,  it  may  be,  one  of  the  tribal  gods  or  the  single  god  wor- 
shipped by  the  tribe  has  later  been  conceived  as  the  universal  God. 

Anthropomorphism  (Greek,  anthropos,  man,  morphe,  form)  is  in  religion 
the  representation  of  the  Deity  as  having  the  form  and  performing  the 
Antnropo-  actions  of  a  man,  or  in  a  similar  way  to  a  man.  And  it  may  be 
morphism.  extended  to  every  case  where  a  spirit,  more  than  human  or  other 
than  human,  is  represented  as  like  a  man  or  as  acting  like  a  man  in  any 
way.  The  term  is  in  philosophy  extended  still  more  widely,  but  we  need 
not  concern  ourselves  with  this  further  development.  It  is  evident  that  man 
being  man,  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  conceive  God  except  through  human 
faculties;  and  even  the  purest  and  best  representation  of  the  Godhead  which 
he  can  have,  must  be  tinctured  by  his  own  human  qualities.  Consequently 
attempts  to  entirely  do  away  with  anthropomorphism  have  resulted  in  the 
idea  of  God  being  reduced  to  an  impalpable  imagining  which  is  ill-calculated 
to  produce  reverence  or  worship,  such  as  the  late  Mr.  Matthew  Arnold's 
"  the  eternal  not-ourselves  which  makes  for  righteousness."  Here  a  middle 
course  seems  pointed  out.  Being  human,  it  is  impossible  to  keep  ourselves 
from  anthropomorphism  to  some  extent ;  but  we  must  remember,  while  dis- 
cussing or  thinking  about  the  Deity,  that  our  best  ideas  must  be  faint 
shadows  of  the  truth,  and  cannot  reach  the  full  truth. 

The  term  idolatry  originally  designated  all  worship  such  as  is  forbidden 

in  the  Second  Commandment,  "  Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  a  graven 

image  ;  to  no  visible  shape  in  heaven  above,  or  in  the  earth  be- 
Idolatry.  1  •        i 

neath,  or  m  the  water  under  the  earth,  shalt  thou  bow  down  or 

render  service."     Such  a  prohibition  could  have  had  no  meaning,  apart  from 

the  fact  that  such  worship  and  service  were  frequent  and  prevalent  in  the 

world  in  which  the  Israelites  moved.     That  it  has  existed,  and  does  still 

exist,  may  be  taken  as  an  axiom  in  the  study  of  religions.     An  "  idol  " 

included  every  object  of  reverence  or  worship  among  the  people  with  whom 

the  Israelites  came  in  contact;  and  "idolatry"  came  to  be  used  among  the 

early  Christians  to  designate  all  the  practices   connected  with  the  forms 

of  religion  which  they  found   existing   around  them,  and  antagonistic  to 


to  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Christianity.  Thus  the  term  idol,  according  to  many,  includes  not  merely 
images,  or  representations  made  by  human  workmen,  whether  in  the  form 
of  pictures  or  sculpture,  of  any  person,  Divine  or  otherwise,  taken  from 
actual  life  or  derived  from  the  imagination,  and  made  use  of  in  religious 
services  ;  but  also  any  natural  objects,  living  or  dead,  either  worshipped  or 
revered,  though  (it  may  be)  only  as  signs  of  something  not  seen.  It  may 
be  said  with  truth,  that  in  most  cases  it  is  not  the  idol  or  image  at  all  which 
is  worshipped,  for  it  is  believed  in  merely  as  the  representation  of  an  absent 
god,  or  as  the  symbol  of  an  idea,  or  as  the  dwelling-place,  temporary  or 
permanent,  of  a  god,  without  being  supposed  to  possess  any  supernatural 
quality  itself.  Nevertheless  the  more  ignorant  and  degraded  people  have 
largely  regarded  the  idol  as  itself  embodying  power  of  some  sort,  generally 
supernatural. 

We  thus  come  by  a  natural  transition  to  fetishism,  which  is  generally 
understood  to  signify  a  belief  in  peculiar  or  supernatural  powers  residing  in 
•  .  .  certain  ordinary  material  objects,  which  are  consequently  wor- 
shipped. This  idea  is  specially  connected  in  European  minds 
with  the  alleged  casual  selection  by  West  African  negroes  of  any  kind  of 
object  for  adoration,  prayer  and  sacrifice  being  made  to  it,  while,  if  any 
calamity  befall  the  worshipper,  the  fetish  is  accused  of  having  brought  it 
about,  and  may  be  deposed,  and  even  beaten  or  destroyed.  Now  the  word 
"fetish"  was  not  a  negro  but  a  Portuguese  word,  feitigo,  an  amulet  or  charm; 
and  the  early  Portuguese  voyagers  to  Western  Africa,  finding  small  objects 
reverenced  or  worshipped  by  the  negroes,  somewhat  resembling  those  so  well 
known  as  amulets  among  themselves,  spoke  of  them  as  the  feiticos  of  the 
natives.  Thus  the  word  is  properly  restricted  to  inanimate  objects,  wooden 
figures,  stones,  etc.,  and  is  only  improperly  used  to  designate  local  nature- 
spirits  or  animals  held  in  reverence.  The  fetishes  of  West  Africa  are,  in 
fact,  believed  to  be  the  ordinary  abode  of  the  deities  either  of  village  com- 
panies or  of  individuals.  The  local  gods  are  believed,  through  the  priests, 
to  present  those  who  require  tutelary  deities  with  certain  objects  (fetishes)  in 
which  they  usually  abide.  These  may  be  wooden  figures,  stones,  calabashes, 
earthen  pots,  or  even  the  most  insignificant  objects.  The  fetishes  of  village 
companies  are  deposited  in  some  accessible  place,  and  protected  with 
branches  as  fences,  which,  when  grown,  constitute  so-called  fetish  trees, 
which  become  sacred  to  the  deity.  Offerings  of  food,  drink,  and  other 
things  are  regularly  made  to  the  fetishes.  Families  may  obtain  their 
fetishes  as  the  result  of  dreams,  but  always  through  priests  ;  if  persistent 
ill-luck  attends  the  family,  the  fetish  may  be  burnt ;  the  fact  that  it  will 
burn  or  become  injured  by  fire,  being  taken  as  proof  that  it  is  no  longer  the 
abode  of  a  spirit.  Individuals  may  also  obtain,  make,  or  select  fetishes  for 
themselves,  and  call  upon  a  spirit  to  enter  the  object,  which  is  then  re- 
verenced if  good  luck  follows;  these  fetishes  may  work  various  ills  upon 
enemies  through  the  intervention  of  other  objects,  as  charms. 

"  Totemism  "  is  a  term  which  has  in  recent  years  become  important  both 
in  the  study  of  religions  and  in  that  of  tribal  organisation  and  social  life 


INTRODUCTION. 


among  uncivilised  peoples.  A  totem  is  defined  as  a  class  of  material  ob- 
jects which  a  savage  regards  with  superstitious  respect,  believing 
that  it  protects  him  ;  he  in  return  never  kills  it  if  an  animal,  or 
injures  or  gathers  it  if  a  plant.  The  more  usual  form  of  totem  is  a  species 
of  animal  or  plant,  but  sometimes  a  kind  of  non-living  object.  Totems 
are  either  common  to  a  whole  tribe  or  clan,  the  male  or  female  sex  of  a 
tribe,  or  belong  especially  to  an  individual.  As  regards  the  clan,  it  is  found 
that  there  is  a  belief  that  all  members  are  descended  from  a  common 
ancestor,  more  frequently  the  totem  itself,  by  whose  name  they  designate 
themselves  in  common.  All  of  the  same  totem  recognise  certain  obligations 
to  one  another  and  to  the  totem.  Sometimes,  in  addition  to  not  killing  or 
injuring  the  totem,  it  is  forbidden  to  touch  it  or  look  at  it.  In  consequence 
of  these  ideas  we  frequently  find  that  injurious  or  troublesome  animals  are 
allowed  to  multiply  to  an  enormous  extent,  and  are  even  fed  and  protected. 
When  dead,  they  are  mourned  for  as  if  they  were  human  beings  belonging 
to  the  tribe.  Various  penalties  are  incurred  by  disrespect  to  the  totem, 
such  as  diseases  and  death.  Correspondingly,  if  proper  respect  is  shown  to 
the  totem,  it  will  protect  and  refrain  from  injuring  the  members  of  the 
tribe.  Sometimes  if  the  totem  (for  example,  a  snake)  injures  a  man,  he  is 
supposed  to  have  offended  it,  and  is  put  out  of  the  tribe.  In  many  cases 
signs  given  by  or  derived  from  the  totem  are  made  use  of  as  omens ;  and 
in  various  ways  they  may  be  pressed  to  give  favourable  indications,  or  even 
punished  for  not  doing  so.  Frequently  the  savage  dresses  himself 
in  the  skin,  feathers,  tusks,  etc.,  of  the  totem  animal,  or  imitates 
it  in  various  ways,  scarring,  painting,  or  tattooing  himself  with  this  object. 
The  totem  sign  is  also  used  as  a  signature  to  treaties  or  agreements,  and  it 
is  carved  upon  dwellings,  canoes,  weapons,  and  other  possessions. 

Birth,  marriage,  and  death  ceremonies  are  largely  tinctured  by  totemism, 
the  different  ceremonies  being  chiefly  explicable  by  a  desire  to  secure  pro- 
tection from  dangers  which  cannot  otherwise  be  guarded  against,  Totem 
and  are  supposed  to  be  supernatural.  At  death  the  idea  is,  to  ceremonies, 
become  one  with  the  totem.  Similarly,  to  celebrate  the  coming  of  age  of 
a  youth,  he  is  formally  and  fully  admitted  into  the  totem.  Sometimes 
attempts  are  made  to  recall  a  dead  man  to  life  by  pronouncing  his  totem 
name ;  and  other  ceremonies  may  occur  in  which  the  totem  is  supposed  to 
die  and  be  restored.  In  some  cases  this  ceremony  is  elevated  into  something 
which  suggests  that  the  totem  becomes  a  god,  dies  for  his  people,  and  is 
revived  again.  When  a  totem  is  adopted  by  one  sex  only,  it  is  said  to  be 
still  more  sacred  than  the  totem  of  the  tribe  ;  for  it  will  be  ferociously 
defended  against  injury  by  the  opposite  sex,  even  though  the  same  people 
may  tolerate  the  killing  of  the  clan  totem.  A  special  individual  totem  is 
frequently  the  first  animal  dreamt  of  during  the  fasts  and  solitudes  marking 
the  coming  of  age :  in  some  tribes  a  man  may  not  kill  or  eat  his  personal 
totem. 

Totemism  is  very  widely  distributed,  but  it  is  not  a  system  ;  rather,  it 
is  an  indefinite  growth,  founded  in  certain  natural  or  primitive  notions  of 


12  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

uncivilised  man.  As  a  subject  it  is  the  creation  of  students  who  have  found 
in  practices  of  mankind  all  over  the  globe  common  features,  which  may 
possibly,  in  many  cases,  have  their  root  in  a  common  origin  of  race,  and 
have  been  developed  in  different  directions  owing  to  the  migration  and 
intermingling  of  tribes.  But  many  of  its  characteristics  are  peculiar  to 
isolated  tribes.  It  is  certainly  largely  connected  with  terror  of  or  reverence 
for  natural  objects,  and  is  believed  in  with  a  superstitious  fear.  It  is  best 
to  regard  it  as  a  subject  pertaining  to  religions,  though  not  to  be  definitely 
classed  as  a  religion. 

The  word  taboo  refers  to  the  system  of  religious  prohibitions  formerly 
so  largely  in  force  in  Polynesia ;    it  means  primarily,  "  sacred,"  separate 

from  ordinary  use.     It  was  an  essentially  religious  observance, 
The  Taboo.    .  J  J  to 

imposed  by  a  priest  or  chief,  and  might  be  temporary  or  per- 
manent, general  or  special.  Thus  idols,  temples,  chiefs  and  priests,  and 
their  property,  were  "  taboo,"  or  sacred  ;  many  things  were  specially  tabooed 
to  women.  The  penalties  for  disobedience  were  diseases  or  various  punish- 
ments by  the  rulers.  It  became  in  practice  a  method  by  which  the  priests 
and  chiefs  took  advantage  of  animistic  beliefs  to  secure  their  power  or  their 
own  ends.  Extensive  traces  of  similar  practices  have  been  found  all  over 
the  world.  Even  the  Nazarites'  vow  and  the  prohibitions  of  work  or 
special  actions  on  the  Sabbath  have  been  identified  with  taboo  rules  ;  and 
the  Latin  word  "  sacer "  (meaning  either  sacred  or  accursed)  is  regarded 
as  having  essentially  the  same  meaning  as  taboo. 

Demonology  may  be  separated  as  a  subject   of  study  in  relation   to 
religions,  and  has  many  curious  facts  and   practices  within  its  province. 

The  Greek  word  daimon  originally  meant  a  spirit  or  deity,  with- 
'  out  reference  to  good  or  evil  qualities.  Then  it  was  applied  to 
the  spirits  of  the  deceased,  who  become  guardians  of  the  living  ;  next 
they  were  regarded  as  good  and  evil  beings  occupying  a  position  between 
gods  and  men.  It  is  almost  special  to  Christianity  to  regard  demons  as 
exclusively  evil.  Among  savage  races  it  is  common  to  regard  diseases, 
especially  of  the  hysterical,  epileptic,  and  maniacal  kind,  as  caused  by  the 
entry  of  some  other  spirit  into  the  sufferer.  Convulsions  appear  to  be  due 
to  the  possession  of  the  body  by  some  other  spirit ;  again,  wasting  diseases 
are  readily  accounted  for  by  the  action  of  some  intruding  or  some  malevo- 
lent spirit ;  and  it  is  a  simple  transition  to  consider  such  calamities  as 
brought  about  by  the  spirits  of  deceased  enemies,  or  spirits  which  are  to 
punish  some  evil  conduct  of  the  sufferer  ;  and  in  such  cases  the  particular 
spirit  concerned  may  be  identified  by  the  conscience-stricken  one.  Thus 
many  ideas  of  demonology  are  derived  from  beliefs  about  human  departed 
spirits.  In  some  cases  this  goes  so  far  that  the  possessed  one  speaks  in  the 
character  of  the  deceased  person  who  is  supposed  to  possess  him.  The  way 
in  which  possessing  demons  are  in  many  tribes  talked  to,  threatened,  cajoled, 
enticed,  driven  away  by  blows,  etc.,  shows  that  they  are  regarded  as  spirits 
of  human  beings,  still  capable  of  being  influenced  by  similar  motives  to  the 
survivors.     Consequently  exorcism,  or  the  expulsion  of  devils  or  spirits,  has 


i4  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


its  place  in  nearly  all  savage  systems.  It  is  only  the  progress  of  medicine 
which  has  disclosed  the  real  nature  of  many  of  the  cases  formerly  attributed 
to  demoniacal  possession  ;  and  the  belief  in  the  latter  lasts  to  our  own  times 
not  only  in  many  foreign  countries,  but  also  among  the  less  intelligent  rural 
folk  in  our  own  country.  As  late  as  1788,  a  solemn  exorcism  of  seven  devils 
out  of  an  epileptic,  by  seven  clergymen,  was  performed  at  the  Temple  Church, 
Bristol. 

Among  adjuncts  of  demonology,  sorcery  and  witchcraft  claim  a  place, 
though  we  cannot  here  enlarge  upon  them.  All  the  practices  included  in 
sorcery  and  these  terms  spring  from  the  belief  that  spirits  influence  mortal 
■witchcraft,  affairs  and  can  in  turn  be  influenced  by  mortals  who  possess  the 
right  method.  Special  ceremonies  at  regular  intervals  are  frequently  held, 
to  drive  out  all  the  demons  from  a  locality.  Guardian  angels,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  believed  in  widely,  far  beyond  regions  where  the  belief  has  been 
countenanced  or  encouraged  by  Christianity.  The  latter  has  also  been  con- 
nected with  some  of  the  most  dreadful  incidents  in  medieval  history, 
witches  and  sorcerers  having  been  subjected  to  most  cruel  treatment.  Many 
of  these  have  accounted  for  their  performances  by  the  influence  of  familiar 
spirits,  which  can  be  summoned  by  particular  methods  ;  and  very  many 
persons  class  modern  spiritualism  under  the  same  heading.  Iu  many  cases 
savage  religions  are  almost  entirely  affairs  of  the  good  and  bad  spirits  who 
manage  most  or  all  human  affairs,  the  supreme  deity  being  not  concerned 
directly  in  such  matters.  Among  the  highest  forms  in  which  we  find  the 
conception  of  evil  spirits  is  the  Ahriman  of  the  Parsees,  and  the  Miltonic 
Satan  with  his  attendant  demons  of  various  grades.  Often  the  devils  of  one 
religion  represent  more  or  less  closely  the  good  deities  of  their  enemies. 

Divination  signifies  the  obtaining  of  knowledge  about  unknown  and 
future  events  or  facts  by  means  of  omens  or  oracles,  the  idea  being,  that  some 
divine  knowledge  is  communicated  to  the  diviner  or  soothsayer, 
or  person  who  becomes  the  means  of  communication.  "  Signs 
sent  by  the  gods,"  include  all  communications  by  what  were  called 
"oracles,"  examination  of  entrails  of  animals  killed  in  sacrifice,  the  flight 
of  birds,  behaviour  of  animals,  prodigies,  lightning,  dreams,  palmistry, 
astrology,  etc.,  each  of  which  might  be  made  the  subject  of  an  entire  book. 
We  can  devote  only  incidental  mention  to  them  under  the  various  religious 
beliefs  of  nations,  or  the  more  important  subjects  of  religion ;  but  they  all 
testify  to  the  belief  in  a  god  or  gods  and  in  supernatural  spirits. 

Shamanism  is  not  the  name  of  a  religion,  but  of  a  form  of  religious  belief 
and  practice  belonging  to  the  old  Mongolians,  and  which  may  almost  be 
applied  to  the  corresponding  beliefs  of  the  American  Indians.  A 
shaman  is  a  kind  of  priest  whose  resources  are  chiefly  wizardry 
and  sorcery,  apart  from  idols  or  fetishes.  His  influence  (and  that  of  the 
medicine-man  of  the  Indians)  rests  on  his  assumed  powers  of  influencing 
the  good  and  evil  spirits  believed  in  (many  of  whom  are  ancestors).  He 
has  a  ritual  of  magic  and  sorcery,  procures  oracles  from  the  spirits,  and 
offers  sacrifices. 


INTR  OD  UCTION.  1 5 


The  priest  has  developed  on  the  one  hand  out  of  the  medicine-man, 

shaman,  exorcist,  etc.,  and  on  the  other  out  of  the  head  of  the  family,  the 

patriarch,  the  leader.     The  elder  and  the  cleverer  men  naturally 

r    .  .  .  Priesthoods. 

gained  most  influence,  and  their  words  were  most  attended  to, 

and  the  rites  they  inculcated  were  performed.  Gifts  were  given  either  to 
the  gods  or  priests  or  both  ;  and  the  offering  of  the  gift  became  essential  to 
gaining  the  favour  of  gods  and  priests.  When  once  priests  existed,  no  one 
could  gain  admission  to  the  order  without  some  special  claim  or  discipline, 
which  was  made  severe  in  most  cases ;  but  unauthorised  priests  have  always 
existed  in  all  grades,  down  to  wizards  and  devil-doctors.  From  their  ful- 
filling high  functions  and  gaining  high  rewards,  priesthoods  have  always 
attracted  many  of  the  ablest  men  ;  and  in  most  religions  they  have  included 
genuine  and  sincere  believers  in  their  worship  and  teachings.  But  they 
have  also  as  a  rule  been  conservative  of  established  ordinances  and  very 
hostile  to  reformers,  especially  of  religion.  The  traditional  knowledge  was 
almost  exclusively  in  their  hands  till  comparatively  modern  times  ;  they 
alone  knew  how  to  appease  or  please  the  gods,  or  could  perform  the  due  rites, 
and  thus  their  power  has  been  enormous.  On  the  other  hand,  numerous 
peoples  have  never  had  any  powerful  priesthood. 

The  word  temple  includes  many  kinds  of  buildings,  all  agreeing  in  one 
character,  that  they  are  supposed  to  be  the  special  dwelling  of  a  god  or  gods. 

In  many  cases  the  temple  has  not  our  modern  signification  as  a 

J  r  ...  Temples, 

meeting-place  for  worshippers  ;  often  it  is  only  open  to  priests, 

and  the  altar  or  stone  of  sacrifice  is  set  up  in  front  of  (outside)  the  entrance. 
In  most  religions  the  temple  contains  a  statue  of  the  god,  or  other  sacred 
symbol  indicating  his  presence  ;  and  treasures,  chiefly  gifts  from  worship- 
pers, are  accumulated  in  and  around  it.  Hence  the  temple  becomes 
peculiarly  sacred  ground,  protecting  the  priests  from  all  insult,  injury,  or 
removal  for  punishment,  and  usually  acquiring  in  addition  the  power  of 
protecting  those  who  take  refuge  in  it.  No  doubt  the  idea  of  a  place  sacred 
to  a  god  or  to  spirits  arose  very  early,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  numerous 
cases  in  which  unhewn  stones,  placed  in  certain  positions,  have  probably 
served  as  temples  in  pre-historic  times.  We  must  look  to  a  far-distant 
past  for  the  beginnings  of  external  worship  around  sacred  trees  or  stones, 
which  were  only  gradually  fenced  or  covered  in. 

The  temple  naturally  suggests  sacrifice,  which  originally  meant  any  act 
or  thing  sacred  to  the  gods,  and  only  by  specialisation  came  to  signify  gifts, 
or  atonements  to  the  gods.     In  very  many  religions  the  gods       criflces 
or  spirits  worshipped  are   honoured  by  gifts  of  vegetable  food, 
libations  of  wine  and  oil,  and  consecration  of  animal  flesh ;  and  these  are 
distinguished   from   gifts   of  treasure,  garments,  images,  lands, 
temples,  etc.      Expiatory  sacrifices,  not  found  in   all   religions, 
form  a  distinct  class ;  and  in  these  the  life  of  a  victim  is  offered  to  appease 
the  anger  of  the  gods,  or  to  gain  their  favour.     The  sacrifices  or  gifts  in 
honour   of  the    gods  signify  a  view  of  the  gods  which  is  quite  sure  of 
their  friendliness  if  properly  worshipped  and  sacrificed  to  ;    and  in  a  vast 


t6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


number  of  cases,  these  gifts  mean  an  offering  of  banquets  to  the  gods,  from 
which  their  servants  are  not  excluded.  The  appropriate  gifts  are  like 
a  tribute  to  an  earthly  king.  Often  the  seasons  suggest  the  fitting  oc- 
casions for  special  offerings— harvest,  vintage,  the  birth  of  young  animals. 
We  find  all  stages  of  view  as  to  these  sacrifices,  from  that  in  which  the  god 
is  supposed  to  really  need  the  food  given,  to  that  in  which  it  becomes  only 
a  conventional  mode  of  showing  respect. 

Animism  pervades  sacrifice  very  largely,  especially  when  the  sacrificial 

offerings  are  burnt ;    their  spirit-essence  being  believed  to   ascend  to  the 

gods,  and  to  satisfy  them.     From  this,  to  the  idea  of  slaughtering 

ADhumannd  animals  for  sacrifice,  i.e.  that  the  god  may  have  a  meal  of  meat, 

sacrifices.    -s  ft  natural  transition.     "When,  in  any  case,  the  faith  in  the  old 

eods  declined,  and  the  sacrifices  became  diminished,  a  revival  of  religion, 

or  its  new    development,    included  a   demand  for   animal,  and   finally  for 

human  sacrifices,  as  expiation  of  the  sins  of  the  people  ;  and  the  fact  that 

human  sacrifices  primarily  and  generally  consisted  of  enemies,  is  connected 

with  the  same  practice  in  cannibalism. 

When  a  religion  manifests  a  strong  sense  of  sin,  certain  offences  are 
deemed  incapable  of  expiation,  otherwise  than  by  the  sacrifice  of  life,  either 
of  the  offender  or  of  some  one  of  his  kin  or  tribe.  When  any 
^dCTp? great  calamity  occurs,  it  is  believed  that  the  deity  has  been 
tion.  offended,  and  nothing  but  the  sacrifice  of  life  will  avail.  Why, 
in  certain  cases,  men  sacrificed  their  eldest  son  is  not  clear  ;  but  it  may  have 
been  on  the  principle  of  offering  first-fruits  or  firstlings,  or  in  the  idea  that 
only  the  blood  of  a  very  near  kinsman  would  satisfy  the  god.  The  person 
held  guilty  can  or  will  not  be  sacrificed,  being  important  to  the  tribe,  or  in 
his  own  eyes,  and  so  the  idea  of  substitution  arises,  perhaps  being  stimulated 
by  the  idea  that  an  innocent  victim  is  more  worthy  than  a  guilty  one. 
Often  the  substitute,  when  an  animal,  has  been  dressed  up  to  resemble  the 
guilty  person,  or  the  appropriate  animal  (sometimes  the  totem).  Sometimes 
these  human  and  expiatory  offerings  have  become  regular  and  periodic,  to 
avert  the  anger  of  the  gods,  or  to  expiate  sin  frequently  committed ;  often 
animals  are  regularly  sacrificed  as  substitutes  for  human  life ;  sometimes 
these  sacrifices  have  degenerated  into  mere  puppet  sacrifices. 

A  further  development  consists  in  sacramental  feasts  or  sacrifices,  as 
when  paste  idols  or  slain  victims  are  eaten  by  the  worshippers,  with  the 
^  idea  that  the  sacred  animal  being  eaten  makes  the  worshippers 
mysteries,     one   with   the  deity  to  whom  it  is   sacrificed.     Such   sacrifices 
often  take   place   in    connection  with   initiation   or  celebration   of  blood- 
brotherhood. 

"  Even  the  highest  forms  of  sacrificial  worship,"  says  Prof.  Robertson 
Smith,  in  the  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  "  present  much  that  is  repulsive 
to  modern  ideas;  and  in  particular  it  requires  an  effort  to  reconcile  our 
imagination  to  the  bloody  ritual  which  is  prominent  in  almost  every 
religion  which  has  a  strong  sense  of  sin.  But  we  must  not  forget  that 
from  the  beginning  this  ritual  expressed,  however  crudely,  certain  ideas 


INTRO  D  UCTION. 


'7 


which  lie  at  the  very  root  of  true  religion,  the  fellowship  of  the  wor- 
shippers with  one  another  in  their  fellowship  with  the  deity  ;  .  .  .  and 
the  piacular  forms,  though   these  were  particularly  liable   to    distortions 


disgraceful  to  man  and  dishonouring  to  the  Godhead,  yet  container!  the 
first  germs  of  eternal  truths,  not  only  expressing  the  idea  of  divine  justice, 
but  mingling  it  with  a  feeling  of  divine  and  human  pity." 

c 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  word  and  the  subject  "  Theism  "  is  of  the  highest  importance 
in  religions.     The  word  in  combination  enters  into  pantheism,  polytheism, 

monotheism,  and  atheism.  By  itself  it  has  a  signification  which 
Theism.  .^  ^  ^  always  when  in  combination.  In  its  widest  ex- 
tension it  includes  the  whole  subject  of  Divine  Being  or  Beings;  but 
ordinarily  it  is  restricted  to  much  the  same  range  as  monotheism,  the 
belief  in  one  God.  It  then  contradicts  and  is  antagonistic  to  polytheism, 
pantheism,  and  atheism.  Again,  theism  has  been  used  as  the  contrary  of 
deism,  a  form  of  belief  in  one  God  by  the  light  of  nature,  or  from  natural 

religion.      Deism  is  generally  distinguished  from  pantheism  in 

regarding  God  as  distinct  from  the  material  world,  and  from 
theism,  in  imagining  that  the  Divine  Being  has  created  the  world  and 
endowed  it  with  certain  powers  and  potentialities  which  are  left  to  work 
out  their  results  uninfluenced  by  the  direct  interference  or  action  of  God. 

It  would  detain  us  too  long  to  expound  the  history  of  theism  since 
Christianity  arose.     It  will  be  to  some  extent  referred  to  later.     We  must 

note  here  that  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism  are  the  only 

two  truly  theistic  or  monotheistic  religions  ;  and  that  this  title 
has  been  denied  to  Christianity  by  those  who  consider  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  or  Three  Persons  in  the  Godhead,  as  excluding  it  from  monotheism. 
In  past  times  many  regarded  monotheism  as  the  primitive  religion,  from 
which  mankind  had  fallen  away  by  sin  and  degradation.  Now-a-days  a 
great  proportion  of  students  of  man  and  religion  believe  that  monotheism  is 
a  later  growth  than  polytheism,  or  belief  in  more  than  one  God.  There  is 
some  ground  for  the  belief  that,  in  some  religions  at  least,  the  idea  of  one 
supreme  God  arose  by  the  exaggeration  of  the  qualities  of  some  particular 
god  already  worshipped,  or  out  of  the  belief  in  a  tribal  God,  originally 
peculiar  to  them  and  hostile  to  their  enemies  ;  but  it  is  questionable  if  we 
can  ever  arrive  at  the  true  origin  of  religion,  for  the  ancient  races  are  dead 
and  have  left  no  records  behind  them,  and  there  are  no  data  for  saying  that 
all  those  peoples  who  had  a  religion  have  left  records  of  it.  The  traces 
of  religion  in  the  oldest  words  and  the  earliest  remains  and  records  left 
show  that  animals,  ancestors,  powers  of  nature,  and  deities  were  then  wor- 
shipped ;  and  beyond  this  we  cannot  go. 

Pantheism  is  a  mode  of  looking  at  the  universe  which  identifies  the 

creation  with  the  Creator,  regarding  all  finite  things  as  different  modifications, 

Pantheism   or  asPec^s;  or  manifestations  of  one  eternal,  self-existent  being, 

from  which  they  are  derived.  Within  or  around  this  conception 
are  grouped  many  views  which  represent  the  universe  very  diversely,  some 
approaching  very  near  to  monotheism,  or  even  being  very  properly  described 
as  forms  of  monotheism. 

Atheism  («,  without,  Theos,  God)  again,  takes  several  forms.     Dogmatic 

atheism,  which   has   extremely   few  adherents,  denies  the   existence  of  a 

Atheism    -^vme  Being  :  critical  atheism  says  that  He  has  not  been  proved 

to  exist;  while  philosophical  atheism  says  that  it  is  impossible 
for  finite  beings  to  know  in  any  real  sense  that  the  Divine  exists. 


19 


THE    WORLDS   RELIGIOXS. 


Theology,  as  a  technical  term,  needs  a  definition  ;  it  is  as  old  as  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  dgnifying  "  a  discourse  or  doctrine  concerning  divine  things." 
Thns  the  term  may  be  used  to  include  non-Christian  as  well 
Theology.  ^  Q^^an  svsroms#  Tts  special  use  in  Christianity  will  be 
referred  to  later.  It  is  now  generally  understood  to  mean  the  system  of 
doctrines  which  concent  the  person,  attributes,  and  works  of  God.  Theology 
which  accepts  the  Bible  as  containing  a  revelation  ot  and  from  God.  is 
distinguished  from  natural  theology,  which  only  includes  arguments  derived 
from  human  thought,  observation,  and  reasoning  apart  from  revelation. 
Some  persons  would  define  theology  as  the  study  of  what  mankind  have 
thought  or  felt  about  religion  or  about  (rod  :  but  it  is  more  correct,  as  well 
as  more  in  agreement  with  the  feelings  of  most  intelligent  people,  to  make 
the  term  imply  belief  in  God.  and  the  attainability  of  knowledge  about 
Him.  A  mere  study  ot  the  phenomena  of  religion  can  never  be  as  vitally 
interesting  as  one  which  regards  it  as  of  the  utmost  concern  to  know  what 
is  to  be  known  on  the  subject. 

Is  there  then  such  a  thing  as  a  science  of  religion  or  religions'?  Not 
vet.  but  there  may  be  in  the  future  ;  and  we  are  working  towards  it.  "We 
science  of  may  be  told  that  this  can  never  be  a  true  science,  for  the  ultimate 
religion,  object  of  religion  cannot  be  comprehended  by  mortals  :  but  that 
objection  would  be  fatal  to  all  other  sciences,  for  the  Infinite  First  Cause 
oi  all  natural  forces  cannot  be  comprehended.  The  science  of  religion  will 
be  an  explanation  or  comprehension  of  religion,  mental,  natural,  or  revealed; 
but  the  study  which  is  to  produce  it  must  be  free  and  intelligent,  and  its 
conclusions  must  be  based  on  sufficient  evidence,  the  sources  of  that  evidence 
being  found  in  the  natural  world,  in  the  thoughts  of  men's  minds,  in 
history,  and  in  all  teachings  purporting  to  be.  or  accepted  as,  Divine 
revelations. 

We  must  just  briefly  indicate  the  term  ';  theosophy  **  as  designating  a 
'•  divine  wisdom."  or  wisdom  about  divine  things,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
special  knowledge  about  the  Divine  nature  and  modes  of  working, 
either  as  the  result  of  speculative  philosophy  or  of  special  revela- 
tion :  we  can  here  have  little  to  say  of  such  systems.    Hegel.  Spinoza.  Sweden- 
borg,  Boehme,  Sehelling.  may  be  named  among  prominent  theosophists. 

We  may  next  recognise  the  broad  distinctness  of  primitive   or  nature 

religions,  and  those  which  are  either  tribal,  national,  or  universal  in   their 

Classification  scope.     It  is  only    a    certain   number   of  the   latter   which    are 

of  religions,  specially    associated    with    a    certain   name — that   of   Confucius. 

Lao-tze.  Buddha,  Mohammed.  Moses^  Jesus:  although  it  cannot  be  shown 

that  others  were  not  quite  as  truly  the  product  of  individual  minds,  whose 

Personal    names  have  not  been  preserved.     The  great  founders  of  religions 

founders.    mentioned.   above   have   given   rise   to  ethical  religions,  religions 

putting  prominently  forward  certain  moral  teachings ;  and  further,  preach- 

Unlversaloring  a  way  of  salvation,  and   producing  an  organisation   for  the 

missionary  promotion   and  increase   of  the  religion.     Tln-ee    religions  now 

religions.    remajn  ^^h  mav  be  called  world-religions  in  their  scope,  Bu  Id- 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


hism,  Mohammedanism,  and    Christianity ;    all  aiming  at  converting   the 
world,  and  professing  to  be  able  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  world. 

As  regards  other  than  universal  religions,  we  may  quote  the  view  of  Prof. 
Tiele  of  Leyden  ("  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Religion  ").  "  It  is  on  various 
Fr  m  n  t  grounds  probable  that  the  earliest  religion,  which,  has  left  but 
religions  to  faint  traces  behind  it,  was  followed  by  a  period  in  which  animism 
lsm'  generally  prevailed.  This  stage,  which  is  still  represented  by 
the  so-called  nature  religions,  or  rather  by  the  polydsemonistic  tribal  reli- 
gions, early  developed  among  civilised  nations  into  polytheistic  national 
religions,  resting  upon  a  traditional  doctrine.  Not  until  a  later  period  did 
polytheism  give  place  here  and  there  to  nomistic  religions,  or  religious 
communities  founded  on  a  law  or  holy  Scripture,  and  subduing  polytheism 
more  or  less  completely  beneath  pantheism  or  monotheism.  These  last, 
again,  contain  the  roots  of  the  universal  or  world-religions,  which  start 
from  principles  and  maxims."  "We  give  this,  not  as  in  any  way  indicating 
a  doctrine  that  ought  to  be  accepted,  but  as  a  speculation  of  an  earnest 
student.  There  is  much  more  in  religion  than  can  probably  be  com- 
prehended in  any  simple  classification.  We  now  proceed  to  give  a  classifi- 
cation of  religions  into  families,  which  may  be  of  some  service  in  com- 
prehending the  following  pages. 

Animism,  the  primitive  philosophy  of  spirits,  has  special  manifestations 
among  the  Polynesians,  Australians,  negroes,  Hottentots,  Melanesians, 
Groups  of  Americans,  the  highest  forms  being  readied  by  the  Chibchas, 
religions.  ^he  ]y£avaSj  the  Mexicans  and  the  Incas,  and  by  the  Finns.  The 
Chinese  and  Japanese  religions,  Confucianism,  Taoism,  and  Shin-toism,  form 
a  special  class.  The  Egyptian  religion  stands  almost  apart,  including  much 
animism  and  magic,  with  features  of  a  higher  kind.  The  remaining  principal 
religions  may  be  classified  into  Aryan  and  Semitic  respectively;  the  former, 
the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  group,  including  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism, 
Buddhism,  Zoroastrianism,  Greek  and  Roman,  Wendic,  Slavonian,  Celtic, 
Teutonic,  and  Scandinavian  religions;  the  latter  including  Chaldean  and 
Assyrian,  Phoenician,  and  Canaanitish  religions,  besides  Judaism,  Christi- 
anity, and  Mohammedanism.  Where  so  much  is  unknown  or  controversial, 
we  shall  not  attempt  what  is  called  a  genealogical  arrangement ;  nor  shall 
we  give  any  further  classification  before  proceeding  to  describe  the  several 
religions  or  religious  practices.  All  that  has  hitherto  been  said,  except  the 
explanation  of  the  meaning  and  significance  of  certain  terms,  may  be  taken 
only  in  so  far  as  it  may  be  borne  out  by  the  accounts  which  follow,  or  as 
interpreting  the  facts  in  a  reasonable  manner.  No  attempt  is  made  to 
say  what  must  or  must  not  be  believed.  Every  one  should  form  his  or 
her  own  conclusions  as  freely  and  independently  as  possible. 

For  further  information  on  the  subjects  dealt  with  in  this  chapter,  see  Tylor's  "  Primitive 
Culture"  ami  "Anthropology."  Articles:  Theism,  Theology,  Anthropomorphism,  Animism,  Totem- 
ism,  Taboo,  Demonology,  Sacrifice,  Priest,  Temple,  in  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  ninth  edition. 
Tide's  "  Outlines  of  the  History  of  the  Ancient  Eeligions."  J.  G.  Frazer's  "  Totemism,"  and  his 
valuable  paper  "On  Certain  Burial  Customs  as  illustrations  of  the  Primitive  Theory  of  the  Soul" 
("  Journal  of  Anthropological  Institute,"  vol.  xv.).  Max  Mailer's  "  Science  of  Keligion,"  "  Com- 
parative Mythology  ;"  Hibbert  Lectures. 


BOOK    I. 

RELIGIONS    OF    UNCIVILISED     PEOPLES. 


I 


CHAPTER    I. 

Harrs  tottfoout  a  Rflfgfom 

T  was  long  believed  that  no  race  was  entirely  without  religion.  But 
it  is  impossible  to  resist  the  weight  of  evidence  which  shows  that 
numerous  tribes  and  peoples  have  been  or  are  without  anything  in  the  shape 
of  distinct  religious  belief  or  observance.  The  evidence  is  that  of  the  most 
distinguished  and  accurate  travellers,  the  most  credited  scientific  investi- 
gators, and  the  most  enlightened  missionaries.  Charles  Darwin  says 
("  Descent  of  Man,"  i.  143) :— "  There  is  ample  evidence,  derived,  not  from 
hasty  travellers,  but  from  men  who  have  long  resided  with  savages,  that 
numerous  races  have  existed,  and  still  exist,  who  have  no  idea  of  one  or 
more  gods,  and  who  have  no  words  in  their  languages  to  express  such  an 
idea.  ...  If,  however,  we  include  under  the  term  "  religion  "  the  belief 
in  unseen  or  spiritual  agencies,  the  case  is  wholly  different ;  for  this  belief 
seems  to  be  universal  with  the  less  civilised  races." 

Several  tribes  of  Brazilian  Indians  are  said,  by  Bates,  Wallace,  and 
Burmeister,  to  have  no  religion  whatever.     The  Gran  Chaco  Indians  (South 
America)  were  declared  by  the  early  missionaries  to  have  "  no   American 
religious  or  idolatrous  belief  or  worship  whatever;  neither  do  they    Indians- 
possess  any  idea  of  God  or  of  a  Supreme  Being.     They  make  no  distinction 
between  right  and  wrong,  and  have,  therefore,  neither  fear  nor  hope  of  an}' 
present  or  future  punishment  or  reward,  nor  any  mysterious  terror  of  some 
supernatural  power,  whom  they  might  seek  to  assuage  by  sacrifices  or  super- 
stitious   rites."      Central    and    South    Africa    have    furnished    numerous 
examples  of  the  absence  of  religious  ideas.     A  Zulu  once  said,  "  If  any 
one  thinks  ever  so  little,  he  soon  gives  it  up,  and  passes  on  to      Zulus, 
what  he  sees  with  his  eyes."     Burchell  found  a  tribe  of  Kaffirs     Kaffirs, 
with  no  form  of  worship  or  religion.     They  thought  that  everything  made 
itself,  and  that  trees  and  herbage  grew  by  their  own  will. 

The  Caroline  Islanders  in  the  Pacific  were  without  religion,  having  no 
temples,  altars,  offerings,  nor  sanguinary  rites.     The  Queensland 
natives,  according  to  Lang,  had  no   idea  of  a  Supreme  Being, 
creator  of  the  world,  the  witness  of  their  actions  and  their  judge. 

The  Arafuras  (Papuans)  in  the  Aru  islands  have  not  the  least  conception 
of  immortality.  When  questioned  they  said :  "  No  Arafura  has  ever  re- 
turned to  us  after  death,  therefore  we  know  nothing  of  a  future 

P3.ou3.ns 

state,  and  this  is  the  first  time  we  have  heard  of  it."     Their  idea 
was,  When  you  are  dead,  there  is  an  end  of  you.     "  Neither  have  they  any 
notion,"  says  M.  Bik,  "  of  the  creation  of  the  world.     To  convince  myself 
more  fully  respecting  their  want  of  knowledge  of  a   Supreme  Being,  I 
demanded  of  them  on  whom  they  called  for  help  in  their  need,  when  their 


24  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

vessels  were  overtaken  by  violent  tempests.  The  eldest  among  them,  after 
having  consulted  the  others,  answered  that  they  knew  not  on  whom  they 
could  call  for  assistance ;  but  begged  me,  if  I  knew,  to  be  so  good  as  to 
inform  them." 

A  conversation  recorded  by  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  in  his  "  Albert  Nyanza," 

•me        is  an  excellent  exemplification  of  this  non-religious  state  of  mind. 

Latookas.    jje  -g  interrogating  Commoro,  a  chief  of  a  Nile  tribe,  the  Latookas. 

"  Baker :  Have  you  no  belief  in  a  future  existence  after  death  ? 

Commoro  :  Existence  after  death !  How  can  that  be  ?  Can  a  dead  man 
get  out  of  his  grave  unless  we  dig  him  out  ? 

Baker :  Do  you  think  man  is  like  a  beast,  that  dies  and  is  ended  ? 

Commoro  :  Certainly  ;  an  ox  is  stronger  than  a  man;  but  he  dies,  and  his 
bones  last  longer ;  they  are  bigger.    A  man's  bones  break  quickly — he  is  weak. 

Baker  :  Is  not  a  man  superior  in  sense  to  an  ox?  Has  he  not  a  mind  to 
direct  his  actions  ? 

Commoro  :  Some  men  are  not  so  clever  as  an  ox.  Men  must  sow  corn  to 
obtain  food  ;  but  the  ox  and  wild  animals  can  procure  it  without  sowing. 

Baker:  Do  you  not  know  that  there  is  a  spirit  within  you  more  than  flesh? 
Do  you  not  dream  and  wander  in  thought  to  distant  places  in  your  sleep  ? 
Nevertheless,  your  body  rests  in  one  spot.     How  do  you  account  for  this  ? 

Commoro,  laughing :  Well,  how  do  you  account  for  it  ?  It  is  a  thing  1 
cannot  understand  ;  it  occurs  to  me  every  night. 

Baker :  Have  you  no  idea  of  the  existence  of  spirits  superior  to  either 
man  or  beast  ?     Have  you  no  fear  of  evil  except  from  bodily  causes  ? 

Commoro :  I  am  afraid  of  elephants  and  other  animals  when  in  the 
jungle  at  night,  but  of  nothing  else. 

Baker :  Then  you  believe  in  nothing,  neither  in  a  good  nor  evil  spirit ! 
And  you  believe  that  when  you  die  it  will  be  the  end  of  body  and  spirit  ; 
that  you  are  like  other  animals  ;  and  that  there  is  no  distinction  between 
man  and  beast ;  both  disappear,  and  end  at  death  ? 

Commoro  :  Of  course  they  do. 

Baker :  Do  you  see  no  difference  between  good  and  bad  actions  ? 

Commoro  :  Yes  ;  there  are  good  and  bad  in  men  and  beasts. 

Baker :  If  you  have  no  belief  in  a  future  state,  why  should  a  man  be 
good  ?     Why  should  he  not  be  bad,  if  he  can  prosper  by  wickedness  ? 

Commoro:  Most  people  are  bad  ;  if  they  are  strong,  the}7-  take  from  the 
weak.  The  good  people  are  all  weak  ;  they  are  good  because  they  are  not 
strong  enough  to  be  bad." 

But  while  thus  asserting  that  some  tribes  have  been  or  are  without  belief 
in  religion  in  the  higher  sense,  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  are  but  few, 
if  any,  of  whom  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  believe  in  spiritual  beings  of 
some  kind.  This  phase  of  the  religious  sense  has  already  been  referred  to 
in  our  Introduction,  under  the  term  "  Animism  "  (p.  6). 

.  further  proofs  may  readily  be  found  in  Sir  J.  Lubbock's  "  Prehistoric  Times  "  and  "  Origin  of 
Civilisation ;  "  Archdeacon  Farrar's  paper  on  "  The  Universality  of  Belief  in  God  and  in  a  Future 
State  "  [Anthropological  Review,  18G1 :  ccxvii.)  ;  and  Tylor's  "  Primitive  Culture  "  (p.  35). 


MOliAI    OF    OAMO    AND    OBEREA,    TAHITI. 


CHAPTER   II. 

fteltgtous'  Beliefs  anti  practices  in  Australasia,  yolmtesta, 

antJ  ittelanesta. 

The  Australians — Absence  of  worship— Sorcerers— Ideas  of  creation — Mode  of  discovering  en- 
chanters—Idea of  becoming  white  after  death— Burial— Ghosts— The  Tasmanians— The  future 
life  an  unwearied  chase— Burial  customs— Exorcists'  methods— The  New  Caledonians— Feasts 
for  spirits— Prayers  -  Rain-making  priests— Strange  burial  customs— The  Maoris— Deified 
ancestors— Legend  of  Maui— Atuas— Mythology— The  abodes  of  spirits  of  the  dead— The  priests' 
duties— Modes  of  burial  and  mourning— The  Friendly  Islanders- Superior  and  inferior  gods- 
Spiritual  chief  descended  from  the  gods-  Spirits  of  the  dead— The  Samoans— Guardian  and 
village  deities  —  Traditions  — A  stone  rain-god- Functions  of  priests— The  spirit  land— The 
Hervey  Islanders— Rev.  W.  W.  Gill  in  Mangaia- Ideas  of  the  universe  and  spirits— The  father 
of  gods  and  men— No  idea  of  a  Supreme  Creator —Deified  men  and  their  exploits— The  gods 
the  life  of  men— The  king's  idols— Origin  of  a  priesthood— Death  due  to  sins— Exploits  of  Maui 
the  fire-god— The  dead  thrown  into  chasms -Ideas  of  spirit- world— Mourning  customs— The 
death-talk— The  Society  Islanders— Various  deities— The  future  state— The  priesthood— The 
Sandwich  Islanders— Volcanic  deities  -  Power  of  the  taboo— The  Fijians— The  two  spirits  of 
man— The  Fijian  heaven— Passions  of  the  gods— Human  sacrifices— Fijian  gods— The  chiefs' 
funerals— The  Papuans— Papuan  idols— Burial  of  Papuans— The  Dyaks  of  Borneo— The  Sea- 
Dyaks'  beliefs— Medicine-men-  Superstitions  of  Land-Dyaks— Burial  of  Dyaks— Sumatran  deities 
— Priests  of  the  Battas— The  Malagasy  gods— Malagasy  charms— Divination  ani  sacrifices— 
Sikidy— Ideas  of  a  future  life— Burial  rites. 

THE   AUSTRALIANS. 

rp  HE  Australian  natives  are  among  the  lowest  in  their  conceptions  re- 
-L    lating  to  creation,  nature,  and  religion.    When  discovered  by  Europeans 
they  had  no  worship,  nor  any  idea  of  a  Creator ;  and  it  is  not     Absence 
necessary  here  to  give  an  account  of  various  conceptions  since  of  worsniP- 
developed,  which  resulted  from  their  contact  with  white  men.     They  have 
some  belief  in  evil  spirits  who  walk  abroad  and  may  be  seen  at  night. 

Against  the  diseases  caused  by  them,  the  aid  of  sorcerers  was   „ 

0  .  .  .  Sorcerers, 

invoked  ;  and  they,  by  various  peiformances  and  incantations,  ex- 
tracted the  disease  from  the  patient.  The  sorcerers  were  middle-aged  or 
elderly  men,  specially  initiated  from  some  supernatural  source,  from  ances- 
tral ghosts,  or  spirits,  and  supposed  capable  of  transporting  themselves 
through  the  air,  or  rendering  themselves  invisible.  The  production  of  rain, 
wind,  thunder,  etc.,  was  believed  to  be  within  their  province.  These 
men  were  not  without  some  medical  attainments  of  a  rude  kind.  But  they 
were  believed  to  have  the  power,  by  various  devices,  of  causing  an  enemy's 

25 


26  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


ruin  or  destruction.  A  valuable  account  of  Australian  medicine-men  has 
been  given  by  Mr.  A.  "W.  Howitt  in  the  "  Journal  of  the  Anthropological 
Institute,"  vol.  xvi.  (1887).  The  reality  of  dreams  is  strongly  believed  in  by 
the  Australians;  during  sleep  the  spirit  is  supposed  to  wander  from  the 
body  and  meet  other  spirits. 

Various  Australian  tribes  are  stated  to  have  believed  that:  (1)  Some  things 

are  self-created,  and  these  created  other  things.    (2)  Everything  was  made 

ideas       try  a  father,  who  lived  among  the  clouds,  and  had  three  sons. 

of  creation.  (3)   A  huge   serpent   is   the    cause   of  everything.      The   South 

Australians  believed  that  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  are  living  beings  who 

once  inhabited  the  earth. 

Sudden  deaths  are  attributed  to  the  enchantments  of  hostile  tribes.  "The 

method  of  finding  out  the  enchanter  is  to  clear  the  space  round  the  deceased's 

.     f    grave,  and  smooth  it  so  that  the  least  traces  of  an  animal  passing 

discovering  over   it  may  be  detected — those  of  a  beetle  will  suffice.     The 

enchanters.  (jjrec^jon  taken  by  this  creature  indicates  the  direction  in  which 

the  enchanter  lives  ;  and  one  of  the  nearest  of  kin  to  the  deceased  sets  out 

on  his  mission,  travelling  some  hundreds  of  miles.     Arrived  at  a  place  where 

there  are  natives  encamped,  he  fraternises  with  them,  staying  with  them  for 

days  till  an  opportunity  presents  itself  of  slaying  the  enchanter,  who  is 

already  known  by  having  coughed  when  eating  some  of  the  food  which  the 

stranger  has  taken  care  to  distribute  all  round." x     The  souls  of  those  who 

have  not  been  buried  are  supposed  to  haunt  the  earth  as  evil  spirits.     One 

tribe  of  Australians  believe  that  their  ghosts  people  the  islands  in  Spencer's 

Gulf. 

A  Queensland  tribe  had  the  idea  that  their  dead  became  white,  because 

they  saw  this  to  be  the  case  when  they  were  flayed  for  eating ;  and  when 

they  first  saw  white  men  they  actually  believed  they  were  the 

beaming    ghosts  of  their  own  dead  that  had  returned.     Sir  George  Grey 

Whdte  t^ter  was  thought  to  be  a  returned  son  formerly  speared  to  death  at 

Swan  River.     "  Yes,  yes  ;  it  is  he  !  "  cried  an  old  woman,  who 

leaned  her  head  on  his  breast  and  burst  into  tears. 

The  funeral  rites  of  the  Australians  are  simple,  but  very  varied.     The 
chief  modes  are  burial,  placing  the  body  in  a  tree,  and  burning.     Widows 
often  shaved  the  head.     White  is  their  mourning  colour,  worn 
in  the  form  of  white  clay.     Eulogy  of  the  departed  in  hymns  and 
songs  takes  place  after  their  death,  according  to  their  merits.     Many  Aus- 
tralians believed  that   at  death   the    ghosts   or   souls  survived,  sometimes 
passing  into  some  other  person,  or  wandering  about ;  and  they 
begged  it  to  cease  its  wanderings  and  enter  some  person.      Some 
believed  that  they  ascended  to  an  upper  region  of  the  heavens,   but  could 
still  visit  their  earthly  abodes.     Many  of  the  detailed  beliefs  recorded  about 
the  Australians  in  modern  times  are,  in  fact,  due  to  the  influence  of  white 
men's  visits  and  missionaries'  teaching. 

1  Trans.  Ethnological  Society,  New  Series,  vol.  iii.,  p.  246. 


RELIGIONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA   AND   POLYNESIA.  27 


THE  TASMANIANS. 

The  aboriginal  Tasmanians,  now  extinct,  had  very  little  more  idea  of 
religion  than  the  Australians.     They  had  an  idea  of  a  future  life,  where 
they  should  pursue  the   chase  with  unwearied  ardour  and  un-  The  future 
failing  success,  and  enjoy  in  vast  abundance  and  with  unsated  a^^S* 
appetite   the  pleasures    which  they  sought  during  life.      Some      chase, 
thought  they  were  to  go  to  the  stars,  or  to  an  island  where  their  ancestors 
were,  and  be  turned  into  white  people.     They  also  believed  in  malevolent 
spirits  inhabiting  caves  and  forests.     They  did  not  like  to  move  at  night. 
In  burial  their  customs  varied,  like  those  of  the  Australians;  but      Burial 
they  sometimes  built  a  funeral  mound,  or  placed  a  spear  by  the    CU8toms- 
deceased,  for  him  "  to  fight  with  when  he  is  asleep."     In  mourning,  the 
women  would  plaster  their  shaven  heads  with  pipe-clay  and  cover  their 
faces  with  a    mixture  of  charcoal  and   fat,  weeping  and  lacerating  their 
bodies  with  sharp  stones.     Flowers  were  thrown  on  the  graves,  as  well  as 
the  shaven  hair  of  the  women.     Some  of  the  bones  of  the  deceased  were 
often  carried  about  in  a  bag  hung  round  the  neck.     They  believed  in  the 
return   of  the   spirits   of  their  departed   friends   to   bless  or  injure  them. 
During  the  whole  of  the  first  night  after  the  death  of  one  of  their  tribe, 
they  would  sit  round  the  body,  uttering  a  low,  rapid,  continuous  recitative, 
to  prevent  the  evil  spirit  of  an  enemy  from  taking  it  away. 

Wise  men  and  exorcists  exercised  considerable  powers  over  them.    They 
used  charms  and  arts  like  mesmerism   to  expel  diseases,  terrified  by  the 
rattle  of  dead  men's  bones,  twirled  round  a  magic  mooyumbarr,    Exorcists' 
or  oval  piece  of  wood.     They  also  kept  sacred  stones,  which  must   methods- 
on  no  account  be  seen  by  women.     They  had  a  superstitious  regard  for  the 
sun,  moon,  and  various  constellations,  but  could  not  be  said  to  worship  them. 

THE  NEW  CALEDONIANS  AND  SOLOMON  ISLANDERS. 

The  New  Caledonians  exhibited  a  more  definite  religious  belief. 
They  had  a  word  which  represented  "  dead  men  "  as  a  sort  of  deity ;  and 
their  deceased  chiefs  were  prayed  to  by  name.  The  living  chief  Ancestor 
acted  as  high  priest,  praying  aloud  to  this  effect:  "Compassionate  worsniP- 
father,  here  is  some  food  for  you  ;  eat  it ;  be  kind  to  us  on  account  of  it." 
Feasting  and  dancing  followed  this  ceremony.  The  natives  of  Aneityum, 
New  Hebrides,  supposed,  says  the  Rev.  W.  Turner  ("  Nineteen  Years  in 
Polynesia  "),  that  the  spirit  at  death  leaves  the  body,  goes  to  the  west  end 
of  the  island,  plunges  into  the  sea,  and  swims  away  to  a  place  of  spirits 
called  Umatmas,  where  it  is  believed  there  are  two  divisions,  one  for  the  good 
and  another  for  the  bad.     Their  heaven  consists  in  abundance  of  good  food. 

In  New  Caledonia,  however,  the  spirits  of  the  departed  are  supposed  to 
go  to  the  Bush.     Every  fifth  month  they  have  a  spirit  night,  when  heaps  of 
food  are  prepared.     The  old  men  and  women  hide  in  a  cave,  and   Feasts  for 
represent  the  spirits  of  the  dead  to  the  credulous  juniors,  singing     spirits, 
in  an  unearthly  fashion,  which  is  followed  by  wild  dancing  outside.     These 


28 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Prayers. 


people  are  not  without  definiteuess  in  their  prayers.  They  pray  to  one  god 
for  the  eye,  that  they  may  see  the  spear  as  it.  flies  towards  them; 
to  another  for  the  ear,  that  they  may  hear  the  approach  of  the 
enemy.  Certain  disease-makers  are  believed  to  produce  sickness;  and  this 
was  especially  found  to  be  the  case  in  the  island  of  Tanna,  where  they  burn 
the  refuse  of  food,  the  idea  being  that  when  it  is  all  burned  the  person  dies. 
"  Whenever  a  person  felt  ill,  a  shell  was  blown  for  hours,  as  a  call  or  prayer 
to  the  disease-maker,  to  stop  burning  the  rubbish,  and  a  promise  of 
presents." 


SACKED    IMAGE,    NEW    GEORGIA,    SOLOMON    ISLANDS. 

There  is  also  a  rain-making  class  of  priests  in  New  Caledonia.  Their 
method  is  to  pour  water  on  the  skeleton  of  a  body  exhumed.  Almost  every 
Rain-making  family  has  its  priest,  and  the  chief  is  high-priest.  In  Tanna  no 
priests.  idols  were  found.  The  people  used  the  banian-tree  as  a  sacred 
grove,  and  they  venerated  some  sacred  stones.  In  Mallicolo,  New  Hebrides, 
however,  there  were  in  every  village,  in  the  sacred  house,  three  or  four 
images,  life  size,  dressed  as  men,  and  painted  like  mummies,  which  appeared 
to  be  held  sacred.  All  the  deities  are  supposed  to  be  malignant  beings. 
Sorcery  and  witchcraft  are  universally  believed  in.     They  have  a  tradition 


RELIGIONS  IA    AUSTRALASIA   AND  POLYNESIA.  29 

that  their  islands  were  fished  up  by  the  gods,  who  afterwards  made  men 

and  women. 

Captain  Cook  found  the  grave  of  a  New  Caledonian  chief  decorated 

with  spears,  darts,  paddles,  etc.,  stuck  upright  in  the  ground.     According 

to  Turner,  the  body  of  the  deceased  is  decorated  with  a  belt  and     _. 

'  •»  Strange 

shell  armlets.     They  raise  and  cut  off  the  finger  and  toe  nails      burial 
whole  to  preserve  as  relics.     They  spread  the  grave  with  a  mat, 
and  bury  all  the  body  but  the  head.    After  ten  days  the  friends  twist  off  the 
head,  extract  the  teeth  as  further  relics,  and  preserve  the  skull  also. 

In  the  Solomon  Islands  predominant  reverence  is  shown  to  the  spirits 
of  dead  men — practically  not  extending  beyond  grandfathers.  Common 
men  are  believed  to  have  gone  to  a  neighbouring  island  where  they 
wander  about  aimlessly  ;  the  more  distinguished  are  believed  to  remain 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  their  friends,  and  to  give  them  help  when  prayed 
and  sacrificed  to.  Certain  prayers,  handed  down  from  father  to  son,  are 
muttered.  "Witchcraft  and  charms  are  much  believed  in,  and  sharks  are 
much  reverenced.  The  canoe- houses  often  appear  to  be  in  the  way  to 
become  sacred  buildings,  and  they  are  ornamented  by  carved  wooden 
figures,  representing  ghosts  of  various  deceased  people.  Food  is  sometimes 
set  before  these,  and  their  removal  would  be  held  to  bring  punishment 
from  the  dead  man ;  but  many  of  the  carved  figures  of  the  Solomon  Islands 
have  no  religious  significance.  See  Rev.  R.  H.  Codrington's  valuable  paper, 
"  Religious  Beliefs  and  Practices  in  Melanesia,"  Journal  of  Anthropological 
Institute,  vol.  x. 

THE   MAORIS. 

The  Maoris  of  New  Zealand  were  not  much  beyond  the  New  Cale- 
donians.     When   Captain    Cook   visited   them,    he   saw  no  appearance  of 
religious  ceremonies,  except  that  once  he  observed  a  basket  con-     Deified 
taming  fern  roots  hung  up  in  a  small  enclosure,  and  said  to  be   ancestors, 
an  offering  to  the  gods,  to  render  them  propitious,  and  obtain  a  good  crop. 
Their  chiefs  appeared  to  become  deified,  and  even  the  living  chiefs  were  be- 
lieved to  be  deified,  or  to  express  the  opinions  of  gods.    Te  Heu  Hen,  a  New 
Zealand  priest  and  chief,  once  said  to  a  European  missionary  :  "  Think  not 
that  I  am  a  man,  that  my  origin  is  of  the  earth.     I  come  from  the  heavens; 
my  ancestors  are  all  there :  they  are  gods,  and  I  shall  return  to  them." 
Maui  was  said  to  be  their  great  ancestor,  who  drew  the  island  out   Le&end  0f 
of  the  sea  with  a  fish-hook.     Spirits  of  the  deified  ancestors  were      Maul 
believed  sometimes  to  visit  the  earth  in  the  form   of  lizards,  spiders,  and 
birds. 

The  Maoris  applied  the  term  afua  to  every  kind  ot  supernatural  beings, 
but  also  included  in  it  all  active  agencies  .of  nature.     They  ex- 
tended  the  same  term  to  Europeans  and  their  watches.      The 
ghost  of  a  departed  chief  was  an  atua,  and  might  be  benevolent  or  male- 
volent in  the  shadow  world. 

A  certain  mythology  has  been  discovered  among  the  New  Zealanders, 


3° 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


strangely  reminding  one  in  some  of  its  features  of  the  old  Greek  mythology. 
Rangi  and  Papa— the  Heaven  and  the  Earth— begot  six  children 
Mythology.  ^  ^^  ^  fathers  respectively  :  (1)  of  men  and  war;  (2)  of  food 
arising  without  cultivation ;  (3)  of  fish  and  reptiles  ;  (4)  of  winds  and 
storms;  (5)  of  cultivated  food;  (6)  of  forests  and  birds.  A  conspiracy 
between  these  gods  resulted  in  the  separation  of  heaven  from  earth. 

The  New  Zealanders  believed  there  were  two  distinct  abodes  for  the 
spirits  of  the  dead :  Rangi,  in  the  sky,  and  Reinga,  in  the  sea,  the  entrance 

„,,.     ,.  *      beine  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island.     They  ascribed 
The  abodes  <=>  . ^  ,  , 

of  spirits    internal  diseases  to  sorcery  or  witchcraft,  and  they  could  only  be 
ofthedea  .  cm>e(j  ^  incantations.     Evil  deeds  were  punished  in  this  world, 
and  the  punishments  were  sent  from  deified  ancestors. 


CORPSE,    AND    CORPSE-PRAYING    PRIEST,    NEW    ZEALAND. 

There  was  not  much  distinction  between  priests  and  chiefs  ;  sometimes 

the  chief's  brother  was  priest.     The  priests'  duties  were  to  see  the  laws  of 

The  priests'  the  tapu l    enforced,  to  heal    the   sick,   attend    at   funerals   and 

duties,      births,  to  tattoo  people,  to  instruct  children  in  songs  and  traditions, 

to  advise  in  time  of  war,  and  to  interpret  omens.     They  were  also  supposed 

to  converse  with  the  dead.2 

In  Cook's  time  the  New  Zealanders  did  not  bury  their  dead.    At  Queen 

i  Tapu,  from  which  we  derive  our  "  taboo,"  meant  sacred,  or  separate  from  common 
use. 

2  For  an  interesting  account  of  the  Maori  Race,  see  Mr.  Kerry-Nicholls's  paper  in 
Joum.  Ant h ro]>.  Inst.,  vol.  xv. 


RELIGIONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA   AND  POLYNESIA.  31 

Charlotte's  Sound  they  threw  them  into  the  sea.     The  dead  chiefs  were 
wrapped  in  mats,  put  into  canoe-shaped  boxes,  along  with  their    Modeg 
club,  and  placed  on  elevated   stages  or  suspended   from  trees,  or  burial  and 
interred   in    the   houses    where   they   died.      Mourning   by  the  mo        g' 
relatives  went  on,  with  cutting  of  the  body,  for  weeks.     About  a  year  after- 
wards the  bones  were  cleaned  and  secretly  deposited  by  priests  in  sepulchres 
on  hill  tops,  in  forests,  or  in  caves.     Food  and  water  were  placed  at  the 
graves  of  the  dead,  the  spirit  being  believed  to  come  at  night  and  feed 
from  the  sacred  calabashes. 

THE   FRIENDLY  ISLANDERS. 

Religious  belief  in  the  Tonga  or  Friendly  Islands  assumed  a  yet  more 
developed  aspect.  The  people  believed  in  superior  beings  or  gods,  who 
dispensed  good  and  evil  to  mankind  according  to  their  merits,  Sut)erior  and 
and  inferior  gods  who  are  the  souls  of  deceased  chiefs,  with  inferior 
inferior  powers.  All  evils  were  ascribed  to  the  anger  of  the  good 
gods,  or  the  mischievous  disposition  of  the  bad  gods.  Mankind,  they  said, 
originally  came  from  Bolotoo,  the  abode  of  the  gods.  They  believed  in  a 
human  soul  (except  for  the  lower  classes),  existing  in  Bolotoo  in  the  form 
and  likeness  of  the  body,  the  moment  after  death. 

The  Tongans  had  a  spiritual  chief,  alleged  to  be  descended  from  gods. 
The  priest,  when  consulted,  became  emotional  and  "  inspired,"  and  declared 
the  will  of  the  god.     Most  of  the  gods  had  a  separate  temple  and    Spiritual 
a  separate  priest ;  but  there  appeared  to  be  no  public  or  private       cnief 
religious   rites   without   kava   drinking  as  a   part  of  it.     They    from  the 
believed  in  omens  and  charms,  and  sacrificed  to  the  departed      g 
spirits  of  chiefs,  and  consulted  the  gods  before  commencing  any  important 
undertaking. 

Among  these  people  we  meet  with  private  and  reserved  burial  grounds 
for  the  chief  families.  Like  so  many  other  races,  they  showed  their 
mourning  by  cutting  themselves  with  clubs,  stones,  knives,  or  sharp  shells, 
shaving  the  head,  and  burning  the  cheeks. 

THE   SAMOANS. 

The   Samoans  were  conspicuous  for  the  great  number  of  their  gods. 

Every  one  from  birth  had  a  protecting  god  ;  every  village  had  its  god,  the 

names  borne  by  them  being,  among  others,  "  The  Swift  One,"    Guardian 

"  The  Sacred  One,"  "  Destruction,"  "  The  God  of  Heaven."     They  and  village 

were  supposed  to  appear   visibly  as  some  animal,  the  rainbow, 

shooting  stars,  etc.      Scarcity  of  food  they  ascribed  to  one  particular  god. 

They  had  traditions  of  a  time  when  the  heavens  alone  were  inhabited,  and 

the  earth  was  covered  with  water.     The  heavens  a  long  time  ago  ^ 

00      Traditions. 

fell  down.     Fire  was  obtained  from  the  earthquake  god.      In  one 
district  they  had  a  stone  rain-god.     When  there  was  too  much   rain,  those 
who  kept  the  stone  put  it  to  the  fire  to  dry,  and  cause  the  rain  to     a  stone 
stop.     If  there   was  great  drought,   they    took  the  stone  to  the    ram-£°d 
water  and  dipped  it,  thinking  that  would  bring  rain. 


32 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


TAHITIAN    BIER. 


The  priests  were  either  the  chiefs,  or  the  office  was  hereditary.     The 
priests  decided  on  peace  or   war,  fixed   the  feast  days   of  the   gods,  and 

received  the  of- 
ferings.     Taboo 

Functions  of     W  a  S 
priests.      large. 

ly  practised.  To 
protect  pro- 
perty, a  rude  re- 
presentation of 
an  animal  or  of 
some  plague,  by 
which  it  was 
hoped  the  de- 
predator might 
be  killed,  was 
hung  up.  Thus 
there  were  the 
white  shark,  the 
sea  pike,  the 
ulcer,  and  the 
cross- stick  ta- 
latter  representing  a  disease  running  right  across  the  body. 
Samoans  believed  that  the  souls  of  their  chiefs  were  immortal,  and 

that  they  were  conveyed  by  spirits  to  an 
The  spirit  abode  of  ghosts  beyond  their 
land.  islands,  and  very  much  like 
them.  There  was  an  imagined  chief 
ruler  of  this  land.  At  night  these  ghosts 
are  able  to  revisit  their  old  homes,  and 
give  counsel  and  predict  the  future  to 
members  of  their  family  ;  to  others  they 
would  carry  disease  and  death. 

TEE  EEEVEY  ISLAAWERS. 

By  far  the  most   complete   and  ac- 
curate account  we  have   of  the  religion 
Rev.w.w.    and   mythology  of  any  Poly- 
am  in       nesian  people,  is  that  given  by 
Mangaia.       ^    Rey     w     Wyfttt   q^    ^ 

"  Myths  and  Songs  from  the  South  Pa- 
cific." Having  lived  for  many  years  in 
Mangaia,  one  of  the  Hervey  Islands,  and 
gained  the  confidence  of  the  last  of  their 
priests  and  of  many  others,  he  has  been 
enabled  to  present  us  with  an  almost  complete  account,  which  is  of  extreme 


boo,  the 
The 


FUNERAL-DBE88    OF    THE    NEAHEST    RELATIVE 
OF   THE    DECEASED   PERSON,    TAHITI. 


RELIGIONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA   AND  POLYNESIA. 


33 


interest,  and   will  enable  us  materially  to  shorten  the  accounts  given  of 
other  Polynesians. 

The  Mangaians  conceived  of  the  universe  as  like  the  hollow  of  a  vast 
cocoanut   shell.      The   interior   has   a   single   aperture    above,   where   the 
Mangaians  dwell.     At  the  bottom  of  the  supposed  cocoanut  shell  Ideag  f  the 
was  a  thick  stem,  tapering  to  a   point,  which   was   a   spirit   or    universe 
demon,  without  human  form,  named  "  The  Root  of  all  Existence." 
Above  this  extreme  point  was  a  stouter  spirit,  called  "  Breathing  or  Life  "  ; 


HUMAN    SACRIFICE    IN    FORMER    TIMES,    TAHITI. 


above  again,  a  thicker  spirit,  "  The  Long  Lived."     These  three  were  fixed 
sentient  spirits,  who  together  supported  all  the  universe.     In  the  interior  of. 
the  supposed  cocoanut  lived  a  female  demon,  "The  very  Beginning,"  anxious 
for  progeny.     One  day  she  plucked  off  a  bit  of  her  right  side,  The  father 
and  it  became  the  first  man,  Vdtea,  the  father  of  gods  and  men.     of  gods 

incl   high 

Subsequent  births  from  both  her  right  and  left  sides  by  "  The 
very  Beginning,"  gave  rise  to  lords  of  the  sea,  of  the  winds,  etc.,  and  one, 
named  Tu-metua,  "  Stick-by-the-parent,"  living  with  the  mother  in  "  the 
mute  land."  Tu-metua,  shortened  to  Tu,  is  a  principal  god  in  many 
Polynesian  islands.  A  whole  series  of  mythological  events  was  assigned  to 
these  gods,  almost  as  complex  as  the  Greek  mythology,  and  as  in- 
teresting. 

According  to  Mr.  Gill,  the  Polynesians  had  no  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being 

D 


34  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

creating  a  universe  out  of  nothing.     Co-ordinate  with  the  spirits  or  demons 

above   mentioned   were   deified   men  ;    and  birds,  fish,  reptiles, 

No  idea  of  a  ._,.._.  7         ,  '        f  7 

supreme    insects,  and  specially  inspired  priests  were  reverenced  as  mcar- 

Creator.     nati0ns,   mouthpieces,  or   messengers  of    the   gods.      There  are 

numerous  traditions  about   the    exploits   of  these    deified    men,  evidently 

former  chiefs.     Rongo,  the  offspring  of  Vatea,  was  the  chief  god 
Deified  men  .  . 

and  their   of  Mangaia,  reigning  in  the  night  or  "  shades."      Motoro  was 

exploits.  an  ancestor  g0ci  termed  "  the  living  god,"  co-ordinately  wor- 
shipped. Makitaka,  the  last  priest  of  Motoro,  embraced  Christianity.  The 
image  of  Motoro  is  in  the  museum  of  the  London  Missionary  Society. 

"The  word 'io,'  commonly  used  for  'god,'"  says  Mr.  Gill,  "  properly 

means  pith  or  core  of  a  tree.     What  the  core  is  to  the  tree,  the  god  was 

The  gods  the  believed  to  be  to  the  man.     In  other  words,  the  gods  were  the 

life  of  men.  ]jfe  0f  mankind.     Even  when  a  worshipper  of  Motoro  was  slain 

in  fair  fight,  it  was  supposed  that  the  enraged   divinity  would,  by  some 

special  misfortune  or  disease,  put  an  end  to  the  offender."     On  entering  the 

The  king's  god-house  of  the  king,  a  rude  reed  hut,  the  first  idol  was  Bongo, 

idols.      ^n  the  form  0f  a  trumpet  shell ;  next  came  the  honoured  Metoro  ; 

then  came  eleven  others,  thirteen  being  the  number  admitted  as  national 

gods.     The  term  applied  to  them,  "  dwellers  by  day,"  signified  that  they 

were  continually  busy  in  the  affairs  of  mortals.     These  alone  had  carved 

images.     Those  who  "  dwelt  in  night  "  were,  however,  supposed  frequently 

to  ascend  by  day  to  take  part  in  affairs. 

A  strange  explanation  is  given  of  the  origin  of  a  priesthood.     The  gods 
were  said  to  have  first  spoken  to  man  through  small  land  birds  ;  but  their 
origin  of  a  utterances  were  too  indistinct  for  guiding  men,  and  consequently 
priesthood.  priests  were   set  apart,   in  whom  the  gods  took  up  temporary 
abodes.     Hence  they  were  called  god-boxes,  or  briefly  gods.     When  con- 
sulted, an  offering  of  the  best  food,  and  a  bowl  of  an  intoxicating  liquor  had 
to  be  brought.     The  priest,  in  a  frenzy,  gave  his  response  in  language  in- 
telligible only  to  the  initiated.     No  one  being  supposed  to  die  a  natural 
Death  due  to  death  except  from  old  age,  the  people  inquired  of  the  priests 
sins.       what  sins  had  occasioned  any  one's  illness.     If  the  priest  bore 
any  one  a  grudge,  he  had  only  to  announce  that  the  divinity  willed  it,  and 
he  was  put  to  death. 

The  exploits  of  Maui,  the  fire-god,  are  some  of  the  most  famous.     He 
first  captured  fire  from  the  nether  world,  raised  the  sky,  and  made  the  sun 
captive.     Many  other  arts  of  mankind  are  traced  by  the  natives 
Maui,  the    to  achievements  of  the  gods.     The  intoxicating  draught  even  is 
fire-god.     ^erjvej  from  that  which  the  mistress  of  the  invisible  world  gives 
to  her  victims.     Thieving  is  taught  by  Iro,  coming  up  on  moonlight  nights 
from  spirit  land.     Everything  in  earth,  air,  or  sea  is  traced  to  a  super- 
natural source. 

The  dead  were  thrown  down  the  deepest  chasms,  in  which 

thrown     Mangaia  abounds,  and  these  were  supposed  to  be  openings  into 

into  chasms.  ^  yast  nonOWj  the  repository  of  the  dead.      The  Mangaians  be- 


7? EL IG IONS  IN  A  US TRA LAS/A    A ND   POL  YNESIA .  3 5 

lieved  the  spirits  occupied  themselves  like  mankind — marrying,  multi- 
plying, sinning,  quarrelling.  Birds,  fish,  rats,  beetles,  cocoanuts,  yams, 
all  abound  in  this  Hades.  The  high  road  thither  is  closed.  The  spirits  had 
so  molested  men,  brought  disease  and  death  upon  them,  stolen  Ideas  of 
their  food,  etc.,  that  to  put  an  end  to  these  annoyances  a  royal  sPirit  world- 
person  rolled  herself  alive  down  the  great  opening,  which  then  closed  up. 
Since  then  the  spirits  of  mortals  descend  by  a  different  route,  and  the  in- 
habitants of  Hades  no  longer  molest  mankind. 

It  is  said  that  the  first  who  ever  died  a  natural  death  in  Mangaia  was 
Vectini,  the  only  and  beloved  son  of  Tueva  and  Manga,  who  died  in  early 
manhood.  The  parents  established  those  mourning  customs  Mourning 
which  were  ever  afterwards  observed.  All  the  relatives  blackened  cu8toms- 
their  faces,  cut  off  their  hair,  gashed  their  bodies  with  sharks'  teeth,  and 
wore  native  cloth  dyed  red  and  dipped  in  black  mud,  forming  a  most 
odoriferous  garment.  Their  heads  were  surrounded  with  fern  singed  with 
fire.     These  ceremonies  occupied  from  ten  to  fifteen  -days. 

Sometimes,  in  honour  of  distinguished  persons  deceased,  grand  tribal 
gatherings  took  place,  to  recite  songs  in  their  honour.  This  was  called,  a 
talk  about  the  devouring,  or  a  death-talk ;  for  when  a  person  The  death- 
died,  it  was  customary  to  say  he  was  eaten  up  by  the  gods.  As  talk- 
many  as  thirty  " weeping-songs "  were  often  prepared:  each  adult  male 
relative  must  recite  a  song.  Numerous  most  interesting  specimens  of  these 
are  given  by  Mr.  Gill.     We  can  give  only  a  few  lines  from  one  of  them. 

"  Speed,  then,  on  thy  voyage  to  spiritland, 
Where  a  profusion  of  garlands  awaits  thee. 
There  the  bread-fruit  tree,  pet  son,  is  ever  laden  with  f ruit ; 
Yes,  there  the  bread-fruit  tree  is  ever  in  season,  my  child." 

Human  sacrifices  were  formerly  offered  by  the  Mangaians,  and  various 
families  were  at  different  periods  condemned  to  furnish  the  victims  ;  and 
horrible  tales  of  atrocities  in  connection  with  them  are  preserved. 

THE  SOCIETY  ISLANDERS. 

The  natives  of  the  Society  Islands  worshipped  many  gods,  some  being 
gods  of  war  and  peace,  others  employed  as  heralds  between  gods  and  men, 
others  in  healing.  Some  were  gods  of  localities  or  of  professions,  varied 
The  gods  even  presided  over  games,  wrestling,  dancing,  and  deities, 
archery,  offerings  being  made  to  them  both  before  and  after  the  games. 
Earthquakes  were  believed  to  be  under  the  control  of  a  special  divinity. 
Fishes  and  birds  were  also  among  their  divinities.  The  turtle  was  always 
held  sacred,  and  dressed  with  sacred  fire  within  the  precincts  of  the  temple, 
part  of  it  being  always  offered  to  the  idol.  Spirits  of  deceased  chiefs  and 
relatives  were  also  worshipped,  though  with  certain  distinctions.  Each 
notable  spirit  was  honoured  with  an  image,  through  which  his  influence 
was  believed  to  be  exerted.  These  images  were  kept  in  the  Maraes,  in 
houses  raised  from  the  ground  on  poles.     The  gods  were  believed  to  watch 


36  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  people  jealously,  to  be  ready  to  avenge  any  disobedience  to  their  injunc- 
tions conveyed  through  the  priests.  They  attributed  every  calamity  to 
the  anger  of  the  gods.  Every  disease  was  supposed  to  be  inflicted  for  some 
crime  against  the  taboo,  or  some  offering  made  by  an  enemy  to  procure 
their  destruction. 

The  Tahitians  had  a  vague  idea  of  a  future  state.  They  imagined  the 
spirit  was  seized  by  other  spirits,  conducted  to  the  state  of  night,  and 
The  future  usually  eaten  gradually  by  the  gods.  Some,  however,  were  not 
state.  eaten,  but  lived  with  the  gods  as  deified  spirits.  They  imagined 
a  most  beautiful  heaven  near  a  certain  mountain  ;  but  they  did  not  seem  to 
assign  this  heaven  to  the  good  only,  or  to  imagine  that  actions  in  this 
world  influence  the  future  state  at  all.  A  resemblance  to  other  peoples  far 
away  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  if,  after  repeated  offerings  for  a  chiefs 
recovery,  the  god  still  refused  to  exert  his  influence,  the  Tahitians  execrated 
the  idol  and  banished  him  from  the  temple,  and  chose  some  other  who  they 
hoped  would  be  more  favourable. 

The  hereditary  priesthood  had  great  power  in  Tahiti,  and  the  king  was 
sometimes  chief  priest  and  personified  the  god.  The  worship  of  their  chief 
The  priest-  g°d  Oro  was  attended  by  frequent  human  sacrifices.  Before 
hood.  going  to  war  these  were  especially  offered.  Religious  rites  were 
practised  in  connection  with  all  the  principal  acts  of  life ;  and  the  priests 
received  considerable  offerings  for  their  services.  The  Tahitians'  maraes 
were  used  for  burial  as  well  as  worship.  In  many  respects  their  funeral 
customs  resembled  those  described  by  Mr.  Gill. 

THE  SANDWICH  ISLANDEBS. 

The  Sandwich  Islanders  did  not  differ  very  markedly  from  their  more 
southern  relatives  in  their  religious  ideas  ;  but  they  attached  great  import- 
Voicanic  ance  to  certain  volcanic  deities,  whose  worship  was  doubtless  in- 
deities.  spired  by  the  volcanic  phenomena  by  which  they  have  often 
suffered.  These  deities  were  asserted  never  to  journey  on  errands  of  mercy; 
their  only  excursions  being  to  receive  offerings  or  to  execute  vengeance. 
Their  idea  of  heaven  was  of  a  low  order.  A  native  remarked  to  Mr.  Ellis, 
11  If  there  is  no  eating  and  drinking,  or  wearing  of  clothes  in  heaven, 
wherein  does  its  goodness  consist  ?"  They  supposed  that  after  the  death  of 
any  member  of  a  family,  the  spirit  of  the  departed  hovered  about  the  places 
of  its  former  resort,  appeared  to  the  survivors  sometimes  in  dreams,  and 
watched  over  their  destinies.  Captain  Cook  was  worshipped  by  the  Sand- 
wich Islanders  as  a  god,  and  his  bones  preserved  as  sacred. 

The  taboo  was  as  powerful  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  as  anywhere.  Idols, 
temples,  the  person  and  name  of  the  king,  the  persons  of  the  priests,  the 
Power  of  the  houses  and  other  property  of  the  king  and  priests,  and  the  heads 
taboo.  0f  men  that  were  devotees  of  any  particular  idol,  were  tapu  or 
sacred.  The  flesh  of  hogs,  fowls,  turtle,  cocoanuts,  and  almost  everything 
offered  in  sacrifice  was  sacred,  and  forbidden  to    be   eaten    by  women. 


RELIGIONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA   AND  POLYNESIA.  37 

Certain  seasons  were  kept  tapu,  from  five  to  forty  clays  in  duration.  These 
were  either  before  some  religious  ceremony  or  war  or  during  sickness. 
During  the  season  of  strict  tapu,  says  Mr.  Ellis  ("  Tour  through  Hawaii "), 
every  fire  or  light  must  be  extinguished.  No  canoe  must  be  launched  on 
the  water,  no  person  must  bathe  ;  and  except  those  whose  attendance  was 
required  at  the  temple,  no  individual  must  be  seen  out  of  doors.  No  dog 
must  bark,  no  pig  must  grunt,  no  cock  must  crow.  So  the  dogs'  and  pigs' 
mouths  were  tied  up,  and  the  fowls'  eyes  covered.  The  kings  and  priests 
must  touch  nothing,  their  food  being  put  into  their  mouths  by  other 
persons.     The  priests  and  the  chiefs  united  to  keep  up  this  system  of  taboo 


MARAE   AND    Al/TAB    AT    HUAHINE,    SOCIETY    ISLANDS. 


by  the  rigid  infliction  of  the  death-penalty  for  its  violation.  The  priests 
also  acted  the  part  of  sorcerers  and  doctors,  receiving  of  course  heavy  fees, 
a  cloth,  mat,  pig,  dog,  etc.,  usually  paid  beforehand. 

THE  FIJIANS, 

Coming  back  to  the  islands  within  a  large  circle  round  Australia,  we 

have  very  extensive  information  about  the  religious  ideas  and  practices  of 

the  Fiiians  before  their  conversion  to   Christianity.     They   be-     ^ 

.  j  j  The  two 

lieved  in  a  future  existence  not  only  for  all  men,   but  also  for    spirits  of 
animals,  plants,  houses,  canoes,  tools.     "  Some  speak  of  man  as       man' 
having  two  spirits,"   says  the  Rev.  T.  Williams  ("  Fiji  and  the  Fijians  "). 
"  His  shadow  is  called  '  the  dark  spirit,'  which  they  say  goes  to  Hades.    The 


Jmiu.  BsaiiiiWL^ 


38  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

other  is  his  likeness  reflected  in  water  or  a  looking- 
glass,  and  is  supposed  to  stay  near  the  place  in  which 
a  man  dies.  I  once  placed  a  good-looking  native 
suddenly  before  a  mirror.  He  stood  delighted.  '  Now,' 
he  said  softly,  '  I  can  see  into  the  world  of  spirits.' ': 

In  the  Fijian's  heaven  he  expected  to  lead  a  life  of 
activity,  with  sailing,  fishing,  sporting,  etc.  He  did  not 
The  Fijian  look  for  a  separation  between  the  good  and 
heaven,  the  bad,  although  men  who  had  slain  no 
enemy  would  be  compelled  to  beat  dirt  with  their 
club,  a  most  degrading  punishment ;  and  women  not 
tattooed  would  be  pursued  by  other  women  and  finally 
scraped  with  shells  and  made  into  bread  for  the  gods.  The  journey  to  the 
other  world  was  imagined  as  being  a  journey  to  another  distant  island, 
attended  with  great  danger.  The  Fijian  peopled  every  lonely  spot  with 
invisible  spirits,  who  however  assumed  the  human  form  at  will  and 
appeared  frequently. 

Each    island,  even  each   locality,  had   its   own  rival   gods,  who  were 
of  like  passions  with  the  natives,  loving  and  hating,  proud  and  revenge- 
Passions  of  ful?  making  war,  killing  and  eating  each  other.     They  were  said 
the  gods.   i0  tumble  out  of  canoes,  pay  tribute  to  each  other,  trip  each  other 
up,  go  gaily  dressed,  etc.     The  priests  asserted  strongly  that   the  people's 
success  in  war  depended  on  their  desire  to  gratify  the  appetite  of  the  god, 
who  was  a  great  lover  of  human  flesh.    In  fact  in  no  religion  was  cannibalism 
Human     more  strictly  enjoined.     Chiefs   sometimes   killed  some  of   their 
sacrifices.   wiyes  in  order  to  supply  the  sacrifices  for  the  gods.     Capt.  Erskine 
("Journal  of  a  Cruise  among  the  Islands  of  the  Western  Pacific")  describes 
canoes  launched  over  the  living  bodies  of  slaves  as  rollers,  .houses  built  on 
similar  foundations,  the  immediate  massacre  of  all  shipwrecked  persons,  as 
having  been  strictly  enjoined  and  enforced  by  the  priests.     Any  man  who 
could  sufficiently  distinguish  himself  by  murdering  his  fellow-men  could 
certainly  secure  deification  after  death. 

Among  the  Fijian  gods  may  be  mentioned  Ove,  the  maker  of  all  men  ; 
Rdtumaimbulu,  who  caused  fruitfulness,  during  whose  month  it  was  tapu  to 
sail,  to  go  to  war.  to  plant,  or  build  houses;  U-dengeL  represented 
as  a  serpent  merging  into  a  stone,  and  having  no  passion  but 
hunger.  Some  of  the  gods  were  mere  monsters,  one  having  eight  arms, 
one  eight  eyes,  and  one  eighty  stomachs.  In  fact,  every  object  that  is 
specially -fearful,  vicious,  or  injurious  was  likely  to  be  placed  among  the 
lower  class  of  Fijian  gods. 

If  a  Fijian  chief  died,  one  or  more  of  his  wives,  his  principal  friend,  and 

often  many  more,  were  strangled,  to  accompany  him  to  the  world  of  spirits. 

The  chiefs'  That  he  should  appear  there  unattended  was  a  most  repugnant 

unera  s.    j(]ea      <pjie  ■wives  were  killed  even  at  their  own  request,  knowing 

they  would  be  insulted,  and  perhaps  starved,  if  they  lived.     A  club  was 

placed  in  the  dead  man's  hand,  to  enable  him  to  defend  himself  against 


RELIGIONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA    AND   POLYNESIA.  39 


his   enemies;  and    whale's  teeth  were    added,   in   order  to   propitiate  the 
spirits. 

Certain  tribes  in  Fiji,  according  to  the  Rev.  L.  Fison  (Journ.  Anthrop. 
Inst. ,  vol.  xiv.),  had  a  set  of  mysteries  known  as  the  Nanga,  into  which 
young  men  were  initiated  at  full  age,  and  which  were  performed 
in  a  sacred  enclosure,  where  the  ancestral  spirits  were  to  be  found 
by  their  worshippers,  offerings  being  taken  thither  on  all  occasions  when 
their  aid  was  invoked. 

THE  PAPUANS. 

The  Papuans  of  Dory,  New  Guinea,  according  to  Mr.  Earl,  worship  an 
idol  called  Karwar,  with  which  every  house  is  provided,  a  figure  rudely 
carved  in  wood,  about  eighteen  inches  high,  hideously  dispro- 
portioned,  and  holding  a  shield.  They  regularly  consult  this  idol, 
squatting  before  it,  clasping  their  hands  over  the  forehead,  and  bowing  re- 
peatedly, at  the  same  time  stating  their  intentions.  It  is  considered 
necessary  that  the  Karwar  should  be  present  on  all  important  occasions, 
such  as  births,  marriages,  or  deaths.  They  have  also  a  number  of  carved 
figures  which  may  be  denominated  fetishes.  They  are  usually  figures  of 
reptiles,  which  are  suspended  from  the  roofs  of  the  houses ;  the  posts  are 
also  ornamented  with  similar  figures,  cut  into  the  wood.  All  the  natives 
possess  amulets,  which  may  be  carved  pieces  of  wood,  bits  of  bone,  quartz,  or 
some  tri,fle. 

When  a  death  occurs  among  these  people,  the  body  is  buried  in  a  grave, 
resting  on  its  side,  and  with  a  porcelain  dish  under  the  ear.     If     Burial 
the  head  of  a  family  is  dead,  the  Karwar  is  brought  to  the  grave  of  Papuans, 
and  loaded  with  reproaches,  and  when  the  grave  is  filled  up,  the  idol  is  left 
to  decay  on  the  roof  built  to  shelter  the  grave. 

THE  DYAKS    OF  BORNEO. 

The  Sea-Dyaks  of  Borneo  have  a  chief  deity  called  Batava,  "  a  pure 
Sanskrit  term  for  God,  and  probably  a  relic  of  their  former  intercourse  with 
the  Javan  Hindus  "  (Low's  "  Sarawak  ").  They  have  a  number  Tne  Sea 
of  good  and  bad  spirits,  to  both  classes  of  which  they  make  offer-  Dy*1"'  beliefs, 
ings,  the  larger  share  going  to  the  wicked  spirits.  All  sicknesses,  misfortunes, 
and  deaths  are  credited  to  them.  At  certain  seasons  these  people  go  to  the 
woods  to  commune  in  private  with  the  spirits.  Work  is  stopped  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  moon ;  and  what  with  bad  omens,  sounds,  signs,  dreams,  and 
deaths,  they  lose  a  great  deal  of  time  from  their  work. 

The  Land-Dyaks  have  a  principal  deity  called  "  Tuppa,"  or  "  Jerroang," 
who  is  beneficent,  and  always  invoked  at  their  agricultural  and  peaceful 
feasts ;  but  in  association  with  the  sun  and  moon,  and  also  with  Rajah 
Brooke,  who  is  worshipped  by  all  classes  of  Dyaks  who  have  come  under  the 
spell  of  his  influence.  The  war-gods  are  malevolent,  and  imagined  to  be  of 
fierce  and  wild  appearance,  covered  with  coarse  red  hair  like  an  orang. 


4o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Superstitions  are  abundant  among  the  Sea-Dyaks;  and,  as  a  natural  con- 
sequence, medicine-men  or  priests  flourish.     The  medicine-man  is  often  old, 

„     ~    ,  ,  sometimes  blind  and  maimed  :  fees  not  unfrequently  make  him 
Sea  Dyaks  \  '  n.  j 

mjdicine  rich.  At  the  launching  of  a  new  boat,  preparatory  to  head-hunt- 
men'  ing,  the  spirits  presiding  over  it  are  appeased  and  fed.  The 
building  of  a  house  is  sometimes  attended  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  slave-girl  to 
the  spirits.  The  sick  are  pretended  to  be  cured  by  the  medicine-man,  who 
assembles  a  great  horde  of  people  to  make  as  much  noise  as  possible  with 
gongs. 

It  is  impossible  to  mention  here  more  than  a  small  part  of  the  superstitions 
current  among  the  Land  Dyaks.  One  belief  of  theirs  was,  that  man  and  the 
superstitions  spir^s  were  at  first  equal,  and  fought  on  fair  terms ;  but  that,  on 
of  one  occasion,  the  spirits  got  the  better  of  man,  and  rubbed  char- 
coal in  his  eyes,  so  that  he  can  no  longer  see  his  spirit-foes,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  priests.  They  believe  that  a  piece  of  cloth  from  Rajah 
Brooke,  or  the  water  in  which  his  feet  have  been  washed,  put  into  the  soil, 
or  his  presence  at  their  village,  will  ensure  good  crops.  Tapu  exists  among 
them,  and  they  always  have  a  superstition  to  explain  events,  especially 
accidents.     Traces  of  the  Hindu  religion  are  to  be  found  among  them. 

Both  burial  and  cremation  are  practised  by  the  Dyaks.  In  some  cases 
bodies  are  placed  in  coffins  raised  on  posts,  or  on  a  raised  platform. 
Burial  of  Weapons,  ornaments,  food,  and  property  are  frequently  buried 
Dyaks.  "witli  them.  Sometimes  boats  decorated  with  flags  are  placed 
near  the  graves  for  the  use  of  the  departed  spirits  in  their  migrations.  On 
the  death  of  a  chief,  or  even  of  a  prominent  man,  several  tribes  of  Dyaks 
offer  human  sacrifices  ;  the  victims,  mostly  slaves,  are  destined  to  attend 
the  chief  in  the  other  world.  "  Among  some  Dyak  tribes  it  was  a  custom, 
for  a  chief  at  least,  when  one  of  his  children  died,  to  sally  out,  and  kill  the 
first  person  he  met,  even  if  it  were  a  brother."1 

THE  SUMATRANS. 

The  Sumatrans  have  scarcely  as  much  religion  as  the  Dyaks.  Mr. 
Marsden  found  the  Rejangs  with  no  kind  of  worship,  but  vaguely  believing 
Sumatran  i*1  superior  beings,  visible  or  invisible  at  pleasure,  causing  them 
deities,  good  or  evil.  The  Sumatrans  generally  venerate  the  tombs  of  their 
ancestors  ;  but  they  have  no  images  of  them.  They  imagine  tigers  to  be 
inhabited  by  the  spirits  of  departed  men.  The  Battas  have  three  deities 
which  rule  the  world,  the  first  bearing  rule  in  heaven,  the  father  of  all 
mankind,  the  second  ruling  in  the  air,  the  third  on  earth.  But  their  in- 
ferior deities  are  as  numerous  as  earthly  objects  or  circumstances.  They 
believe  also  in  four  evil  spirits,  dwelling  in  four  mountains,  and  causing  all 
their  evils.  They  regard  insanity  as  due  to  possession  by  an  evil  spirit, 
which  they  attempt  to  drive  away  by  putting  the  insane  person  into  a  hut, 
which  they  set  fire  to,  leaving  him  to  escape  as  best  he  can. 

J  Spencer  St.  John,  "  Life  in  the  Forests  of  the  Far  East." 


RELIGIONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA   AND  POLYNESIA. 


4i 


The  Battas 
have  a  kind  of 
priest,  occupied  in 
foretelling  lucky 
and  unlucky  days, 
making  sacrifices, 
performing  funeral 
rites,  and  adminis- 

tering  priests  of  the 
oaths.     Battas- 

They  sacrifice  to 
the  gods  horses, 
buffaloes,  goats, 
dogs,  fowls,  "  or 
whatever  animal 
the  wizard  happens 
on  that  day  to  be 
most  inclined  to 
eat."  Oaths  are 
administered  by 
preference  in  the 
ancestral  burying- 
ground,  as  most 
sacred.  They 
swear  by  an  old, 
rusty  Jcris,  a  broken 
gun-barrel,  or  any 
old  thing  that .  is 
valued,  dipping 
them  in  water, 
which  the  person 
swearing  drinks  of. 
Both  the  Javans 
and  Sumatrans 
hold  wakes  and 
have  prolonged 
funerals  for  the 
chiefs. 


SOUTH    SEA   IDOL. 


THE  MALAGASY. 


It  is  astonishing,  considering  their  separation  by  such  a  wide  distance, 
how  closely  the  Malagasy  beliefs  resembled  those  of  the  Fijians  and  the 
Malays  ;  but  this  is  readily  understood  when  we  realise  how  near  God8  of  the 
akin  they  are  by  race.  Drary  described  them  as  worshipping  a  Malagasy, 
supreme  god  whom  they  called  "  The  Lord  Above,"  and  four  other  lords  of 
the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  the  mediators  between  men  and  the  god 
above.     Ellis  says  that  whatever  was  new  or  useful  or  extraordinary  was 


42  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 


called  god  ;  as  silk,  rice,  money,  thunder  and  lightning,  and  earthquakes, 
their  ancestors,  a  deceased  sovereign.  It  is  related  of  King  Eadama  "  that, 
in  a  heavy  thunderstorm,  he  amused  himself  with  firing  cannon.  The 
British  agent  asked  him  his  reason.  '  Oh,'  said  he,  '  we  are  answering  one 
another — Loth  of  us  gods.  God  above  is  speaking  by  his  thunder  and 
lightning,  and  I  am  replying  by  my  powder  and  cannon.'  "    (Ellis.) 

The  Malagasy  had  idols  or  charms  belonging  to  each  house,  family,  and 
even  individual,  some  being  pieces  of  wood  of  a  human  shape,  others  quite 
Malagasy  shapeless.  When  they  caught  sight  of  a  herd  of  cattle,  while 
charms,  hunting,  they  would  implore  the  god  to  whom  the  herd  belonged 
to  grant  them  a  few  of  his  flock.  They  believed  that  snakes  are  the  special 
agents  of  their  gods,  and  they  regarded  the  crocodile  with  superstitious 
veneration.  Altars  to  the  mighty  dead  are  found  erected  on  the  principal 
mountains,  and  were  till  recently  visited  for  prayer  and  sacrifice. 

The  Malagasy  had  a  great  belief  in  divination,  which  was  largely  in  the 

hands  of  the  king  and  the  chief  man  of  each  place.     The  idols  were  under 

Divination    the  sovereign's  special  protection.     Their  temples  were  not  con- 

and  sacrifices,  sidled  places  of  worship.     Sacrifices  were  made  on  the  sacred 

stone  of  every  village,  or  at  a  specially  sacred  grave. 

They  had  a  form  of  divination  called  sikidy,  worked  out  like  a  game  of 
chess,  by  beans,  rice,  straw,  sand,  or  any  other  objects  that  could  be  easily 
counted  or  divided,  names  being  given  to  the  different  positions 
1  y'  the  numbers  or  lines  formed.  There  were  definite  rules,  the 
object  being  to  ascertain  what  must  be  done  in  cases  of  real  or  imaginary, 
present  or  apprehended  evils.  The  directions  usually  concerned  a  kind  of 
offering  to  obtain  favours,  or  a  thing  to  be  thrown  away,  so  as  to  avert  evils. 
Diseases  could  be  averted  by  supplicatory  offerings  directed  by  the  sikidy, 
which  was  also  consulted  to  ascertain  the  destiny  of  a  new-born  child. 

In  almost  the  same  breath,  says  the  Rev.  "W.  Ellis,  a  Malagasy  will  ex- 
press his  belief  that  when  he  dies  he  ceases  altogether  to  exist,  and  yet 
ideas  of  a  confess  the  fact  that  he  is  in  the  habit  of  praying  to  his  ancestors, 
future  life.  which  are  supposed  to  hover  about  .their  tomb.  They  believed 
that  if  the  funeral  rites  were  duly  performed,  the  ghost  of  the  deceased 
would  not  associate  with  wild  cats  and  owls,  and  with  evil  spirits,  but  enter 
on  a  state  of  rest  or  enjoyment.  In  Radama's  tomb  were  placed  a  table, 
two  chairs,  a  bottle  of  wine  and  one  of  water,  and  two  tumblers.  They 
religiously  regarded  dreams,  thinking  that  the  good  spirit  came  and  told 
them  in  their  dreams  when  to  do  a  thing,  or  to  warn  them  of  some  danger. 

Before  entering  a  burial-place  to  inter  a  deceased  person,  the  Malagasy 
used  formally  to  call  on  each  dead  member  of  the  family  who  had  been 
buried  there,  to  say  that  a  relative  was  to  be  buried  there,  and  to 
'  express  the  hope  that  the  new-comer  might  have  a  good  reception. 
Large  quantities  of  property  were  deposited  in  the  graves,  especially  such 
as  the  deceased  had  been  attached  to.  Dishevelled  hair,  ashes,  coarse  gar- 
ments were  the  outward  marks  of  extreme  grief.  The  hair  was  torn,  the 
breasts  struck,  and  the  deceased  was  called  upon  in  an  impassioned  manner. 


A    BONGO    CHIEF  S    GRAVE. 


CHAPTER   III. 

aboriginal  Religions  of  Africa. 

The  Bushmen— Superstitions— The  Hottentots— The  Namaqua  Heitjeebib — Hottentot  superstitions— 
The  Damaras —Reverence  for  trees— Ideas  of  the  future— The  sacred  fire —Ill-treatment  of  the 
sick— The  Bechuanas—  Morimo—  The  Kaffirs— Deities  and  priests— The  East  Africans—  Mulungu— 
Return  of  spirits  in  dreams— Idols  of  the  Balonda— Witchcraft  and  trial  by  ordeal— Beliefs  of 
the  Masai— The  Congo  tribes— Good  and  evil  deities— Fetishism— Forms  of  fetishes— Witch-burn- 
ing'—Vagueness  of  African  religion— Dreary  view  of  the  future— The  Gaboon  and  other  West 
African  tribes— Idols  of  the  Mpongwe — Mbwiri  worship — View  of  idol  temple —Deities  of 
Mpongwe— Multitudinous  fetishes  of  Congo  Tribes— The  gold  coast  tribes— Bulloms  and  Tim- 
manees— Fanti  superstitions— Fetish  priests— No  word  for  spirit  or  apparition— The  other  world 
—Removal  of  the  sick— Horrible  "medicine" — Interrogation  of  the  deceased— Major  Ellis  on 
West  African  religion — Bobowissi  and  Tando— Nyankupon  a  new  deity— Srahmantin  and 
Sasabonsum — Local  deities — The  bohsum  or  tutelary  deities— The  family  bohsum— The  suhman — 
Alleged  coercion  of  fetishes— The  Dahomans — The  grand  customs— Their  object— Deities— Snake- 
worship  of  Whydah— Tree  and  ocean  worship— Dahoman  fetishes  —Head-worship  —Initiation  of 
fetish  priests— Visiting  dead-land— Fetishes  as  mediators— The  Yorubas  of  Abeokuta— Beliefs— 
Shango  and  Oro — Olorun  and  other  deities— Multitudinous  impostures. 

IN  comparing  African  religions,  it  will  be  found  that  general  resemblances 
are  frequent,  as  amongst  the  Polynesian  islanders,  and  consequently  it 
would  be  profitless  to  repeat  details  to  a  wearisome  extent.  The  number  of 
tribes  of  whom  we  now  have  records  is  so  great  that  it  will  be  impossible  to 
describe  more  than  typical  representatives.  Some  of  the  older  accounts  are 
the  best,  as  representing  the  state  of  things  when  native  ideas  were  less 
influenced  by  intercourse  with  Europeans  than  they  are  now.  As  far  as 
possible  the  records  of  those  who  have  lived  long  among  the  people  have 
been  employed. 

THE   BUSHMEN  AND  HOTTENTOTS. 

The  Bushmen,  perhaps  the  lowest  African  race,  had  little  or  no  idea  of 

43 


44  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

a  god ;  but  they  had   a  great  belief  in  magic.     They  ascribed  to  some  evil 

.     power  all  evil  that  happens,  especially  rain,  cold,  and  thunder, 

tions  of     the  latter  of  which  they  would  violently  abuse,  shooting  poisoned 

Bushmen.    arrows  a^  ^he  lightning  or  throwing  old  shoes  at  it.     They  had 

weather-doctors,  but  did  not  hold  them  very  sacred,  for  if  one  predicted 

falsely  several   times  in   succession,  he  was  thrust  out   of  the  kraal,  and 

might  be  put  to  death.     They  held  sacred  some  species  of  antelope,  and  a 

caddisworm  to  which  they  prayed  for  success  in  hunting. 

The  Hottentots  have  considerably  more  developed  ideas.     They  seem 

to  have  a  notion  of  a  supreme  deity.      "  The  Namaquas,"  says  Anderson 

{Lake  Ngami),  "  believe   in  Heitjeebib,  whom   they  consider   to 

Namaqua   have  the  power  to  grant  or  withhold  them  success  or  prosperity. 

ei  jee  1  .  g^  w]iet]2er  Heitjeebib  is  a  deity,  a  goblin,  or  merely  a  deified 

ancestor,  I  shall  not  presume  to  say.     At  all  events,  they  affirm  he  exists 

in  the  graves  of  all  deceased  people  :  and  whenever  a  Hottentot  passes  a 

burial-place,  he  invariably  throws  a  stone,  a  bush,  or  other  token  of  offering 

or  affection,  on  the  tomb,  pronouncing  the  name  of  Heitjeebib,  and  invoking 

his  blessing  and  protection." 

Peter  Kolbe,  who  visited  the  Cape  early  in  the  last  century,  describes 

the  Hottentots  as  worshipping  an  evil   deity,  the  father  of  mischief,  whom 

they  called  Tonquoa,  and  propitiated  with  offerings  of  an  ox  or 

supersti-    a  sheep.     They  have  also  been  believed   to  worship  the  moon, 

which  has  been  denied.     They  had  a  belief  in  the  immortality 

of  the  soul,   but   not  in  a  state  of  rewards  and  punishments   after  death. 

They  believed  that   the   spirit   of  the  dead   haunts   the   place   of  death. 

Sparrman  says,  writing  before  1785,  "  The  Hottentots  shake,  jolt,  pummel, 

and  cuff  their  dying  countrymen,  as  well  as  such  as  are  just  dead  ;    at  the 

same  time  shrieking  and  hallooing  in  their  ears,  and  casting  a  world  of 

reproaches  on  them  for  dying." 

The  Hottentots  elected  their  priests,  who  took  charge  of  worship, 
marriage,  and  funerals,  but  strange  to  say  received  no  fee.  They  believed 
in  charms,  such  as  teeth  and  claws  of  lions  and  other  beasts,  and  even  pieces 
of  wood  and  bone,  roots,  etc. 

THE  DAMARAS  AND  BECHUANAS. 

The  Damaras,  according  to  Mr.  Francis  Galton,1  have  a  creed  which 

asserts  that  in  the  beginning  of  things  there  was  a  tree,  of  which  came 

Reverence  Damaras,  Bushmen,  oxen,  and   zebras,   and   everything   living. 

for  trees.    Several  great  trees  were  treated  with  reverence.     Omakuru  is 

a  sort  of  deity  who  gives  or  withholds  rain.     They  have  a  vast  number  of 

small  superstitions,  and  believe  firmly  in  witchcraft  and  amulets.     They 

bring  provisions  to  the  grave  of  a  deceased  friend,  beseeching  him  to  eat, 

ideas  of     invoking  his  blessing,  and  praying   to  him  for  success  against 

the  future,  enemies,  abundance  of  cattle,  numerous  wives,  etc.     They  believe 

1  "  Narrative  of  an  Explorer  in  Tropical  South  Africa,"  1853. 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS  OF  AFRICA.  45 


the  spirits  of  the  dead  appear  after  death,  but  seldom  in  their  natural 
form,  usually  in  the  shape  of  a  dog.  Yet  they  do  not  appear  to  expect  a 
future  state,  nor  do  they  give  evidence  of  a  notion  of  right  and  wrong. 

The  Damara  chiefs  are  priests,  and  bless  the  oxen,  and  their  daughters 
are  priestesses,  and  have  to  keep  alive  the  sacred  fire,  the  ex-  -n^  sacred 
tinction  of  which  is  considered  a  great  misfortune.     Expiratory       fire- 
offerings  of  oxen  attend  its  relighting. 

Very  few  Damaras  die  a  natural  death,  says  Mr.  Gal  ton.  "A  sick  person 
meets  with  no  compassion  ;  he  is  pushed  out  of  his  hut  by  his  relations 
away  from  the  fire  into  the  cold  ;  they  do  all  they  can  to  expedite  m-treatment 
his  death,  and  when  he  appears  to  be  dying,  they  heap  ox-hides  of  the  sick- 
over  him  till  he  is  suffocated."  When  a  poor  woman  dies,  leaving  a  baby, 
it  is  usually  buried  alive  with  its  mother. 

The  above  description  answered  largely  for  the  Bechuanas  before  their 
intercourse  with  Europeans  and  with  missionaries.     They  did  not  practise 
any  form  of  worship.     They  called  their  god  Morimo,  who  was     Morimo 
considered   cunning   and   malicious.      They   never    hesitated   to      of  the 
express   their  indignation   at  any  ill  experienced,  or  any  wish 
unaccomplished,  by  bitter  curses  ;  but  when  they  had  a  good  crop,  they 
said  he  had  blessed  their  fields.     Some  of  their  tribes  practised  divination 
by  means  of  idols  made  of  wood  and  clay.     The  priests  are  medicine  men, 
and   astrologers,    and   bless  the  cattle   at  the   commencement  of  a   war. 
Livingstone  gives  an  account  of  their  prophesying  under  the  influence  of 
frenzy,  stamping,  leaping,  and  shouting  in  a  peculiar  manner,  or  beating 
the  ground  with  a  club. 

THE   KAFFIRS. 

Essentially  similar  is  the  Kaffir  idea  of  the  spirit  world.  They  cannot 
be  said  to  practise  any  form  of  worship.  They  believe  in  an  invisible  god, 
but  do  not  represent  him  by  an  image.  Their  tradition  speaks  Kafflr  deities 
of  a  Being  whom  they  call  the  Great-Great  (Unkulunkulu)  and  a™1  priests, 
the  first  Appearer  or  Exister.  They  also  believed  in  an  evil  principle. 
Their  ancestor- worship  is  more  definite,  combined  with  a  belief  that  the 
spirits  of  their  ancestors  inhabit  serpents,  which  they  reverence  greatly. 
Prosperity  is  ascribed  to  the  favour  of  ancestors,  misfortune  to  their  anger ; 
land  they  are  believed  to  watch  over  their  descendants  only.  Sacrifices  of 
animals  are  made  to  them.  The  Koossas  have  no  priests  but  enchanters, 
loften  old  women.  Oaths  are  sworn  by  Kaffirs,  in  the  name  of  living  or 
deceased  chiefs.  Only  the  chiefs  and  their  wives  are  buried.  The  owner 
pf  a  kraal  is  buried  within  it  in  a  sitting  posture,  with  many  of  his  personal 


ossessions.     The  deceased's  assegais  are  broken  or  bent,  so  that  the  ghost 
when  he  returns  may  do  no  harm  with  them. 

THE   EAST  AFRICANS. 

The  East  Africans,  including  in  that  term  people  up  to  Zanzibar  and 


46  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  Equator,  may  be  described  as  very  rudimentary  worshippers.     Many 

are  said  to  have  "  neither  god  nor  devil,  nor  heaven  nor  hell,  nor 

soul  nor  idol."     Mulungu  is  a  word  applied  to  a  vague  superior 

being,  who  is  variously  explained  as  "  thunder,"  "  the  sky,"  "the  being  that 

causes  diseases,"  while  some  believe  that  every  man  becomes  a  Mulungu 

after  death.     Sir  R.  F.  Burton  says  that  the  sentiment  generally  extracted 

from  East  Africans  by  a  discourse  on  the  subject  of  a  Deity  was  a  desire  to 

see  him  in  order  to  revenge  upon  him  the  deaths  of  relatives,  friends,  and 

cattle.     They  believe  in  the  return  of  spirits  in  dreams,  and  the 

spirits  in    good  spirits  are  propitiated  by  medicines  or  honoured  by  offerings 

dreams.     ^  ^eer  and  meal,  or  anything  they  loved  while  in  the  body.     A 

man  with  headache  was  heard  by  Livingstone  to  say,  "  My  departed  father 

is  now  scolding  me :  I  feel  his  power  in  my  head  "  ;  and  then  he  removed 

from  the  company,  making  an  offering  of  a  little  food  on  a  leaf,  and  praying. 

It  is  believed  also  that  the  souls  of  departed  chiefs  enter  into  lions  and 

render  them  sacred. 

The  Balonda  have  idols,  among  which  are  human  heads  fastened  on 
a  pole,  figures  of  lions  and  alligators,  made  of  grass  and  plastered  with 
idols  of  the  c^ay>  etc-     To  these  they  make  offerings,  and  ascribe  the  gift 
Balonda.    0f  prophecy. 

Witchcraft  is  universally  believed  in,  and  trial  by  ordeal  of  poison 

frequently  resorted  to  ;  and  they  have  the  idea  that  books  are  the  Europeans' 

_..  .      „    instruments  of  divination.    They  use  bits  of  wood,  horn,  knuckle- 

and  trial    bones  of  various  animals,  etc.,  which  are  thrown  on  the  ground, 

y  ordeal.  an(^  according  to  the  way  in  which  they  fall,  the  diviner  answers 

inquiries.      In  some  tribes,  if  a  man  is  either  bitten  by  an   alligator  or 

splashed  by  his  tail,  he  is  expelled  from  the  tribe  ;  and  they  even  pray  to 

these  reptiles. 

The  Mganga  or  Mfumo  in  Eastern  Africa  is  both  doctor  and  priest, 
diviner,  rain-maker  or  stopper,  conjurer,  augur,  and  prophet.  "  In  elephant- 
hunts,"  says  Burton,  "  he  must  throw  the  first  spear  and  endure  the  blame 
if  the  beast  escapes.  He  aids  his  tribe  by  magical  arts  in  wars."  He  also 
loads  guides  with  charms. 

The  Masai,  who  are  not  Bantu,  but  more  or  less  allied  to  the  North 
Africans,  call  their  vague  supreme  being  Engai,  whom  they  sometimes 
Beliefs  of  suppose  to  dwell  on  the  top  of  Mount  Kilima-njaro.  With  this 
the  Masai,  being  they  especially  associate  rain  and  grass,  and  they  pro- 
pitiate him  with  loud  shouting,  singing,  and  dancing.  They  also  have  a 
weaker  divinity,  a  kind  of  earth-spirit,  En-naiter  Kob,  which  they  often 
call  upon  to  mediate  with  Engai,  and  obtain  the  granting  of  their  prayers 
for  rain,  success  in  war,  or  many  male  children.  They  venerate  the 
summits  of  the  great  snowy  mountains,  both  Kilima-njaro  and  Kenia  being 
the  residences  of  these  gods  and  fit  places  for  mediation.  After  death,  the 
name  of  a  deceased  person  is  never  mentioned,  lest  his  spirit  should  obey 
the  call  and  return.     Yet  they  have  very  little  fear  of  or  belief  in  ghosts, 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  AFRICA. 


47 


and  they  mock  at  the  various  Bantu  people  near  them  for  their  elaborate 
propitiation  of  the  ghosts  of  the  departed.1 


THE    CONGO    TRIBES. 

Passing  now  to  the  West  Coast  about  the  Congo  and  the  equatorial 
region,  we  find  ourselves  in  the  very  home  of  fetishism,  where  the  belief 
in  a  supreme  deity  is  quite  vague  or  absent,  and  where  even   Good  and 
ancestor- worship  is  not  very  pronounced.     The  negroes  believe  ovn  deitles- 
in  a  good  and  evil  principle,  both  supposed  to  reside  in  the  sky,  the  former 
sending    rain,    the 
latter  withdrawing 
it.     They   do    not 
believe  in  a  state 
of    retribution, 
though  they  have 
a  vague  idea  of  a 
future    state.      In 
Loango   the    souls 
of    the    good    are 
said  to  go  to  God  ; 
those   of  the    bad 
appear  again,  and 
rustle  in  the  leaves 
of  the  bushes. 

The  fetishes 
are  little  more  than 
charms. 
The  ne- 
groes have  a  fetish 
for  the  wind, 
against  thunder, 
for  sea-fish,  for 
river-fish,  against 
thorns  getting  into 
the    feet,    against 

wild  beasts,  to  protect  from  failing  health,  for  good  fortune,  for  clear  eyes, 
for  strong  legs,  for  cheap  purchases,  etc.  When  a  man  is  about  to  commit 
a  crime,  or  do  what  he  feels  he  ought  not  to  do,  he  lays  aside  his  fetish  and 
covers  it  up,  so  that  he  may  not  know. 

It  is  not  at  all  essential  that  a  fetish   should  represent  a  human  or 
animal  figure.    One  common  form  is  a  red,  round  ball  of  cloth,  in  which  the 
fetish  priest  has  sewn  a  strong  medicine,  generally  a  vegetable    Forms  of 
extract.     Tuckey  describes  the  village  fetishes,  above  the  Yellala    fetislie8- 
Falls,  as  the  figure  of  a  man,  the  body  stuck  over  with  bits  of  iron,  feathers, 

1  See  H.  H.  Johnson,  "  The  Kilima-njaro  Expedition.'' 


Fetishism. 


WORSHIPPING    FETISHES,    CONGO. 


48  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

old  rags,  etc.,  and  resembling  nothing  so  much  as  one  of  our  own  scare- 
crows. Some,  however,  are  made  even  of  buffalo's  hair  and  dirty  rags,  or  of 
plaited  twigs.  Certain  things  are  said  to  be  fetished,  which  reminds  one 
of  the  tapu  of  the  Polynesian.  Children  must  abstain  from  certain  foods  ; 
if  they  eat  of  them,  they  are  fetished.  Women  are  fetished  for  eating  meat 
the  same  day  that  it  is  killed.  When  a  man  applies  to  a  Ganga  or  priest 
for  a  domestic  fetish,  he  is  instructed  from  what  foods  he  must  abstain. 

Witch  or  wizard-burning,  according  to  Mr.  Johnson,  is  very  common 
among  the  debased  tribes  of  the  coast,  and  the  poison-ordeal  prevails 
witch-  largely-  At  Pallaballa,  somebody  or  other  is  suspected  of  having 
burning.  caused  every  death  by  supernatural  means,  and  the  witch-doctor 
is  called,  upon  to  detect  the  guilty  person,  who,  if  unable  to  buy  himself 
off,  is  compelled  to  swallow  poison,  which  is  either  vomited,  which  means 
safety,  or  death  takes  place.  Sometimes  neither  occurs,  and  the  victim  is 
hacked  to  pieces  or  burnt.  Epileptic  diseases  are  ascribed  to  the  possession 
of  spirits,  and  the  medicine  man  professes  to  work  a  cure. 

The  supposed  inspiration  of  their  priests  is  attended  with  great  frenzy. 
In  some  parts  the  priest  answers  questions  in  the  first  person,  as  if  he 
himself  were  the  god.  In  most  villages  are  one  or  two  fetish-priests, 
generally  with  a  group  of  pupils,  who  make  the  fetishes.  When  a  person 
has  died,  the  relatives  will  often  question  him  for  two  or  three  hours  as  to 
why  he  died.  In  some  parts  the  bodies  of  the  chiefs  are  smoked,  wrapped 
in  a  great  quantity  of  cloth,  which  is  increased  as  putrefaction  goes  on  ;  in 
this  condition  the  bodies  are  kept  for  a  long  time. 

Sir  R.  F.  Burton x  has  given  some  interesting  general  views  of  African 
religion.  He  says,  "  The  missionary  returning  from  Africa  is  often  asked, 
vagueness  "What  is  the  religion  of  the  people  ?  "  If  an  exact  man,  he  will 
of  African  answer,  "I  don't  know."  A  missionary  of  twenty  years' stand- 
ing in  West  Africa,  an  able  and  conscientious  student,  assured 
me  that  during  the  early  part  of  his  career  he  had  given  much  time  to 
collecting  and  collating  negro  traditions  and  religion.  He  presently  found 
that  no  two  men  thought  alike  on  any  single  subject.  .  .  .  Africans 
believe  not  in  soul,  nor  in  spirit,  but  in  ghost.  They  have  a  material, 
evanescent,  intelligible  future ;  the  ghost  endures  only  for  a  while  and 
perishes.  Hence  the  ignoble  dread  in  East  and  West  Africa  of  a  death 
which  leads  to  a  shadowy  world  and  eventually  to  utter  annihilation. 
Dreary  view  Seeing  nought  beyond  the  present  future,  there  is  no  hope  for 
of  the  future.  t]iem  jn  fjie  graVe ;  they  wail  and  sorrow  with  a  burden  of 
despair.  "  Ame-kwisha  " — he  is  finished — is  the  East  African's  last  word 
concerning  kinsman  and  friend.  "  All  is  done  for  ever,"  sing  the  West 
Africans.  Any  allusion  to  loss  of  life  turns  their  black  skins  blue  :  "  Yes," 
they  explain,  "it  is  bad  to  die,  to  leave  house  and  home,  wife  and  children  ; 
no  more  to  wear  soft  cloth,  nor  eat  meat,  nor  '  drink '  tobacco  or  rum." 
"  Never  speak  of  that,"  the  moribund  will  exclaim  with  a  shudder. 

1  "  Two  Trips  to  Gorilla  Land  and  the  Cataracts  of  the  Congo." 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  AFRICA.  49 


THE  GABOON  AND  OTHER  WEST  AFRICAN  TRIBES. 

The  Mpongwe  of  the  Gaboon  river,  says  Burton,  have  advanced  a  long 
step  beyond  the  East  Africans.  " No  longer  contented  with  mere  fetishes, 
the  charms  in  which  the  dreaded  ghost  '  sits '  or  is  bound,  they  idols  of  the 
have  invented  idols.  ...  In  Eastern  Africa  I  know  of  but  ^vo^gwe. 
one  people,  the  Wanyika,  who  have  certain  images  called  '  Kisukas '  ;  and 
they  declare  that  this  great  medicine,  never  shown  to  Europeans,  came 
from  the  West,  and  Andrew  Battel  (1600)  found  idols  amongst  the  people 
whom  he  calls  Giagas  or  Jagas,  meaning  Congoese  chiefs.  Moreover,  the 
Gaboon  pagans  lodge  their  idols.  Behind  each  larger  establishment  there 
is  a  dwarf  hut,  the  miniature  of  a  dwelling-place,  carefully  closed;  I  thought 
these  were  offices,  but  Hotaloga  Andrews  taught  me  otherwise.  He  called 
them  in  his  broken  English  "  compass  houses,"  a  literal  translation  of  "Nago 
Mbwiri,"  and  sturdily  refusing  me  admittance,  left  me  as  wise  as  before. 
The  reason  afterwards  proved  to  be,  that  '  Ologo,  he  kill  man  too  much.' 

"  I  presently  found  out  that  he  called  my  pocket-compass  '  Mbwiri,' a 
very  vague  and  comprehensive  word.     Men  talk  of  the  Mbwiri  of  a  tree  or 
a  river  ;  it  is  also  applied  to  a  tutelar  god  ;  and  it  means  a  ghost.     Mbwivi 
In  Nago  Mbwiri  the  sense  is,  an  idol,  an  object  of  worship,  '  a    wor3lllP- 
medicine,'  in  contradistinction    to    Munda,    a   talisman   or   charm.     Every 
Mpongwe,  woman  as  well  as  man,  has  some  Mbwiri,  to  which  offerings  are 
made  in  times  of  misfortune,  sickness,  or  danger.     I  afterwards  managed  to 
enter  one  of  these  rude  and  embrj'onal  temples  so  carefully  shub.     Behind 
the  little  door  of  matting  is  a  tall  threshold  of  board  ;  a  bench  lines  the  far 
end,  and  in  the  centre  stands  'Ologo,'  a  rude  imitation  of  a  human  view  of  idol 
figure,  with  a  gum  torch  p1  anted  in  the  ground  before  it,  ready     t3mPle- 
for  burnt-offerings.     To  the  walls  are  suspended  sundry  mystic  implements, 
especially  basins,  smeared  with  red  and  white  chalk-mixture,  and  wooden 
crescents    decorated   with   beads    and   ribbons."      During   worship   certain 
objects  are  placed  before  the  image,  the  supplicant  at  the  same  time  jangling 
and  shaking  the  Nchake,  a  rude  beginning  of  the  bell,  the  gong,  the  rattle, 
and  the  instruments  played  before  idols  by  more  advanced  peoples. 

The  beliefs  of  the  Mpongwe  as  to  higher  powers,  according  to  Burton, 
are  mainly  these:— 1.  The  First  Cause  they  call  Anyambia,  a  vagua  1  eing, 
too  high  and  remote  to  interfere  with  human  affairs,  not  addressed  Deities  of 
in  prayer,  nor  represented  in  human  form,  nor  lodged  in  temples.  M.}0D£wa- 
2.  Subordinate  to  Anyambia  is  Mbwiri,  the  good  god,  and  Onyambe,  the 
bad  spirit,  whose  name  is  never  mentioned  but  with  bated  breath.  "  They 
have  not  only  fear  of,  but  also  a  higher  respect  for,  him  than  for  the  giver 
of  good,  so  difficult  is  it  for  the  child-man's  mind  to  connect  the  ideas  of 
benignity  and  power."  3.  Ovengwa  is  a  vampire,  the  apparition  of  a  dead 
man,  tall  as  a  tree,  always  winking  and  clearly  seen,  which  is  not  the  case 
with  Ibambo  and  Hogo,  the  plurals  Obambo  and  Ologo.  There  are  vulgar 
ghosts  of  the  departed,  the  causes  of  possession,  disease  and  death,  every- 
where worshipped  and  propitiated  in  private. 


50  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  superstitions  of  the  Congo  country  have  also  been  well  described 
by  Burton.  "Every  house  is  stuck  inside  and  outside  with  idols  and  fetishes, 
Muititudi-  -each  having  its  own  jurisdiction  over  lightning,  wind,  and  rain ; 
n°ofSCongoeSsome  ac^  as  scarecrows;  others  teach  magic,  avert  evils,  preserve 
tribes,  health  and  sight,  protect  cattle,  and  command  fish  in  the  sea  and 
river.  They  are  in  all  manner  of  shapes,  strings  of  mucuna  and  poison- 
beans  ;  carved  images  stuck  over  with  feathers  and  tassels ;  padlocks  with  a 
cowrie  or  a  mirror  set  in  them  ;  horns  full  of  mysterious  medicine  ;  iron- 
tipped  poles,  bones,  birds'  beaks  and  talons,  skins  of  snakes  and  leopards, 
and  so  forth.  No  man  walks  abroad  without  his  protecting  charms,  Nkisi 
or  Nkizi,  slung  or  hanging  from  the  shoulder  ;  these  are  prophylactics  against 
every  evil  to  which  man's  frailty  is  heir.  Like  the  idols,  these  talismans 
avert  ill-luck,  bachelorhood,  childlessness,  poverty,  and  ill-health ;  they  are 
equally  powerful  against  the  machinations  of  foes,  natural  or  supernatural, 
against  wild  beasts,  the  crocodile,  the  snake  and  the  leopard,  and  against 
wounds  of  lead  and  steel.  They  can  produce  transformation  and  destroy 
enemies,  cause  rain  or  drought,  fine  or  foul  weather,  raise  and  humble, 
enrich  and  impoverish  countries,  and  above  all  things,  they  are  sovereign 
to  make  man  brave  in  battle." 

THE  GOLD-COAST  TRIBES. 

The  Bulloms  and  Timmanees  near  Sierra  Leone  believed  in  superior 
and  inferior  spirits,  the  former  inhabiting  chiefly  the  deepest  recesses  of  the 
Bulloms  and  forests.  Remarkable  natural  objects,  such  as  very  large  and 
Timmanees.  venerable  trees,  rocks  of  peculiar  form  rising  in  the  midst  of 
rivers,  etc.,  were  dedicated  to  these.  Before  they  began  to  sow  their  planta-. 
tions  they  would  sacrifice  some  animal  to  these  spirits,  to  beg  that  their 
crop  might  abound  ;  for  if  this  were  neglected,  they  were  persuaded  nothing 
would  grow  there.  The  inferior  spirits  were  said  to  reside  in  the  outskirts 
or  even  within  the  villages.  Every  person  was  supposed  to  have  one  of 
them  as  his  tutelary  spirit,  to  which  he  never  sacrificed  except  in  case  of 
sickness. 

In  addition  to  remarkable  natural  objects,  the  Fantis  regarded  lakes  as 
well  as  rivers  with  veneration.  Numerous  animals  and  serpents  were  con- 
Fanti  sidered  as  messengers  of  the  spirits  or  as  incarnations  of  them, 
superstitions.  jn  some  places  the  crocodile  is  worshipped  ;  in  one  a  number  of 
flies  are  carefully  preserved  in  a  small  temple  and  honoured  as  fetishes. 
Arbitrary  forms  are  added  to  the  vast  variety  of  imitations,  and  covered 
with  red  ochre  and  eggs  look  sufficiently  appalling. 

The  fetish  priests  on  the  Gold  Coast,  as  in  other  quarters,  are  applied 

to  in  almost  every  concern  of  life — to  detect  thefts  and  all  social  misdeeds, 

Fetish      to  avert  misfortune,   to  procure  blessings,  and  to  reveal  future 

priests,     events.     As  soon  as  a  child  is  born  the  priest  is  sent  for  to  bind 

it  up,   as  a   protection   against   sickness   and    other  evils.      Ventriloquism 

is  regularly  used  by  them  as  a  means  of  maintaining  their  influence. 

Here  as  elsewhere  the  ancestor-spirits  are  extensively  worshipped  with 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  AFRICA.  5r 

sacrifices  and  libations.     Clay  figures  of  departed  chiefs  are  placed  in  groups 

under  the  village  tree.    The  Bulloms  and  Timmanees,   accord-  „ 

o  'No  word  for 

ing  to  Winterbottom,  had  no  fixed  opinion  respecting  a  future     Bpirit  or 
state,  and  did  not  believe  that  the  spirits  of  their  deceased  friends  appari 
returned  to  visit  their  former  abodes,  nor  had    they  any  word   in   their 
language    to   express    "spirit"   or    "apparition."      According   to  Bosnian, 
writing  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  the  Gold-Coast  natives  believed 
that   immediately  after  death    people   went   to   another   world,    The  other 
where  they  lived  in  the  same  character  as  here,  and  made  use      world- 
of  all  the  offerings  made  by  their  friends  and  relations  to  them  after  death. 
They  had  little  or  no   idea   of  future   rewards   and  punishments.     They 
attributed  disease  to  the  displeasure  of  the  fetish,  the  malice  of  evil  spirits, 
the  incantation  of  some  wizard,  or  the  uneasiness  of  the  spirit  of  some 
deceased  relation,  whose  obsequies  perhaps  had  not  been  properly  performed. 
Among  the  Bulloms  and  Timmanees,  when  any  person  of  con-  Removal  of 
sequence  fell  sick,  he  was  immediately  removed  from  his  home  to    the  31ck- 
a  town  at  some  distance,  where  the  witchcraft  which  caused  his  illness  was 
supposed  to  be  ineffectual.     If  recovery  did  not  take  place  soon,  a  hut  was 
built  in  a  deep  recess  of  a  forest,  whither  he  was  carried,  and  the  place  of 
his  retreat  was  kept  a  close  secret. 

The   Ashanti   fetishmen  before  a  war    make  a  mixture  of  hearts  of 
enemies,  blood,  and  consecrated  herbs.     "  All  who  have  never  be-     Horrible 
fore  killed  an  enemy,"  says  Beecham,1  "  eat  of  the  preparation  ;  it  "m^cine." 
being  believed  that  if  they  did  not,  their  energy  would  be  secretly  wasted 
by  the  haunting  spirits  of  their  deceased  foes." 

Sometimes  a  dead  man's  body  is  questioned  by  his  neighbours  as  to  the 
cause  of  his  death  ;  sometimes  he  is  reproached  for  leaving  his  friends ; 
sometimes  his  spirit  is  besought  to  watch  over  them  and  protect  Interroyation 
them  from  evil.  Up  to  recent  periods  a  chiefs  death  was  followed  of  the 
by  the  slaughter  of  many  of  his  slaves,  and  not  unfrequently  of 
his  wives  and  friends,  so  that  he  might  not  be  unattended  in  his  new  ex- 
istence. "  At  the  end  of  the  funeral  customs,"  says  Burton,  "  especially  in 
the  Old  Calabar  River,  a  small  house  is  built  upon  the  beach,  and  in  it  are 
placed  the  valuables  possessed  by  the  deceased,  together  with  a  bed,  that 
the  ghost  may  not  sleep  upon  the  floor,  and  a  quantity  of  food  upon  the 
table." 

Major  Ellis  has  given  an  admirable  account  of  the  religious  ideas  and 
practices  of  the  Gold  Coast  tribes  speaking  the  Tshi  group  of  languages,  of 
whom  the  Fantis  are  the  chief.3  His  view  is,  that  in  these  tribes  or  £mg  on 
religion  is  not  connected  with  morals  as  we  understand  them,  west  African 
Sin  to  their  minds  means  insult  to  or  neglect  of  the  gods  ;  while 
murder,  theft,  etc.,  are  matters  in  which  the  gods  take  no  interest,  unless 
persuaded  to  do  so  in  the  interest  of  a  faithful  worshipper.  The  belief  in 
the  malevolent  spirits  of  nature  is  strongly  promoted  by  the  priests  and 

1  "  Ashanti  and  the  Gold  Coast." 

2  "  The  Tshi-speaking  peoples  of  the  Gold  Coast  of  West  Africa."'    By  A.  B.  Ellis.   18&7- 


5 2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


priestesses  for  their  own  gain.  "  They  frequently  talk  about  them  and 
profess  to  have  met  them.  They  introduce  their  imaginary  meetings  with 
the  local  gods,  artfully  and  without  apparent  design,  into  general  conversa- 
tions. .  .  .  Every  misfortune  proceeds  from  and  can  only  be  averted 
1  y  the  gods  ;  nothing  remains  for  man  to  do  but  to  propitiate  them." 

Till  the  appearance  of  Europeans  on  the  Gold  Coast  only  two  general 
deities  were  worshipped,  one,  Bobowissi,  by  the  southern,  and  the  other, 
Bobowissi  Tando,  by  the  northern  tribes.  These  were  bslieved  to  have 
and  Tando.  appointed  all  the  local  deities.  A  yearly  feast,  with  human  sacri- 
fices, was  held  in  their  honour  ;  and  their  stool,  or  local  symbol  of  authority, 
was  washed  in  human  blood.  At  a  later  date  these  people  adopted  a  new 
Nyarkupon,  g°d,  with  characteristics  derived  from  intercours3  with  Europeans, 
a  new  deity.'  namely,  Nana-nyankupon  (Lord  of  the  sky),  superior  to  Bobo- 
wissi, but  too  distant  from  mortals  to  interfere  directly  in  their  affairs  ;  but 
he  was  especially  considered  to  be  the  author  of  the  dread  disease,  small-pox, 
introduced  by  the  Europeans.  He  has,  however,  no  special  worship.  In 
time  of  war,  and  when  travelling,  Bobowissi  is  still  invoked,  and  sheep  in- 
stead of  human  beings  are  sacrificed  to  him. 

Srahmantin   and    Sasabonsum   are   deities   intermediate   between    the 

gen<  ral  and  the  local  deities  ;  or  rather,  they  are  names  for  a  class  of  deities, 

„    .  but  are  believed  in  each  locality  to  designate  individual  deities. 

Srahmantin  J  & 

and  The  former,  a  female  deity,  always  lives  among  the  huge  silk- 
cotton  trees ;  the  latter  may  also  b3  found  in  hills  or  forests  where 
ihe  soil  is  red  ;  both  are  malignant.  Indeed,  Sasabonsum  is  the  most 
malignant  of  all  the  gods,  and  waylays  and  eats  solitary  travellers.  Once 
angered,  oven  unintentionally,  he  can  never  be  propitiated.  Red  soil  is  his 
Epecial  abode,  the  colour  being  caused  by  the  blood  of  the  victims  he  has 
destroyed.  Originally  human  victims  were  offered  to  him,  but  within 
European  influence  a  sheep  is  now  the  offering.  He  is  also  an  earthquake 
god  ;  and  in  Ashanti  several  persons  are  always  put  to  death  after  an  earth- 
quake as  a  sacrifice  to  Sasabonsum  and  in  hope  of  satiating  his  cruelty  for 
the  time.  "In  1881  a  slight  earthquake  shock  threw  down  a  portion  of  the 
wall  of  the  king's  residence  in  Coomassie.  The  king,  Mensah,  consulted  the 
pri<  sts  as  to  what  should  be  done,  and  the  latter  declared  that  the  damage 
\\ aa  the  act  of  Sasalonsum,  and  that  the  ruined  portion  must  be  rebuilt  of 
mud  (sirish)  moistened  with  the  blood  of  virgins.  Fifty  young  girls  were 
accordingly  slaughtered,  and  the  wall  was  rebuilt  with  swish  kneaded  in 
i  heir  blood."  Srahmantin  also  waylays  solitary  travellers,  but  does  not  eat 
ih«  m  :  they  are  supposed  to  be  kept  by  her  for  four  or  five  months,  learning 
the  mysteries  of  her  worship,  when  they  are  returned  to  mankind  as  fully 
qualified  priests  or  priestesses  of  the  deity. 

The  multitude  of  local  deities,  termed  Bohsum,  apparently  meaning  "pro- 

duoer  of  calamities,"  is  so  great  that  we  cannot  mention  them  in  any  detail. 

Local  deities.  Tt  is  evident  to  residents  on  the  Gold  Coast  that  their  malignity 

has  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  spread  of  European  influence ; 

but  beyond  that  area  human  sacrifices  and  licentious  and  cruel  practices 


WITCH   DOCTOR   CURIXG   WITCHCRAFT,   COXGO. 


54 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


continue  in  undiminished  strength.  Various  days  are  sacred  to  local  gods, 
and  the  priests  are  ready,  for  a  sufficient  consideration,  to  use  their  influence 
to  gain  for  any. individual  the  objects  he  may  desire,  or  to  avenge  any  injury 
or  wrong  done  to  him.  It  is  the  height  of  sacrilege  to  cut  down  a  bush  or 
a  tree,  or  disturb  the  soil  where  a  local  deity  resides,  and  such  insult  is  often 
visited  with  death.  Each  god  assists  the  people  in  his  own  manner:  a  war- 
god  by  stimulating  their  courage  and  destroying  the  enemy  ;  a  god  of  pesti- 
lence by  sending  an  epidemic  among  the  enemy;  a  river-god  by  obstructing 
the  passage  of  the  enemy,  or  overwhelming  him  when  crossing  the  stream. 
The  name  Bohsum  is  also  given  to  the  tutelary  deity  of  particular  com- 
munities of  people,  town  or  market  companies,  or 
families ;  and  these  are  supposed  to  be  appointed  by 
The  Bohsum  *  ne  local  deities  through  the  agency  of  a 

t— N»  or  tutelary  priest.     While  the  local  deities  dwell  in 

'    ;«*i'v  -W%  their  own  local  dwelling-places, — in  forest, 

hill,  river,  or  sea, — they  sometimes  enter  the  images 
which  are  their  symbols  ;  but  with  regard  to  the 
Bohsums,  they  have  their  ordinary  dwelling-place  in 
certain  material  objects  assigned  by  the  local  deities 
through  the  priests.  It  is  to  these  objects  that  the 
term  fetish  (see  p.  10)  is  generally  applied,  as  well  as 
to  the  Suhman  of  p.  55. 

The  following  is,  in  brief,  Major  Ellis's  account 
of  the  mode  of  obtaining  such  an  object  at  the  pre- 
sent time.  When  a  new  town-company  is  formed, 
its  members  go  to  the  priest  of  a  local  deity  with 
presents,  and  acquaint  him  with  their  wishes.  If 
their  gifts  are  satisfactory,  he  goes  with  them  to  the 
abode  of  the  local  deity,  with  which  he  communicates 
by  mysterious  sounds  and  ceremonies.  On  a  day  ap- 
pointed for  receiving  an  answer,  the  priest  performs 
a  weird  dance,  foams  at  the  mouth,  rolls  his  eyes,  and 
utters  strange  sounds,  as  if  possessed  by  the  local  god. 
He  lets  fall  certain  words  which  are  the  god's  instruc- 
tions to  go  to  a  certain  place  and  take  from  it  a  stone 
or  some  earth,  or  to  make  a  wooden  figure  from  the  wood  of.  a  certain  tree. 
Having  carried  out  these  instructions  and  poured  some  rum  on  to  the 
ground,  he  takes  the  object,  which  is  now  believed  to  be  the  abode  of  a  deity 
(Bohsum),  to  some  spot  near  where  the  majority  of  the  company  live,  and 
p^ces  it  on  the  ground.  Branches  from  some  neighbouring  tree  are  planted 
round  it,  and  the  whole  is  enclosed  with  a  palm-stick  fence.  These  branches 
become  what  are  often  termed  fetish-trees,  and  supposed  to  be  worshipped. 
A\  ben  such  a  tree  falls  or  is  blown  down,  the  company  or  the  market  is  be- 
lieved to  have  lost  the  protection  of  its  deity  owing  to  some  offence  given  to 
him ;  and.  on  application  to  a  priest,  the  offence  is  atoned  for  by  ceremonies, 
and  a  new  dwelling-place  for  the  god  is  constructed.     Very  similar  proceed- 


AYF.ST   AFRICAN    FETISH. 

(Wit'i  a  rope  round  its  neck,  as 
if  banged.  | 


ABORIGINAL  RELIGIONS   OF  AFRICA.  55 


ings  take  place  in  relation  to  the  guardian  deities  of  towns  and  families, 
although,  in  the  latter  case,  a  dream  often  furnishes  guidance  as  to  the  object 
to  be  selected  as  the  abode  of  the  deity. 

If  a  family  should  be  visited  with  persistent  ill-luck,  sometimes  the 
priests  put  the  Bohsum  to  the  test  by  fire  ;  if  it  is  unconsumed,  it  is  con- 
sidered to  be  genuine,  and  entitled  to  renewed  gifts  ;  if  it  is  even  The  famiiy 
slightly  injured  by  the  fire,  it  is  thrown  aside,  and  a  new  one  Bohsum. 
must  be  chosen.  The  head  of  the  family  looks  after  the  Bohsum's  wants, 
and  its  festival  is  held  on  appointed  days,  when  all  wear  white,  either  cloth 
or  paint,  and  appropriate  offerings  are  made. 

But  individuals  also  have  their  special  deities,  termed  "  Suhman,"  each 
of  these  being  a  subordinate  spirit  belonging  to  Sasabonsum,  obtainable  by 
the  individual  for  himself  without  a  priest.     The  chief  function 
of  these  is  to  destroy  parsons  who  have  injured  or  offended  the 
individual.     To  get  a  Suhman,  a  man  goes  into  a  dark  forest  recess  where  a 
local  Sasabonsum  resides,  and,  after  pouring  a  little  rum  on  the  ground,  he 
cuts  a  small  branch  from  a  tree  and  carves  it  into  a  rough;  resemblance  to  a 
human  figure,  or  he  takes  a  stone  and  binds  it  round  with  fibres  (vascular 
bundles)  of  bamboos,  or  he  takes  the  root  of  a  plant  or  some  red  earth  and 
makes  it  into  a  paste  Avith  blood  or  rum,  putting  it  into  a  little  pan  and 
sticking  the  red  tail-feathers  of  a  parrot  into  it.     He  then  cadis- upon  a  spirit 
of  Sasabonsum  to  enter  it,  promising  to  pay  it  due  reverence.     It  is  then 
said  that  he  picks  some  leaves  and  squeezes  their  juice  upon  the  object,  say- 
ing, "Eat  this,  and  speak."     Then,  if  a  spirit  has  entered  it,  a  low  hissing 
noise  is  heard.     He  then  obtains  answers  in  the  same  way  to  several  ques- 
tions as  to  how  the  Suhman  is  to  be  kept  and  treated.     But  if  after  all  this 
the  man  finds   that  things  do  not  go  well  with  him,  he  concludes  that  a 
spirit  did  not  enter  the  object,  and  he  throws  it  away,  but  not  until  he  has 
made  an  offering  to  it  in  case  it  should  be  angry.     It  is,  however,  an  ex- 
ceptional thing  for  natives  to  have  these  Suhmans,  and  those  who  have  them 
are  much  dreaded,  being  supposed  to  be  able  to  procure  the  death  of  those 
who  offend  them.     This  account  supports  Mr.  Ellis's  statement,  "  that  the  be- 
lief that  the  negroes  of  the  Gold  Coast  take  at  random  any  ordinary  object 
and  invest  it  with  the  character  of  a  god  is  entirely  without  foundation. 
.     .     .     The  indwelling  god  cannot  be  lost  sight  of,  because  he  so  frequently 
manifests  himself  by  leaving  the  object  in  which  he  ordinarily  dwells  and 
entering  the  body  of  a  priest.     .     .     .     The  negroes  of  the  Gold  Coast  are 
always  conscious  that  their  offerings  and  worship  are  not  paid  to  the  inani- 
mate object  itself,  but  to  the  indwelling  god  ;  and  every  native  with  whom 
I  have  conversed  upon  the  subject  has  laughed  at  the  possibility  of  it  being 
supposed   that  he  could  worship  or  offer  sacrifice  to  some  such  object  as  a 
stone."     It  may  be  thought  by  some  that  it  is  immaterial  to  distinguish  be- 
tween worship  of  an  idol  as  a  material  object  and  worship  of  a  spirit  which 
has  taken  up  more  or  less  permanent  abode  in  such  an  object.     But  besides 
the  paramount  necessity  for  accuracy,  it  will  appear  to  most  candid  students 
that  there  is  all  the  difference  in  the  world  between  worship  of  a  material 


56 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


obi. .  t  ana  worship  of  a  spirit,  however  limited  or  degraded  or  evil  in  its  re- 
sults the  beHef  may  be.  There  has  been  tco  much  tendency  in  the  past  to 
estimate  uncivilised  peoples  by  their  supposed  low  position  as  worshippers 
of  inanimate  objects  selected  at  random. 

Major  Ellis  is  also  satisfied  that  the  natives  of  the  Gold  Coast  never 


MOON    DAKCE,    CENTRAL   AFRICA. 


think  they  can  coerce  their  goels,  nor  attempt  to  do  so.     It  is  by  propitiation 

Ail     d     and  flattery,  and  promises  of  offerings  and  worship  that  the  deities 

coercion  of  arc  bi  li<  v<  d  to  be  influenced;  and  the  natives  so  implicitly  believe 
fetishes       . 

in  the  superhuman  power  of  their  gods,  and  hold  them  generally 

in  sii'h  awe,  that  they  wonld  expect  a  terrible  calamity  to  follow  any  ill— 

u>  ;i  ment  even  of  the  Bohsum  or  Suhman.     In  other  respects  the  religion  of 

the  ( I  old  Coast  has  a  ir.ark»  d  resemblance  to  the  animism  of  otler  races. 


ABORIGINAL  RELIGIONS   OF  AFRICA.  57 


THE  DAHOMANS. 

The  extreme  instance  of  human  sacrifice  as  connected  with  religion  at 

the  present  clay  is  to  be  found  in  Dahomey.     Extraordinary  as  it  may 

appear,  the  horrible  and  frequent  massacres  which  still  exist  in  Dahomey, 

to  the  disgrace  of  mankind,  are  really  manifestations  of  filial  piety.     The 

Dahoman  sovereign  must  enter  Dead-land  with  royal  state,  accompanied  by 

a  ghostly  court  of  leopard  wives,  head  wives,  birthday  wives,  Afa  wives, 

eunuchs,    singers,    drummers,    king's  devils,  band,  and  soldiers.  TnegTand 

This  is  the  object  of  the  "  Grand  Customs,"  when  the  victims  may    cu8toms- 

amount  to  five  hundred.     Every  year,  however,  the  firstfruits  of  war  and 

all  criminals  must  be  sent  to  join  the  king's  retinue,  and  this  accounts  for 

the  annual  customs.     However  trivial  an  action  is  done  by  the  king,  such 

as  inventing  a  new  drum,  being  visited  by  a  white  man,  or  even  removing 

from  one  palace  to  another,  it  must  be  dutifully  reported  by  some  male  or 

female  messenger  (slain)  to  the  paternal  ghost.     The  king  of  Dahomey  on 

a  certain  day  cut  off  the  heads  of  four  men,  a  deer,  and  a  monkey.     One 

man  was  to  go  to  all  the  markets  and  tell  all  the  spirits  what  the    0bject  of 

king  was  about  to  make  for  his  father  ;  the  second  was  to  go  to        the 

\  1        i  •    1  11   At.        customs, 

all  the  waters  and  tell  all  the  animals  there  ;  the  third  to  all  the 

roads  and  tell  all  the  spirit-travellers ;  the  fourth  to  the  firmament  and  tell 

all  the  hosts  there ;  the  deer  was  to  go  to  the  forests  and  tell  the  beasts  ; 

the  monkey  to  go  to  all  the  swamps  and  climb  the  trees  and  tell  all  the 

animals  there.     A  man  had  been  previously  killed  at  the  late  king's  tomb 

to  carry  the  message  to  him. 

The  supreme  deity  of  the  Dahomans  is  Mau,  "  the  unknown  god." 
Mau  is  also  the  moon,  a  feminine  principle  which,  in  conjunction  with  Lisa 
or  Se,  a  male  spirit,  representing  the  sun,  made  man.  Mau  is  too  Deities  of 
high  to  care  for  man,  and  is  neither  feared  nor  loved ;  yet  it  is  Dallomans- 
believed  that  he  can  be  influenced  by  the  intercession  of  many  fetishes  or 
worshipped  objects.  All  kinds  of  natural  objects  are  among  these.  A  man 
about  to  undertake  anything  new  seeks  supernatural  aid,  and,  it  is  said, 
often  takes  the  first  object,  bird  or  beast,  stock  or  stone,  seen  in  the  morning 
on  leaving  his  house,  and  makes  it  his  fetish.  If  he  is  successful,  it  is 
worshipped;  if  not,  better  help  is  sought.  Mau  is  said  to  have  an 
assistant  who  records  the  good  or  evil  deeds  of  every  person  by  means  of  a 
stick,  the  good  being  notched  at  one  end,  the  bad  at  the  other.  "When  any 
one  dies,  his  body  is  judged  by  the  balance  between  the  two  ends  of  the 
stick.  If  the  good  preponderates,  it  is  permitted  to  join  the  spirit  in  Dead- 
land  ;  but  if  the  evil  outweighs  the  good,  it  is  utterly  destroyed  and  a  new 
body  created  for  the  spirit.1 

The   source   of   much   of   the  Dahoman  religion  has  been  the   little 
kingdom  of  Whydah.     We  have  a  record  of  their  religion  dating      Snake 
as  far  back  as  17C0,  when  Bosman  wrote.     They  had  then  three  ^^g^0' 
orders  of  gods,  the  first  the  Danh-ghwe,  a  python,  the  supreme 
1  J.  A.  Skei  tchly  :  "  Dahomey  as  it  Is." 


53  THE.    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


bliss  and   general   good,  with  a  thousand  snake-wives  or   priests  of  both 

sexes  ;  its  influence  cannot  be  meddled  with  by  the  other  orders,  which  are 

subject  to  it.     Formerly,  whoever  killed  one  of  these  pythons  was  put  to 

death.     This  snake  is  believed  to  be  almost  omnipotent  in  procuring  the 

welfare  of  its  devotees,  and  no  important  undertaking  is  begun  without 

sacrificing  to  it.     A  number  of  living  pythons  are  kept  in  the  snake-house 

in    every  considerable  village.      The  worshipper  goes  to  the  snake-house 

and  pays  his  fee  to  the  priest,  who  assures  him  that  his  prayer  shall   be 

heard.     The  second  order,  the  Atin-bodun,  is  represented  by  various  lofty 

and  beautiful  trees,  especially  the  silk-cotton  (Bombax),  and  the 

ocean      Loko  or  poison  tree.     They  are  believed  to  be  able  to  cure  and 

worship.     averj.  diseases      rplie  tnjr^  -m  orcjer  0f  t]ie  g0(jg  js  jju,  the  ocean, 

whose  priest  is  a  great  dignitary  at  Whydah,  and  at  stated  times  repairs  to 
the  beach  to  b?g  the  sea-god  not  to  be  boisterous,  and  throws  in  rice,  corn, 
oil,  beans,  cloth,  etc.  Sometimes  the  king  sends  as  a  sacrifice  a  man  in  a 
hammock  with  a  special  dress,  stool,,  and  umbrella  ;  he  is  taken  out  to  sea 
and  thrown  to  the  sharks.  This  system  of  deities  is  now  established  at 
Dahomey,  with  a  fourth,  "  So,"  the  thunder-fetish,  who  has  a  thousand 
••  wives  ;'  or  priests. 

Burton  has  given  a  list  of  some  of  the  very  numerous  spirits  and 
fetishes  he  found  powerful  in  Dahomey.1  Afa  is  the  messenger  of  fetishes 
Danoman  and  of  deceased  friends.  Its  priests  are  called  Bukonos.  The 
fetishes,  people  say,  "  The  priest  who  is  most  cunning  takes  to  Afa," 
meaning  that  it  pays  best ;  consequently  Bukonos  swarm.  When  Afa 
predicts  evil,  the  following  ceremony  must  be  gone  through.  A  mat  is 
spread  on  some  ground  cleared  near  the  house  or  in  the  bush,  and  a  peg  is 
driven  through  the  mat.  The  priest  taps  a  small  cymbal  with  an  iron  rod, 
while  the  worshipper  pours  upon  the  wood  first  water,  and  then  the  blood 
of  a  fowl,  the  body  of  which  is  then  handed  to  the  priest.  The  leopard, 
the  crocodile,  and  the  hippopotamus  are  of  course  included  ;  but  among  the 
most  interesting  are  Kpate,  the  first  Whydah  man  who  brought  a  ship  to 
anchor  by  waving  a  cloth  tied  to  a  long  pole,  and  led  the  captain  into  the 
town  ;  and  Aizan,  one  of  the  street  gods,  which  protect  the  market  and  the 
a  cone  of  clay  with  a  pipkin  or  a  stone  at  the  top  or  base,  on  which 
consecrated  offerings  are  placed. 

The  Dahomans  also  worship  their  own  heads,  in  order  to  procure  good 

fortune.     The  worshipper,  after  providing  a  fowl  and  other  offerings,  bathes, 

Head       dresses  in  pure  white*,  and  sits  on  a  clean  mat.     Then  an  old 

rship.  woman>  witj1  tjie  tjp  0f  jier  middle  finger  dipped  in  water,  touches 
successively  his  forehead,  crown,  neck,  and  breast.  She  then  breaks  a  Kola 
fruit  into  its  natural  divisions,  throws  them  down  like  dice,  chooses  a  lucky 
piece,  which  she  causes  a  bystander  to  chew,  and  with  his  saliva  retouches 
t  he  same  parts  as  before.  The  fowl  is  then  killed  and  boiled,  its  head  and 
other  parts  being  touched  both  before  and  after.  Meanwhile  rum  and  water 
are  drunk  by  those  present. 

1  "  A  Mission  to  Gele'.e,  King  of  Dahome." 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  AFRICA.  59 


The  adoption  of  the  fetish-priest  profession  is,  usually  attended  by  an 
ecstasy,  during  which  the  candidate  rushes  in  distraction  to  the  idol  and 
falls  fainting  to  the  ground.     "When  he  recovers,  the  chief  priest   Initiation 
informs  him  what  fetish  has  come  to  him,  and  this  is  adopted  for    of  fetish- 
life.     He  removes  to  the  priests'   quarter  and  by  degrees  learns 
the  special  passwords  and  the  ceremonies  of  fetishism.      After  two  or  three 
years,  he  is  brought  home  by  his  relatives,  who  make  large  offerings  to  the 
fetish    priests.     Many    retain    ordinary    callings,    but    they    have    many 
privileges. 

One  of  the  mos'  peculiar  ideas  of  the  Dahomans  is  that  the  next  world 
is  their  home,  while  this  is  only  their  plantation,  and  the  only  world  in 
which  rewards  and  punishments  exist.  It  is  even  pretended  that  visiting 
the  fetish-priests  can  visit  it.  A  man,  when  sick,  often  believes  J)Qa-d-lB;ad- 
himself  summoned  by  some  ancestral  ghost.  He  consults  certain  priests, 
such  as  those  of  the  small-pox  or  the  poison  tree,  and  pays  a  fee  for  him  to 
descend  to  Dead-land  and  get  him  excused.  The  priest  covers  himself  with 
a  cloth,  and  after  a  trance  reports  that  he  found  the  ghosts  eating,  drinking, 
and  merry-making.  According  to  Skertchly,  another  singular  belief  is  that 
of  the  possibility  of  the  same  spirit  being  in  more  than  one  place  at  the 
same  time.  This  was  exemplified  in  the  So-Sin  custom,  where  Gezu's 
ghost  was  in  his  shed,  on  his  war-stool,  and  in  his  own  fetish-priestess  at  the 
same  time.  Again,  a  ghost  will  sometimes  remain  in  Dead-land  and  at  the 
same  time  come  back  to  earth  in  a  new-born  infant ;  so  nearly  all  the  king's 
children  are  regarded  as  the  spirits  of  the  old  kings.  Their  mind  does  not 
grasp  the  idea  of  a  god  incorporeal  and  omnipresent ;  so  the  deity  must  be 
worshipped  through  a  mediator  in  a  tangible  form.  "  Their  religion  must 
not  be  confounded  with  polytheism,  for  they  only  worship  one  Fetishes  as 
god,  Mau  ;  but  propitiate  him  through  the  intervention  of  fetishes,  mediators- 
who  are  not  inferior  deities,  but  only  beings  of  an  intermediate  order,  who 
have  powerful  influence  for  good  or  evil  with  Man. 

THE   YORUBAS  OF  ABEOKUTA. 

At  Abeokuta,  where  another  large   branch  of  the  Yorubas  is  settled, 
Burton  found  certain  points  of  belief  settled,  others  very  variable.      Before 
two  days'  residence  in  the  city,  he  says,  you  hear  of  Shango  and   Beliefs  in 
Oro.     The  latter  personifies  the  executive  power,  or  public  police,  Abeokuta- 
deified,  or  "  punishment."     When  a  criminal  is  killed,  he  is  "  given  to  Oro." 
He  is  supposed  to  haunt  the  woods,   and  to  appear  nightly  to     shango 
strike  terror.     Women  must  fly  within  doors  at  the  sound  of  his     ajL 
name  in  the  streets,  under  penalty  of  a  violent  death.     Shango  is  derived 
doubtless  from  an  ancestor.     He  went  alive  to  heaven,  where  he  reigns, 
hunts,  fishes,  and  fights.     Whole  series  of  relations  are  assigned  to  him  ; 
he   is   the    deity  of  thunder,  lightning,  and   fire,   and    favours  the  good, 
especially  hunters,  fishermen,  and  warriors. 

The  Creator  is  called  Olorun,  meaning  lord  of  the  sky.     Though  his 


60  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


personality  is  vague,   the  Egbas  say,  "  Olorun  bless  you,"   "  Olorun  give 

oiorun     3'0U  children,  farms,  cowries,"  " Olorun  aku,"  salutation  to  God. 

and  other    They  talk  of  seeing  him  after  death.     It  is  doubtful,  however, 

whether  some  of  these  ideas  may  not  have  sprung  from  contact 

with  Mussulmans.     Among  the  subordinate  deities  Obatala  is  chief,  who 

created  the  first  man  ;  Afa  is  the  revealer  of  futurity  and  the  patron  of 

marriage  and  childbirth;   Ogun is  the  god  of  blacksmiths  and  armoureis,  of 

hunters  and  warriors.     The  worshipper's  own  head  is  adored  as  "Ori"; 

also  the  foot,  when  proceeding  on  a  journey.     Oriskako  is  the  patron   of 

farms.     Eshu  is  an  evil  being,  meaning  "  the  rejected,"  often  identified 

with  the  Hebrew  devil.     Egugun,  meaning  "  bones,"  is  supposed  to  be  a 

dead  man  risen  from   the  grave.     He  is,  however,  an  imposture, 

nous       intended  to  terrify  slaves,  women,  and  children — like  the  Mumbo- 

8'  Jumbo  of  Bonny.     To  these,  as  being  palpable  impostures,  we 

cannot  devote    space,  nor  to  the  infinite  variety  of  sorceries  which  only 

furnish  examples  of  one  world-wide  subject.     Beginning  in  a  simple  awe 

of  unknown  powers,  and  a   tendency  to  believe  those  who  imagined  or 

professed  that  they  knew  their  secrets,  they  have  branched  into  all  the 

variety  of  forms  of  imposture  and  quackery  ;  and  when  we  know  one,  we 

know  all,  though  we  may  be  perpetually  astonished  at  the  depth  of  human 

credulity. 

A  large  number  of  the  peoples  of  the  Soudan  and  of  Northern  Africa 
have  been  converted  to  Mahometanism.  Little  is  known  of  their  primordial 
religion,  or  of  the  present  beliefs  of  those  who  are  not  Mahometans.  But 
it  appears  that  many  of  them  have  beliefs  similar  to  these  held  on  the  West 
Coast  of  Africa,  while  others  have  no  religious  beliefs  at  all.  The  illustra- 
tion which  heads  this  chapter  represents  a  series  of  wooden  figures,  life-size, 
seen  by  Schweinfurth,  erected  over  the  grave  of  a  Bongo  chief.  Roughly 
carved,  they  depict  the  chief  followed  in  procession  by  his  wives  and 
children. 

Many  of  the  races  visited  by  Schweinfurth,  west  of  the  Upper  Nile, 
appeared  to  have  little  or  no  religion.  The  Niam-niam  always  take  an 
augury  before  commencing  anything  important,  by  rubbing  a  smooth  block 
of  wood  upon  a  smooth  stool,  the  surfaces  being  moistened  with  a  drop  or 
two  of  water.  The  undertaking  will  prosper  if  the  wood  glides  easily 
along.  Many  forms  of  ordeal  are  also  in  vogue.  The  forest  is  supposed  to 
be  the  abode  of  malignant  spirits,  which  talk  to  one  another  in  the  rustling 
of  the  leaves. 


MANDAN  PLACE  OF  SKULLS. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

aboriginal  ftdigions  of  Smrrira. 

Beliefs  of  the  Eskimo— The  Angakoks— Witchcraft -North  American  Indians— Genaral  religious 
ideas— Gods  of  the  Iroquois— The  Creek  Indians— The  Haidahs— The  Nootkas— Californian  tribes 
—The  Dakotas  — Wakan  — The  Onkteri— Sacrifices— Various  deities —Powers  of  the  Wakan  men 
— Manetos,  or  guardian  spirits— Totems— Duality  of  the  soul — The  Happy  Hunting  Grounds- 
Sacrifices  of  dogs— The  cold  hell  of  the  Mandans— Beliefs  about  the  future— Festivals  of  the 
Iroquois —Creek  festivals  of  firstfruits —Funeral  customs— A  circle  of  skulls —Funeral  rites  of 
the  Creeks —Burial  among  the  Comanches— The  Central  Americans — The  Aztec  religion  — 
Teooallis  or  temples  —Prayers  -Burial  of  a  king— Religion  of  the  Mayas  and  Quiches— The  South 
Americans —The  Indians  of  Guiana— The  spirit- world— Existence  after  death— Ideas  of  heaven — 
Powers  of  spirits— The  Indians'  worship— The  Kenaima  or  vengeance-taker— The  peaiman  or 
medicine  man— Burial  customs —Belief s  of  Brazilian  tribes  —The  Uaup^s— The  Araucanian  deities 
-  -The  future  state  -The  gods  of  the  Patagonians  -The  wanderers  without  —A  diviner's  per- 
formance—Funeral  rites  and  mourning— Burying  the  skeletons— Fuegian  good  and  bad  spirits 
—The  Incas  children  of  the  Sun— The  gods  of  the  Peruvians —Temples — Sacrifices— Human 
offerings— The  priesthood— Festivals— The  Virgins  of  the  Sun— Moral  inquisition— The  future 
life.— The  Chibehas. 

THE  ESKIMO. 

MANY  of  the  beliefs  attributed  to  the  Eskimo,  as  also  to  the  American 
Indians,  bear  signs  of  having  been  developed  since  Europeans  intro- 
duced their  religious  beliefs ;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  be  certain  that  we  have 
ascertained  the  genuine  aboriginal  beliefs.  Dr.  Rink  is  the  most  satisfactory 
investigator  of  the  Eskimo,  especially  those  of  Greenland.  He  Beliefs  of  the 
concludes  that  the  primitive  Eskimo  did  not  speculate  as  to  the  Eskimo- 
origin  of  the  world,  but  had  an  animistic  religion,  recognising  the  separate 
existence  of  the  soul  after  death.  They  believed  in  nature-powers  or  owners, 
each  having  defined  limits.  These  powers  are  known  as  inuas,  and  the 
inuas  of  certain  mountains  or  lakes,  of  plrysical  strength,  and  of  eating,  were 
spoken  of.  The  earth  was  believed  to  rest  upon  pillars,  and  the  under- 
world, warm  and  rich  in  food,  was  the  heaven  of  the  Eskimo,  while  the 
upper- world,  beyond  the  blue  sky,  cold  and  deficient  in  food,  was  dreaded 

as  a  dreary  residence.     The  only  approach  to  a  supreme  ruler  was  in  the 

01 


6 2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


idea  of  tornarsuk,  the  power  which  was  appealed  to  by  the  angakoks,  or 
wizards,  to  enable  them  to  influence  the  invisible  powers. 

It  is  remarkable  how  great  a  resemblance  there  is  between  the  shamans 

of  Siberia  and  the  angakoks  of  the  Eskimo.     The  latter  are  trained  by 

The       older  angakoks   from  infancy,   and    subsequently  disciplined   by 

Angakoks.  fasting  and  invoking  Tornarsuk  in  solitary  places;  finall}T  Tornarsuk 
appears  and  provides  the  novice  with  a  tornak,  or  guardian  spirit,  whom  he 
may  rail  to  his  aid  at  any  time.  Later,  the  angakok  was  said  to  gain 
control  over  many  tornaks,  including  inuas  of  land  and  sea,  the  souls  of 
the  dead,  or  of  animals.  To  aid  their  followers,  they  used  simple  medical 
arts,  also  summoned  their  tornaks,  and  pretended  to  do  many  extraordinary 
things,  such  as  repairing  a  soul,  divining  and  conjuring.  The  intercourse 
with  the  tornak  was  held  in  a  dark  house  in  the  presence  of  auditors.  "  The 
angakok  was  tied  with  his  hands  behind  his  back,  and  his  head  between  his 
legs,  and  thus  placed  on  the  floor  beside  a  drum  and  a  suspended  skin,  the 
rattling  of  which  was  to  accompany  the  playing  of  the  drum.  The  auditors 
then  began  a  song,  which,  being  finished,  the  angakok  proceeded  to  invoke 
the  tornak,  accompanying  his  voice  by  the  skin  and  the  drum.  The  arrival 
of  the  tornak  was  known  by  a  peculiar  sound  and  the  appearance  of  a  light 
or  fire.  If  only  information  or  counsel  were  required,  the  question  was 
heard,  as  well  as  the  answering  voice  from  without,  the  latter  generally 
being  somewhat  ambiguous."  Sometimes  the  angakok  made  a  spirit  flight 
through  a  hole  which  was  said  to  appear  of  itself  in  the  roof,  in  order  to 
accomplish  what  was  necessary.  The  angakok  gave  counsel  in  all  cases 
involving  knowledge  beyond  that  of  humanity  in  general,  discovered  the 
causes  of  disasters  and  the  fate  of  missing  persons,  procured  favourable 
weather  and  success  in  hunting,  and  consoled  the  dying  if  their  death 
appeared  inevitable.  No  doubt,  while  upholding  superstition,  the  angakoks 
possessed  most  of  the  higher  knowledge  and  intellect  of  the  people. 

Witchcraft,  counteracting  the  influence  of  the  angakoks,  and  perhaps 
believed  to  depend  upon  an  evil  power  opposed  to  Tornarsuk,  was  practised 

wit  n  ft  as  a  means  °f  selfish  gain  or  of  procuring  the  injury  of  others,  by 
people  who  for  the  most  part  kept  their  actions  in  the  background, 
concealed  from  the  angakoks.  Magic  spells,  sorcery,  and  various  parts  of 
human  or  animal  bodies,  were  made  use  of  by  these  persons.  The  angakoks 
also  used  certain  recognised  spells  and  invocations  sung  with  particular 
tunes ;  these  were  supposed  to  have  power  of  themselves,  and  were  some- 
times expressly  addressed  to  the  souls  of  ancestors.  These  invocations 
were  chiefly  practised  by  old  men.  Amulets  and  charms  were  in  full  use; 
but  a  rather  distinctive  feature  of  the  Eskimo  was  the  art  of  making  artificial 
annuals,  which  were  secretly  made  and  then  sent  out  to  destroy  the  maker's 
enemies. 

THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS. 

The  multiplicity  of  tribes  in  both  North  and  South  America  is  so  great 
and  the  resemblances  among  their  beliefs  are  so  clear,  that  it  is  necessary 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS  OF  AMERICA.  63 


to  a  large  extent  to  group  them.  The  main  features  of  their  religious 
beliefs  can  be  shortly  stated.  They  had  a  belief  in  beneficent  General  re- 
divinities  in  all  nature,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  idea  of  a li&ious  ldeas- 
single  personal  divinity  had  been  developed  by  them  previous  to  intercourse 
with  Europeans.  The  number  of  spirits  they  believed  in  was  practically 
unlimited.  Communication  with  them  was  in  the  hands  of  medicine-men, 
who,  while  possessing  such  knowledge  as  had  been  handed  down  from 
generation  to  generation,  were  also  to  a  large  extent  conjurors  and  magicians? 
and  professed  to  possess  the  power  of  bringing  on  rain  and  storms,  as  well 
as  the  gifts  of  second  sight  and  of  prophecy. 

The  Iroquois  may  be  taken  as  types.  They  appear  to  have  believed 
in  one  supreme  good  spirit,  who  not  only  created  the  world,  but  adapted  all 
creation  to  the  wants  of  man.  They  also  believed  in  an  evil  spirit,  Gods  of  the 
brother  of  the  good,  and  also  eternal,  and  having  some  creative  Ir°<iuois. 
power.  Thus  he  created  all  monsters,  poisonous  reptiles,  and  noxious  plants. 
They  also  recognised  inferior  beings,  good  and  evil,  believed  to  be  sub- 
ordinate to  the  great  spirits.  To  these  latter  they  made  offerings.  "  To 
propitiate  the  god  of  the  waters,"  says  Charlevoix,  "  they  cast  into  the 
streams  and  lakes  tobacco,  and  birds  which  they  have  put  to  death.  In 
honour  of  the  sun,  and  also  of  inferior  spirits,  they  consume  in  the  fire  a 
part  of  everything  they  use.  On  some  occasions  they  have  been  observed 
to  make  libations,  invoking  at  the  same  time,  in  a  mysterious  manner,  the 
object  of  their  worship.  These  invocations  they  have  never  explained, — 
whether  it  be  that  they  have,  in  fact,  no  meaning,  or  that  the  words  have 
been  transmitted  by  tradition,  unaccompanied  by  their  signification,  or  that 
the  Indians  themselves  are  unwilling  to  reveal  the  secret.  Strings  of  wam- 
pum, tobacco,  ears  of  corn,  the  skins  and  often  the  whole  carcases  of  animals, 
are  seen  along  difficult  or  dangerous  roads,  or  rocks,  and  on  the  shores  of 
rapids,  as  so  many  offerings  made  to  the  presiding  spirit  of  the  place.  In 
these  cases,  dogs  are  the  most  common  victims,  and  are  often  suspended 
alive  upon  trees  by  the  hinder  feet,  where  they  are  left  to  die  in  a  state  of 
madness." 

Most  natural  objects  were  in  care  of  or  inhabited  by  a  spirit.  Corn, 
squashes,  and  beans  were  regarded  as  a  special  gift  of  the  great  spirit,  and 
were  each  in  the  care  of  a  separate  spirit,  having  the  form  of  a  beautiful 
female.  These  three  were  very  fond  of  each  other  and  loved  to  dwell 
together. 

The  Creek  Indians  believe  in  a  good  spirit  whom  they  style  god  Or 
Master  of  Breath  ;  and,  in  a  bad  spirit,  the  sorcerer.  The  good  spirit,  they 
say,  inhabits  some  distant  region  where  game  is  abundant,  corn  The  creek 
grows  all  the  year  round,  and  the  springs  are  never  dried  up.  ^d*3*8- 
The  bad  spirit,  on  the  other  hand,  lives  a  great  way  off  in  a  dismal  swamp 
full  of  briars,  and  usually  half-starved,  having  no  game  or  bears'  oil  in  all 
his  territory.  Droughts,  floods,  famines,  and  defeats  are  ascribed  to  the  bad 
spirit. 

The  Northern  Indians,  stretching  across  the  Canadian  Dominion,  present 


64 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  Nootkas. 


known. 


a  considerable  contrast.  They  appear  to  have  little  idea  of  a  single  supreme 
being,  but  they  believe  in  good  and  bad  spirits  peopling  earth,  sea,  and 
air.  They  do  not  reverence  or  respect  these  spirits,  but  propitiate  them 
occasionally. 

The   Haidahs   of   Queen   Charlotte's  Islands    and    adjacent    mainland 

believe  in  a  great  sun-spirit  who  is  creator  and  supreme  ruler.     They  have 

no  form  of  worship,  and  do  not  appear  to  regard  themselves  as 

■me  Haidahs.  ^^^g^ig  for  their  actions  to  the  great  spirit.    They  also  believe 

in  an  evil  spirit. 

The  Nootkas,  or  tribes  of  Vancouver  Island  and  its  opposite  main,  says 
H.  H.  Bancroft  in  his  great  work,  "  The  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States," 
acknowledge  a  great  personage  called    Quabootze,    whose   habi- 
tation  is   apparently   in  the  sky,  but  of  whose  nature  little  is 
When  a  storm  begins  to  rage  dangerously,  the  Nootkas  climb  to 

the  top  of  their  houses,  and 

I  looking    upwards 


to  this 
great  god,  they  beat  drums 
and  chant,  and  call  upon  his 
name,  imploring  him  to  still 
the  tempest.  They  fast,  as 
something  agreeable  to  the 
same  deity,  before  setting 
out  on  the  hunt,  and,  if  their 
success  warrant  it,  hold  a 
feast  in  his  honour  after 
their  return.  This  festival 
is  held  usually  in  December, 
and  it  was  formerly  the 
custom  to  finish  it  with  a 
human  sacrifice. 
Matlose   is    a   famous   hob- 


goblin of  the  Nootkas  ;  he 
is  a  very  Caliban  of  spirits  ; 
his  head  is  like  the  head  of  something  that  might  have  been  a  man  but  is 
not ;  his  uncouth  bulk  is  horrid  with  black  bristles  ;  his  monstrous  teeth 
and  nails  are  like  the  fangs  and  claws  of  a  bear.  "Whoever  hears  his 
terrible  voice  falls  like  one  smitten,  and  his  curved  claws  rend  his  prey 
into  morsels  with  a  single  stroke." 

In  common  with  other  American  Indians,  the  Nootkas  have  a  tradition 
of  a  supernatural  teacher  and  benefactor  who  came  up  Nootka  Sound  long 
ago  in  a  canoe  of  copper,  with  copper  paddles.  He  is  said  to  have  instructed 
the  people,  told  them  that  he  came  from  the  sky,  that  their  country  would 
ultimately  be  destroyed,  and  they  would  die;  but  that  after  death  they 
would  ris  •  again  and  live  with  him  above.  In  anger  they  rose  up  and  slew 
him;  but  they  retain  large  wooden  images  representing  him.  They  also 
believe  in  numberless  spirits. 


CAiUEU    IMAOES    OF    NOUTKA    1KDIANS. 


ABORIGINAL  RELIGIONS   OF  AMERICA.  65 


The  Californian  tribes,  taken  as  a  whole,  according  to  Bancroft,  are 
pretty  uniform  in  their  religious  beliefs.  "  They  seem,  without  exception, 
to  have  had  a  hazy  conception  of  a  lofty,  almost  supreme,  king,  californian 
for  the  most  part  referred  to  as  a  Great  Man,  the  Old  Man  Above,  tribes- 
the  One  above,  attributing  to  him,  however,  nothing  but  the  vaguest  and  most 
negative  functions  and  qualities."  But  they  were  most  interested  in  the 
powers  of  a  demon,  or  body  of  demons,  wholly  bad,  and  working  all  evil  things. 

The  beliefs  of  the  Dakotas  of  Minnesota  have  been  carefully  described 
by  the  Rev.  G.  H.  Pond.1     Their  most  prominent  characteristic  is  that  which 
they  express  by  the  word  wakan.     This  word  signifies  anything       TbB 
they  cannot  comprehend.      Whatever  is  wonderful,  mysterious,    Dakotas. 
superhuman,  or  supernatural  is  wakan.     The  generic  name  for  gods  is  Talm- 
wakan,  i.e.  that  which  is  wakan.     There  is  nothing  which  they  do  not  revere 
as  god.     The  only  difference  they  make  is  that  some  things  are  wakan  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree.     Mr.  Pond  does  not  believe  that  the 
Dakotas  ever  distinguished  the  great  spirit  from  others  till  they        a  an' 
learned  it  from  their  intercourse  with  white  men.     They  have  no  chants, 
feasts,  dances,  nor  sacrificial  rites  referring  to  such  a  being.     It  is  true  they 
sometimes  appeal  to  the  great  spirit  in  council  with  white  men,  but  it  is  as 
the  being  whom  the  white  man  worships. 

All  the  gods  of  the  Dakotas  are  mortal  and  propagate  their  kind.  Their 
Onkteri  resemble  the  ox  on  a  large  scale,  and  can  instantly  extend  their  tail 
and  homs  so  as  to  reach  the  sky,  the  seat  of  their  power.  The 
earth  is  believed  to  be  animated  by  the  spirit  of  the  female 
Onkteri,  while  the  water,  and  the  earth  beneath  the  water,  is  the  abode  of 
the  male  god.  They  call  water,  in  a  religious  address  to  it,  grandfather, 
and  the  earth  grandmother.  The  Onkteri,  like  all  their  other  gods,  have 
power  to  issue  from  their  bodies  a  mighty  wakan  influence  called  tomcan, 
signifying  a  god's  arrow. 

The  sacrifices  which  the  Onkteri  require  are  the  down  of  the  female 
swan  and  of  the  goose,  dyed  scarlet,  white  cotton  cloth,  deerskins,  tobacco, 
doffs,  wakan  feasts  and  dances.     Subordinate  to  the  Onkteri  are 

Sacrifices 

the  serpent,  lizard,  frog,  leech,  owl,  eagle,  fish,  spirits  of  the  dead, 
etc.  These  gods  made  the  earth  and  man,  instituted  the  medicine-dance,  pre- 
scribed the  manner  in  which  earth-paints  must  be  applied,  which  have  a 
wakan  virtue  to  protect  life,  and  are  often  worn  by  the  warrior  for  this  pur- 
pose on  the  field  of  battle.  Among  all  the  Dakota  deities,  the  Onkteri  are 
the  most  respected. 

The  "VVakinyan  are  the  gods  of  thunder,  but  the  name  signifies  "  flyers," 
and  they  are  represented  as  having  numerous  winged  forms.  They  are 
ruthless  and  destructive,  caring  for  no  other  beings,  and  especially  hating 
the  Onkteri,  who  return  the  hatred.  It  is  believed  that  neither  group  can 
resist  the  tonwan  of  each  other's  wakan ;  and  it  is  unsafe  for  them  to  cross 
each  other's  track.  The  Wakinyan  are  the  Dakotas'  chief  war-gods,  from 
whom  they  received  the  spear  and  tomahawk. 

1  Schoolcraft :  "  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States,"  Part  VI. 

F 


66 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Another  god  has  a  long  name  signifying  "  that  which  stirs."     He  is  in- 
invisible  and  omnipresent,  but  very  cunning  and  passionate,  and  controlling 
ious     both  milKl  an^  instinct.     He  resides  in  the  consecrated  spear  and 
deities,     tomahawk,  in  boulders  (which  are  universally  venerated  by  the 
Dakot  I  in  the  four  winds.      He  is  never  better  pleased  than  when 

men  fall  in  battle,  and  the  converse.  Subject  to  this  god,  are  the  buzzard, 
raven,  fox,  wolf,  and  other  fierce  and  cunning  animals.  Other  forms  of  gods, 
as  the  Heyoka,  aid  men  in  gratifying  their  desires,  in  the  chase,  in  inflicting 
diseases,  in  restoring  health.  They  express  joy  by  sighs  and  groans,  and 
si  >rr<  >\v  by  laughter ;  they  shiver  when  warm,  and  pant  and  perspire  when 
cold  ;  they  feel  perfect  assurance  in  danger,  and  are  terrified  when  safe  ; 
falsehood  to  them  is  truth,  and  truth  falsehood;  good  is  their  evil,  and  evil 
their  good. 

Turning  now  to  the  powers  claimed  by  or  believed  to  reside  in  the  Dakota 
s  or  wakan  men,  we  may  say,  comprehensively,  that  they  include  all 
f   that  is  ascribed  to  the  gods.     They  are  believed  to  pass  through  a 
the        succession  of  inspirations  with  different  classes  of  divinities  till 
wakan-men.  ^ey  ^^  fully  icakanized  and  prepared  for  human  incarnation. 
They  have  imbibed  their  spirit,  and  learnt  all  the  chants,  rites,  and  dances 
required  by  the  gods ;  they  are  supposed  to  be  taught  how  to  inflict  diseases 
and   heal  them,  to  manufacture  weapons  and  impart  to  them  the  tonwan 
power  of  the  gods,  and  to  apply  paints  so  as  to  protect  from  enemies.     To 
establish  their  claims,  these  men  and  women  lay  hold  of  all  that  is  strange 
and  mysterious,   and  assume  familiarity  with  it,  often  predict  what  will 
happen,  and   assert  that  they  have  brought  it  about.     They  are  most  in- 
genious in  devising  proofs  of  their  divine  inspiration. 

"As  a  priest,"  says  Mr.  Pond,  "  with  all  the  assurance  of  an  eye- 
witness, the  wakan  man  bears  testimony  for  the  divinities,  reveals  their 
character  and  will,  dictates  chants  and  prayers,  institutes  dances,  feasts  and 
sacrificial  rites,  defines  sin  and  its  opposite.  .  .  .  Sin  consists  in  any 
want  of  conformity  to,  or  transgression  of,  the  arbitrary  rules  imposed  by  the 
priest,  or  want  of  respect  for  his  person  ;  and  holiness  consists  in  conformity 
to  these  rules,  and  well-expressed  respect  for  the  wakan  men  ;  while  the  re- 
wards and  punishments  are  of  such  a  nature  that  they  may  be  appreciated 
I  iv  the  grossest  senses." 

In  reference  to  war  the  wakan  man  is  supreme.  He  makes  and  conse- 
crates spears  and  tomahawks  containing  the  spirit  of  the  gods,  and  only 
bestows  them  on  humble  suppliants  who  go  through  fastings,  prayers,  and 
<>t  her  rites  of  an  exhausting  nature.  These  weapons  are  sacredly  preserved, 
wrapped  in  a  cloth  cover,  and  laid  outside  of  the  tent  every  day,  except  in 
st onus.  As  doctors,  the  wakan  men  are  believed  to  have  in  their  bodies 
animals  or  gods,  which  give  them  great  powers  of  suction  and  inspiration. 
With  great  ceremonies  they  violently  suck  out  diseases  from  the  affected 
parts  of  patients.  It  seems  to  be  the  general  impression  that  there  are 
wakan  men  who  can  repel  any  foe  to  health  until  the  superior  gods  order 
otherwise  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  their  aid.     They  can  inflict  diseases 


ABORIGINAL  RELIGIONS   OF  AMERICA.  67 

as  a  punishment  for  want  of  respect  to  themselves,  and  death  is  often  be- 
lieved to  be  the  result  of  this  wakan  power. 

Every  object  is  believed  to  have  an  animating  spirit,   and  in  many- 
cases  the  Indians  select  birds  and  beasts  as  personal  "  manetos."     Maneto  is 
a  synonym  for  spirit,  and  may   have   a  good   or  bad  meaning  Manetos  as 
attached  to  it.     Among  the  Algonquins  Manabozho  was  a  sort  of    guardian 
terrene  Jove,  who,  though  he  lived  on  earth,  could  perform  all 
things.     He  survived  a  deluge  which  is  spoken  of  in  their  mj^thology,  hav- 
ing climbed  to  the  summit  of  a  high  mountain,  where  he  remained  till  the 
subsidence  of  the  waters.     The  four  cardinal  points  are  personified,  and  each 
has  its  distinctive  sphere.     Dreams  they  believed  to  be  direct  communica- 
tions  from  the   spirit-world.     An   entire  army  would  retrace  its  steps  in 
accordance  with  the  dreams  of  the  priest,  who  carried  a  "  medicine-sack  " 
containing  carved  or  stuffed  images  of  animals,  charms  and  bones,  held  most 
sacred.     The  Indian  youth  anxiously  sought  dreams,  often  fasting  in  soli- 
tude many  days,  till  he  was  impressed  with  the  image  of  some  animal, 
which  he  took  as  his  maneto,  and  followed  the  occupation  it  indicated. 

The  manetos  are  clearly  often  identifiable  with  the  totems  of  the  clan 

or  of  the  individual.     The  totem  of  a  North  American  Indian  protects  him, 

and  he  refrains  from  killing  it.     The  whole  of  a  clan  or  tribe  are 

-,°  ill      Totems, 

believed  to  be  descended  from  the  common  totem,  and  are  bound 

to  support  and  protect  each  other.  They  are  bound  to  respect  it,  and  if  it 
is  a  species  of  animal  or  plant,  it  must  not  be  killed,  plucked,  or  injured. 
Sometimes  they  may  not  even  touch  or  look  at  it.  The  totem  is  supposed  to 
benefit  the  clansmen  or  the  individual,  and  to  give  information  by  means  of 
omens.  The  totem  mark  is  affixed  as  a  signature  to  treaties  and  other  docu- 
ments, and  various  ceremonies  at  birth,  marriage,  death,  etc.,  are  connected 
with  the  totem. 

"  It  is  an  opinion  of  the  Indians,"  says  Schoolcraft,  "  I  know  not  how 
universal,  that  there  are  duplicate  souls,  one  of  which  remains  with  the 
body,  while  the  other  is  free  to  depart  on  excursions  during  sleep.  Duality 
After  the  death  of  the  body,  the  soul  departs  for  the  Indian  of  the  soul, 
elysium,  or  land  of  the  dead  ;  at  which  time  a  fire  is  lighted  by  the  Chip- 
pewas  on  the  newly-made  grave,  and  rekindled  nightly  for  four  days,  the 
period  allowed  for  the  person  to  reach  the  Indian  elysium.  .  .  .  Having 
requested  a  Chippewa  Indian  to  explain  the  duality  of  the  soul,  '  It  is 
known,'  he  replied,  '  that  during  sleep,  while  the  body  is  stationary,  the  soul 
roams  over  wide  tracts  of  country,  visiting  scenes,  persons  and  places  at  will. 
Should  there  not  be  a  soul  at  the  same  time  to  abide  with  the  body,  it  would 
be  as  dead  as  earth,  and  could  never  reappear  in  future  life/  ' 

As  to  the  future  life,  their  belief  in  the  "  Happy  Hunting-Grounds,"  so 

often  referred  to,  is  with  the  majority  firm  and  unquenchable.     Mr.  W.  W. 

Warren,  himself  descended  from  the  Ojibwas  on  the  maternal  TheHappy 

side,  expressed  their  beliefs  thus  :  "  The  Ojibwa  believes  that  his   Hunting- 
a  u  Grounds 

soul  or  shadow,  after  the  death  of  the  body,  follows  a  wide,  beaten 

path  which  leads  towards  the  west,  and  that  it  goes  to  a  country  abounding 


63  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


in  everything  that  the  Indian  covets  on  earth— game  in  abundance,  dancing 
and  rejoicing.  The  soul  enters  a  long  lodge,  in  which  all  his  relatives  for 
generations  past  are  congregated,  and  they  welcome  him  with  gladness.  To 
reach  this  land  of  joy  and  bliss,  he  crosses  a  deep  and  rapid  water."  This 
water  they  have  to  cross  on  a  huge  snake.  Those  who  have  been  good  are 
free  from  pain  ;  those  who  have  been  bad  are  haunted  by  the  phantoms  of 
the  persons  or  things  they  have  injured.  If  a  man  has  destroyed  much 
property,  he  is  obstructed  by  the  phantoms  of  the  destroyed  property; 
if  he  has  been  cruel  to  his  clogs  or  horses,  they  also  torment  him  after 
death. 

The  mention  of  clogs  reminds  one  of  the  frequency  with  which  they  are 

sacrificed  by  Indians,  as  being  valuable  offerings.     Two,  three  or  five  dogs 

sacrifices  of  are  customary  offerings.     At  the  mouth  of  the  Qu'appelle  Eiver, 

dogs.      ail  Indian,  in  June,  1858,  set  his  net  and  caught  a  large  fish  which 

was  new  to  him.     He  at  once  pronounced  it  a  manitou,  returned  it  to  the 

water,  and  sacrificed  five  dogs  to  appease  the  supposed  spirit. 

Catlin  says  that  the  Mandans  (a  tribe  included  by  Schoolcraft  among  the 

Dakotas),  who  lived  in  a  very  cold  climate,  described  their  hell  as  barren 

^  ..,..„  and  hideous,  covered  with  eternal  snows  and  ice.  Their  heaven 
The  cola  hell  ' 

of  the      Was    warm   and    delightful,    abounding   in  buffaloes   and  other 

^  ans'  luxuries.  Their  Great  Spirit  dwelt  in  the  former,  and  received 
and  punished  those  who  had  offended  him.  The  bad  spirit  they  believed  to 
reside  in  paradise,  still  tempting  the  happy. 

The  beliefs  we  have  given  may  be  contrasted  with  those  of  other  tribes 
who  believed  that  the  good  spirit  will  receive  all,  without  exception,  in  the 
Beliefs  about  Happ}7-  Huiiting-Ground,  and  with  those  tribes  who  had  so  little 
the  future,  conception  of  soul  or  immortality  that  missionaries  found  it  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  explain  them.  Among  the  Californians  were  some 
tribes  who  identified  death  with  annihilation,  yet  were  afraid  to  pronounce 
the  name  of  a  deceased  person  lest  he  should  rise  from  dark  oblivion.  "  The 
Cahrocs,"  says  Bancroft,1  "  have  a  distinct  conception  of  future  reward  and 
punishment,  and  suppose  that  the  spirit,  on  its  journey  after  death,  comes  to 
t  wo  roads,  one  strewn  with  flowers,  and  leading  to  the  bright  western  land 
beyond  the  great  waters  ;  the  other,  bristling  with  thorns  and  briars,  lead- 
ing to  a  place  full  of  deadly  serpents,  where  the  wicked  must  wander  for 
ever.  The  Tolewahs  place  heaven  behind  the  sun,  and  picture  hell  as  a  dark 
place  where  souls  shiver  for  ever  before  the  cold  winds,  and  are  harassed 
by  fiends.  The  Modocs'  spirit-land  is  situated  in  the  air  above  the  earthly 
home,  where  souls  hover  about,  inciting  the  living  to  good  and  evil.  The 
A I  l«'<juas  imagined  that  before  the  soul  could  enter  the  evergreen  prairies 
to  live  its  second  life,  free  from  want  and  sorrow,  it  expiated  its  sins  in  the 
form  of  some  animal,  often  passing  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  grade,  accord- 
ing to  the  earthly  conduct  of  the  deceased.  By  eating  prairie-dogs  and 
other  game,  some  sought  to  gather  souls,  apparently  with  a  view  to  increase 
the  purity  of  their  own  and  shorten  the  preparatory  term.  The  San  Diego 
1  "  Native  Eaces  of  the  Pacific  States,"  vol.  iii. 


ABORIGINAL  RELIGIONS   OF  AMERICA. 


69 


tribes,  on  the  other  hand,  considering  large  game  as  the  embodied  spirits  of 
certain  of  their  forefathers,  abstained  from  their  flesh,  fearing  that  such 
fare  would  hasten  their  death — a  fear  which  did  not  deter  old  men. 

Morgan   describes   six  regular  festivals  as  observed  by  the  Iroquois : 
(1)  the  Maple  festival,  thanking  the  Maple  for   its  sweet  waters  ;  (2)  the 
planting  festival,  invoking  the  Great  Spirit  to  bless  the  seed  ;    Festival3 
(3)  the   Strawberry  festival,  or  firstfruits  thanksgiving;  (4)  the      of  the 
Green  Corn  festival ;  (5)  the  Harvest  festival ;  (6)  the  New  Year's 
festival.     When  returning  thanks  to  or  for  various  objects  of  Nature,  they 
never  burned  tobacco  ;  but  when  invoking  or  praying  to  the  Great  Spirit, 
they  always  used  the  ascending  smoke  of  tobacco. 


ENTRANCE    TO    AN    ANCIENT    MEXICAN    TEMPLE. 


Among  the  Creek  Indians  there  was  an  annual  festival,  formerly  of 

eight   days,  now   confined  to   four,  devoted  to  thanksgiving  and  fasting, 

and  resembling  in  some  features  the  Hebrew  jubilee.     At  the      Creek 

return  of  this  festival  all  offences  were  cancelled.     It  commenced    festival  of 
i  ■  •  n      1  i  •   1  1      firstfruit 

at  the   ripening   oi   the   new   crops,    at   which   time  a  general 

purgation  and  cleansing  took  place.     On  the  first  day  a  general  feast  was 

prepared  from  the  remains  of  the  old  crop,  and  sacred  fires  were  built. 

Many  curious  modes  of  burial  prevailed  among  the  American  Indians. 

One  was  that  of  placing  the  dead  on  scaffolds,  the  corpse  being     Funeral 

carefully  wrapped  in  bark  and  raised  on  a  platform  formed  by    customB- 

transverse  pieces  of  wood  lying  between  the  forks  of  trees.     In  some  tribes 


7o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the*body  is  dressed  in  its  best  attire,  painted,  oiled,  feasted,  and  supplied 
with  bow  and  quiver,  shield,  pipe  and  tobacco,  knife,  flint  and  steel,  and 
provisions  enough  for  a  few  days'  journey.  A  fresh  buffalo's  skin  is  tightly 
wrapped  round  the  body,  followed  by  other  robes.  Among  the  Mandans, 
according  to  Catlin,  when  the  scaffolds  decay,  the  bones,  except  the  skulls, 
are  buried,  while  the  bleached  skulls  are  placed  in  circles  of  a  hundred  or 
more  on  the  prairie,  at  equal  distances  apart,  with  the  faces  all  looking  to 
the  centre,  where  they  are  religiously  guarded.  "  Every  one  of  the  skulls 
is  placed  upon  a  bunch  of  wild  sage,  which  has  been  pulled  and  placed 

a  circle  of  under  it.  The  wife  knows  (by  some  mark  of  resemblance)  the 
skuUs.  skull  of  her  husband  and  child,  which  lies  in  this  group;  and 
there  seldom  passes  a  clay  that  she  does  not  visit  it,  with  a  dish  of  the  best- 
cooked  food  that  her  wigwam  affords,  which  she  sets  before  the  skull  at 
night,  and  returns  for  the  dish  in  the  morning.  .  .  .  There  is  scarcely 
an  hour  in  a  pleasant  day,  but  more  or  fewer  of  these  women  may  be  seen 
sitting  or  l}:ing  by  the  skulls  of  their  children  or  husbands,  talking  to  them  in 
the  most  pleasant  and  endearing  language  that  they  can  use,  and  seemingly 
getting  an  answer  back." 

According  to  Major  Swan,  who  visited  the  Creek  Indians  of  Georgia  and 

Florida  in  1791,  "  when  one  of  a  family  dies,  the  relations  bury  the  corpse 

about  four  feet  deep,  in  a  round  hole  dug  directly  under  the  cabin 

rites  of  the  or  rock  on  which  he  died.  The  corpse  is  placed  in  the  hole  in  a 
sitting  posture,  with  a  blanket  wrapped  about  it,  and  the  legs  bent 
under  it  and  tied  together.  If  a  warrior,  he  is  painted,  and  his  pipe,  orna- 
ments, and  warlike  appendages  are  deposited  with  him.  The  grave  is  then 
covered  with  canes  tied  to  a  hoop  round  the  top  of  the  hole,  and  then  a 
firm  layer  of  clay  sufficient  to  support  the  weight  of  a  man.  The  relatives 
howl  loudly  and  mourn  publicly  for  four  days.  If  the  deceased  has  been  a 
man  of  eminent  character,  the  family  immediately  remove  from  the  house 
in  which  he  is  buried,  and  erect  a  new  one,  with  a  belief  that  where  the 
bones  of  their  dead  are  deposited  the  place  is  always  attended  by  'goblins 
and  chimeras  dire.'  " 

Among  the  Comanches  of  Texas,  the  deceased  is  packed  upon  a  horse 

as  soon  as  he  expires,  taken  to  the  highest  hill  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 

Burial      Juried  privately.     The  wives  of  the  dead  man  cut  their  arms, 

ccmancl?6  *e^S'  anc*  bodies  *n  great  gashes,  till  they  often  become  exhausted 
"  by  the  loss  of  blood.     Formerly  the  favourite  wife  was  killed ; 
but  more  recently  only  the  deceased's  horses  are  killed  and  buried,  to  carry 
him  to  paradise. 

THE  CENTRAL  AMERICANS. 

The    Mexican   Indians,   especially   the   Aztecs,    had  reached   a   more 

developed  stage  of  civilisation  and  religion  than  their  northern  kinsmen. 

The  Aztecs'  It  *s  doubtful  whether  they  believed  in  one  supreme  deity  or  not. 

elision.    The  word  teotl,  sometimes  thought  to   mean  the  supreme  god, 

means   deity   in  general.     It  is  related,  however,  that  the  poet-king  of 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  AMERICA. 


7> 


Tezcuco  built  a  nine-storied  temple,  with  a  starry  roof  above,  in  honour  of 
a  deity  not  represented  by  an  image,  called  Tloquenhuaque,  "  he  who  is  all 
in  himself"  ;  or  Ipalnemoan,  "  he  by  whom  we  live  "  ;  in  his  honour  only 
incense  and  flowers  were  offered,  and  no  bloody  sacrifices.     Surely  here  we 


TEOTCAOMIQUI,    MEXICAN    GODDESS    OF    DEATH    (AFTER    BANCROFT). 


have  a  marked  Asiatic  influence.  The  ordinary  Mexican  religion  was 
distinctly  polytheistic,  and  we  may  gather  that  some  of  their  gods  had  been 
worshipped  for  a  very  long  period,  by  the  great  number  of  functions  and 
epithets  concentrated  upon  them.  Whether  Tozcatlipoca,  one  of  the 
highest  gods,  was  a  deified  ancestor  or  not,  he  conformed  to  this  idea  by 


72  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS 


having  prayers  for  all  kinds  of  help  addressed  to  him.  Tonatiuh  and 
Metztli,  the  sun  and  moon ;  Centeotl,  goddess  of  maize  and  mother  of  the 
gods ;  Tlazolteotl,  goddess  of  pleasure  ;  Tezcatzoncatl,  god  of  strong  drink, 
are  specimens  of  Mexican  gods  ;  but  the  predominant  idea  in  their  mind  is 
shown  by  I  heir  chief  god  being  the  god  of  war,  Huitzilopochtli.  There  were 
als- 1  many  native  spirits  of  the  hills  and  groves,  etc.  The  Aztecs  were  equally 
Teocams,  or  remarkable  for  the  number   and    size   of  their  temples,    called 

temples,  teocallis,  or  god's  houses.  They  were  pyramidal,  and  rose  by  suc- 
ire  terraces  to  lofty  platforms.  The  great  temple  of  the  god  of  war  in 
the  city  of  Mexico  had  a  base  375  by  300  feet,  and  rising  by  five  steep  terraces 
to  86  feet  high,  with  flights  of  steps  at  the  angles.  On  the  platform  were 
two  tower-like  temples  of  three  stories,  containing  great  stone  images  and 
altars.  The  gods  were  predominantly  worshipped  with  human  sacrifices. 
There  were  many  festivals,  each  marked  by  its  special  variety  of  sacrifice 
and  celebration.  Before  the  war-gocl  there  was  an  eternal  fire  and  a  stone  of 
sacrifice,  on  which  the  victim,  usually  a  captive,  was  laid,  for  the  priest  to 
cut  open  his  breast  and  tear  out  his  heart  and  hold  it  up  before  the  god. 
-From  the  terrace  were  visible  seventy  other  temples  within  the  great  square 
enclosure,  each  with  images  and  blazing  fires  ;  while  in  the  Tzompantli,  or 
skull-place,  thousands  of  victims'  skulls  were  built  up  to  form  towers.  At 
Cholula  was  the  much  larger  hemispherical  temple  of  the  god  Quetzalcoatl, 
the  rival  to  Tezcatlipoca. 

That  the  prayers  of  these  people  were  genuine  religious  utterances, 
ma}T  be  gathered  from  the  following  extracts  from  a  prayer  to  the  last- 

Prayers  mentioned  god  on  behalf  of  the  poor  :  "  0  our  lord,  protector, 
most  strong  and  compassionate,  invisible  and  impalpable,  thou  art 
the  giver  of  life  ;  lord  of  all  and  lord  of  battles,  I  present  myself  here 
before  thee  to  say  some  few  words  concerning  the  need  of  the  poor  people, 
the  people  of  none  estate  or  intelligence.  Know,  O  lord,  that  thy  subjects 
and  servants  suffer  a  sore  poverty  and  desolateness.  The  men  have  no 
garments  nor  the  women  to  cover  themselves  with.  .  .  .  When  they 
sell  nothing,  they  sit  down  sadly  by  some  fence,  or  wall,  or  in  some  corner, 
licking  their  lips  and  gnawing  their  nails  for  the  longing  that  is  in  them, 
.  .  .  0  our  Lord,  in  whose  power  it  is  to  give  all  content,  consolation, 
sweetness,  softness,  prosperity,  and  riches — for  thou  alone  art  lord  of  all 
g«««l— have  mercy  upon  them,  for  they  are  thy  servants."  But  we  cannot 
but  take  a  gloomy  view  of  a  religion  based  so  largely  upon  human  sacrifices 
and  cannibalism,  on  penances  involving  the  drawing  of  blood  from  the  body, 
and  other  cruel  rites. 

"The  funeral  rites  of  the  Mexicans,"  says  Mr.  Tylor,  "are  best  seen 
in  the  ceremonies  at  the  death  of  a  king.     The  corpse  laid  out  in  state  was 

Burial  of    provided  by  the  priest  with  a  jug  of  water  for  his  journey   and 

with   bunches   of  cut  papers  to   pass   him   safely  through   each 

danger  of  the  road.     They  gave  him  garments  to  protect   him  from  the 

cutting  wind  and  buried  a  little  dog  by  his  side  to  carry  him  across  the 

nine  waters.     Then  the  royal  body  was  invested  in  the  mantles  of  his  patron 


ABORIGINAL  RELIGIONS    OF  AMERICA. 


73 


gods,  especially  that  of  the  war-god."  In  earlier  times  the  king  was  buried 
on  a  throne  with  his  most  valued  possessions  and  his  slain  attendants  around 
him.     At  a  later  period,  when  cremation  had  been  adopted,  the  body  of 


STATUE    OR    IDOL   AT    COPAN,    HONDURAS    (AFTER   STEPHENS). 

the  king  was  carried  to  the  funeral  pile  by  attendant  chiefs  and  servants. 
and  afterwards  a  great  number  of  wives  and  slaves  of  the  deceased  were 
sacrificed  and  their  bodies  burnt,  after  solemn  exhortation  to  serve  him 
faithfully  in  the  next  world. 


74  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

The  Mayas  of  Yucatan  and  the   Quiches  of  Guatemala  had  a  funda- 
mentally similar  religion,  though  it  is  much  less  well-known.     At  Uxmal 
and  other  places  are  the  remains  of  larger  and  more  magnificent 
the  Mayas  pyramidal  temples  or  sacrificial  platforms  than  in  Mexico.     Their 
*"  priests  were  more  powerful  even  than  in  Mexico,  and  the  chief 
priests  belonged  to  the  royal  families.     The  festivals  observed  were  very 
numerous,  and  the  people  always  made  a  sacrifice  before  commencing  any 
important  undertaking.     Human  sacrifices  with  cannibalism  were  frequent, 
as  well  as  the  drawing  of  blood  from  penitents'  bodies. 


THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS. 

Beginning  with  the  tribes  inhabiting  Guiana,  we  find  that  the  most 
important  recent  study  of  the  religions  of  the  Indians  of  British  Guiana 

The  Indians  has  been  made   by  Mr.    Everard   Im   Thurm   (see  his  valuable 

of  Guiana.  work,  "  Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana").  He  bases  their  system, 
if  it  can  be  called  such,  upon  the  belief  that  every  human  being  has  a 
soul  or  spirit  distinct  from  the  body.  In  dreams  the  spirit  wanders  and 
acts  just  as  really  as  in  waking  life.  Visions  also  are  real,  and  may  be 
produced  by  narcotics,  stimulants,  and  fasting ;  in  the  course  of  these  a 
spirit  may  wander  and  hold  communion  with  other  spirits.  The  spirit 
of  a  man  may  pass  into  an  animal  and  even  into  inanimate  objects ;  and 
the  Indian  also  believes  that  animals  and  plants  and  inanimate  objects 
have  their  own  spirits.  Rock-spirits  may  move  and  often  occasion 
The  injuries  to  man,  by  causing  the  rock  to  fall  upon  him  ;  similarly 
spint-worid.  with  many  other  natural  phenomena,  ascribed  to  the  intention  of 
the  spirits  of  the  objects  concerned.  All  strange  objects  are  looked  upon 
with  awe,  as  being  inhabited  by  spirits  which  are  likely  to  occasion  evil 
even  if  criticised  or  examined.  Diseases  too  are  often  believed  to  be 
occasioned  by  spirits,  and  Mr.  W.  H.  Brett,  in  his  "  Indian  Tribes  of 
Guiana,"  has  narrated  how  the  Caribs  on  the  Pomeroon  river,  being  at- 
tacked by  a  dangerous  epidemic,  fled  far  into  the  forest,  in  their  flight 
cutting  down  large  trees  and  laying  them  across  the  path,  to  prevent  the 
disease-spirits  from  following  them. 

In  every  view  which  these  Indians  take  of  the  spirit- world,  it  is  regarded 
as  composed  of  beings  not  very  unlike  those  of  the  material  world,  and  the 

Existence    spirits  differ  chiefly  in  their  degrees  of  strength  and  cunning. 

after  death,  rj^  facfc  0f  continued  existence  of  the  spirit  after  death  of  the  body 
is  implied  in  this,  and  in  many  of  their  funeral  customs  ;  but  this  existence 
is  not  definitely  imagined  to  be  everlasting.  "  As  long  as  the  memory  of  a 
dead  man  survives,"  says  Mr.  Im  Thurm,  "  either  in  the  minds  of  his  former 
companions  or  in  tradition,  he  is  supposed  to  exist ;  but  no  question  as  to 
whether  this  existence  is  or  is  not  to  be  prolonged  for  ever,  has  ever  been 
formulated  in  the  Indian  mind."  There  is  no  belief  as  to  rewards  and 
punishments  being  meted  out  after  death.  It  is  usually  supposed  that  the 
spirits  of  the  dead  remain  on  earth  in  the  places  where  they  lived  when  in 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  AMERICA.  75 

the  body.     Several   times  Mr.  Im  Thurm  was  told  by  Indians  that  they 
hoped  to  become  white  men. 

They  have  an  idea  of  a  kind  of  heaven  beyond  the  sky,  but  it  is  just 
a  repetition  of  earth.  From  it  they  believe  their  ancestors  came.  Rochefort, 
writing  of  the  Caribs  of  the  West  Indies,  the  ancestors  of  the  ideas  of 
Caribs  of  Guiana,  says  that  they  believed  their  brave  men  neaven- 
would  live  after  death  in  happy  islands,  where  their  enemies,  the  Arawaks, 
would  be  their  slaves ;  but  that  the  cowards  of  their  own  tribe  would  be 
slaves  to  the  Arawaks  in  a  barren  land  beyond  the  mountains.  This  con- 
firms the  very  apt  expression  of  Im  Thurm,  "  the  Indians  know  of  no 
heaven,  but  only  of  other  countries." 

The  Indians  of  Guiana  have  no  notion  of  spirits  which  have  always 
been  spirits,  or  of  spirits  possessing  power  over  others,  except  so  far  as  they 
may  have  more  strength  or  cunning.  On  one  occasion  during  an  powers  of 
eclipse  of  the  sun  the  Arawak  men  among  whom  Mr.  Im  Thurm  sp"-1*3- 
was,  rushed  from  their  houses  with  loud  shouts  and  yells.  They  explained 
that  a  fight  was  going  on  between  the  sun  and  the  moon,  and  that  they 
were  shouting  to  frighten  and  so  to  part  them.  The  Indians  have  names 
meaning  "  the  ancient  one,"  "  the  ancient  one  in  the  sky,"  "  our  father," 
and  "  our  maker."  But  to  these  names  the  attributes  of  a  god  are  not 
attached.  They  seem  to  indicate  a  belief  that  their  ancestors  or  makers 
came  there  from  some  other  country,  "  sometimes  said  to  be  that  entirely 
natural  country  which  is  separated  from  Guiana  by  the  ocean  of  the  air." 

As  to  worship,  the  Indian,  not  troubling  himself  about  the  source  of 
good  things  or  regarding  them  as  the  result  of  his  own  efforts,  does  not 
worship  good  spirits.  All  evil  is,  however,  inflicted  upon  him  by  The  Indians' 
evil  spirits,  and  them  he  propitiates.  He  does  not  mention  or  worshiP- 
look  at  certain  rocks  and  other  objects  ;  he  avoids  eating  certain  animals 
whose  spirits  are  malignant,  especially  those  which  are  not  native  to  his 
country.  Before  shooting  a  cataract  for  the  first  time,  or  when  a  sculptured 
or  remarkable  natural  object  is  seen,  the  Indian  averts  the  ill-will  of  the 
spirits  belonging  to  them  by  rubbing  capsicum  pods  in  his  eyes.  These  he 
almost  always  carries  with  him.  The  idea  connected  with  this  practice  is 
that  by  making  himself  temporarily  blind  he  renders  himself  invisible  to 
the  object  of  dread. 

Two  notable  beliefs  of  the  Guiana  Indians  are  thus  summarised. 
"  From  the  kenaimas  come  nearly  all  injuries,  and  these  the  peai-man 
cures."  A  kenaima  is  one  who  uses  the  power  of  separation  kenaima 
between  body  and  spirit  in  order  to  inflict  vengeance;  he  is  or  vengeance- 
bound  to  slay  some  man,  in  obedience  to  some  custom  or  senti- 
ment; and,  by  transference,  ills  are  regarded  as  being  wrought  by  some 
kenaima,  known  or  unknown,  in  the  body  or  out  of  it.  The  kenaima,  in 
addition  to  forms  of  vengeance  by  murder,  poison,  or  disease,  can  enter  any 
animal,  and  thus,  when  attacked  by  any  beast  of  prey,  the  Indian  regards 
it  as  a  kenaima. 

The  peai-man,  or  medicine-man,  is  the  Indian's  defence  against  the 


7 6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

kenaima;  he  is  both  doctor  and  priest.     The  office  used  to  be  hereditary, 

but  often  a  youth  with  an  epileptic  tendency  is  chosen,  as  frenzied 
The  peai-man  .  J  „  •       ,1  n      •  a  p,         •     -i    i  • 

or  medicine  contortions  are  oi  great  use  m  the  profession.     Alter  isolation, 

man-  long  fasting,  great  draughts  of  tobacco-water,  etc.,  and  learning 
all  the  traditions  of  the  tribe,  the  medicine-man  becomes  fit  for  his  office, 
and  pretends  to  drive  out  all  kenaimas  by  incantations  in  which  astonishing 
feats  of  ventriloquism  are  performed,  and  he  is  believed  to  summon  and 
question  the  kenaimas  and  compel  them  to  depart.  He  is  also  supposed  to 
be  able  to  summon  and  question  the  spirit  of  any  sleeping  Indian  of  his 
own  tribe.     Another  function  of  the  peai-man  is  to  give  names  to  children. 

The  burial  customs  observed  by  Mr.  Im  Thurm  do  not  differ  remarkably 

from  those  of  many  other   Indian  tribes.      The  body  of  a  dead  man  is 

Burial      wrapped  in  his  hammock  and  buried  in  his  own  house.     A  fire 

customs.     js  mac}e  over  the  grave  and  a  feast  held  in  which  the  qualities  of 

the  deceased  are  set  forth,  and  the  house  is  then  deserted. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  Brazilian  tribes  were  or  are  more  advanced  than 

those  of  Guiana.     The  Tupis  have  the  same  word,  "  Tupa,"  for  father  or 

ancestor  and  for  thunder ;  but  they  do  not  pray  to  Tupa,  nor  do 

Brazilian    they  hope  from  or  fear  him.     Bates l  found  no  trace  of  a  belief  in 

a  future  state  among  Indians  who  had  had  no  intercourse  with 

Europeans.     Yet  they  light  fires  by  newly  made  graves,  for  the  comfort  of 

the  deceased.     Waitz  describes  the  Guaranis  of  Brazil  as  bringing  offerings 

to  certain  posts  in  order  to  appease  the  evil  spirits,  fear  of  whom  sometimes 

caused  death.     They  believed  that  the  soul  continued  with  the  body  in  the 

grave,  and  were  careful  to  leave  room  for  it. 

The  Uaupes,  of  whom  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace  has  given  an  account, 
likewise  have  no  definite  idea  of  a  god.  If  asked  who  made  the  rivers, 
The  uau  es  ^ores^s>  anc^  sky?  they  say  they  do  not  know  ;  or  sometimes  they 
say  it  was  "  Tupanau,"  a  word  that  appears  to  mean  god,  but 
which  they  do  not  understand.  They  have,  however,  a  bad  spirit,  or  devil, 
whom  they  seek  to  propitiate.  When  it  thunders,  they  say  the  Jurupari  is 
angry,  and  their  idea  of  natural  death  is  that  the  Jurupari  kills  them.  At 
an  eclipse  of  the  moon  they  believe  that  this  bad  spirit  is  killing  the  moon, 
and  they  make  all  the  noise  they  can  to  frighten  him  away.  It  would 
be  fruitless  to  detail  at  length  the  procedure  and  the  beliefs  about  the 
medicine-men  or  payes  of  the  Brazilians,  inasmuch  as  they  are  strikingly 
similar  to  those  of  the  Guiana  Indians. 

'I'll-  religious  system  of  the  Araucanians  of  southern  Chili  was  somewhat 
different  from  that  of  the  more  northern  tribes  of  Indians.     They  acknow- 
The        kdged  a  supreme  being,  whom  they  termed  Pillan,  the  supreme 
^"canian  spirit.     They  also  called  him  spirit  of  heaven,  the  great  being, 
the  thunderer,  the  creator  of  all  things,   and  omnipotent.     Sub- 
ordinate to  him  were  Epunamun,  the  god  of  war  ;  Meuleu,  a  benevolent 
deity,  the  friend  of  the  human  race  ;  and  Guecubu,  a  malignant  being,  the 
author  of  all  evil  and  misfortune.    If  a  horse  tired,  Guecubu  had  ridden  him; 
1  "  The  Naturalist  on  the  Amazons." 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  AMERICA. 


77 


if  any  one  died,  Guecubu  had  killed  him.  They  paid  no  worship,  however, 
to  these  gods  beyond  invoking  them  and  asking  their  aid  on  some  urgent 
occasions.     They  had  neither  temples  nor  idols,  nor  did  they  offer  sacrifices 


WORSHIP  OF  THE  SUN  BY  COROADOS  OF  BRAZIL. 

except  in  case  of  some  severe  calamity  or  on  concluding  a  peace,  when  they 
sacrificed  animals,  and  burnt  tobacco,  which  they  believed  to  be  most 
agreeable  to  their  deities. 


7S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  Araucanians  have  a  general  belief  in  a  future  state,  but  differ 
as  to  its  locality  and  condition.  Some  of  them  have  no  idea  where  their 
The  future  land  of  spirits  is,  nor  how  the  dead  are  occupied.  Others  say  that 
state.  af,ter  death  they  go  towards  the  west  beyond  the  sea  to  a  certain 
place  which  they  call  "Gulchemau,"  that  is,  the  dwelling  of  the  man  beyond 
the  mountains.  Some  believe  that  this  land  is  divided  into  two— one  a 
heaven,  where  the  good  dwell  with  every  delight;  the  other  inhabited  by 
the  wicked,  a  desolate  and  barren  place;  while  others  believe  there  is  no 
difference  of  lots,  and  all  enjoy  continual  happiness.  The  dead  were  buried 
with  many  of  their  possessions,  and  with  their  face  to  the  west,  where  the 
supposed  land  of  spirits  was.  Divination  and  sorcery  were  much  practised 
by  the  Araucanians,  who  paid  much  attention  to  the  flight  of  birds.  They 
avoided  the  burial-places  of  the  dead,  passing  them  by  in  silence  and  with 
averted  faces.  The  spirits  of  dead  Araucanians  frequently  returned  and 
fought  fiercely  in  the  air  with  their  enemies,  thus  causing  storms. 

The  Patagonians  believe  in  a  good  and  an  evil  superior  being,  but  differ 
as  to  the  name  given  to  these.  Some  of  these  names  are,  "  the  governor  of 
the  people,"  "  the  lord  of  the  dead,"  "  the  being  who  presides  in 
16  theS  °  the  land  of  strong  drink."  But  they  likewise  believe  in  a  multi- 
Patagomans.  pjj^y  0f  inferior  deities,  presiding  over  particular  families.  Each 
is  supposed  to  have  a  distinct  abode  in  caverns  underground,  under  lakes 
or  hills  ;  and  after  death  the  Indian  believes  that  his  soul  will  go  to  the 
abode  of  his  particular  family-deity,  and  live  in  continual  drunkenness. 
They  believe  the  world  was  made  by  their  good  deities,  who  created  the 
Indians  in  their  caves,  and  gave  them  the  lance,  bows  and  arrows,  etc. 

Evil  beings  are  termed  by  the  Patagonians  "  the  wanderers  without." 

There  are  many  of  these,  working  all  kinds  of  mischief,  and  even  causing 

bodily  fatigue  and  weariness  after  labour.     These  are  the  fami- 

ii  The  "  ~ 

wanderers  liars  of  their  diviners,  enabling  them  to  predict  future  events  as 
■without."  wejj  ag  £Q  reveaj  ^hat  which  is  occurring  at  a  distance.  They  also 
give  them  power  to  cure  the  sick  by  driving  away  or  appeasing  the  evil 
beings  which  cause  them.  The  diviner  goes  through  strange  antics  in  his 
communications  and  struggles  with  evil.  He  makes  noises  with  a  drum, 
a  diviner's  etc->  and  falls  into  a  fit,  "  keeps  his  eyes  lifted  up,  distorts  the 
performance  features  of  his  face,  foams  at  the  mouth,  screws  up  his  joints,  and 
after  many  violent  and  distorting  notions  remains  stiff  and  motionless. 
After  some  time  he  comes  to  himself,  as  having  got  the  better  of  the  demon; 
next  feigns,  within  his  tent,  a  faint,  shrill,  mournful  voice,  as  of  the  evil  spirit, 
who  by  this  dismal  cry  is  supposed  to  acknowledge  himself  subdued,  and 
then,  from  a  kind  of  tripod,  answers  all  questions  put  to  him."  These 
wizards  arc  of  cither  sex,  but  the  men  wear  women's  dress.  It  is  not  un- 
common to  kill  some  of  them  when  a  chief  dies,-  or  when  pestilences  occur, 
the  deaths  being  attributed  to  their  ill-will  (Falkners  "Patagonia"). 

In  several  respects  the  funeral  customs  of  the  Patagonians  are  singular. 
They  make  skeletons  of  the  dead  by  cutting  off  the  flesh,  during  which 
operation  a  number  of  people,  covered  with  long  skin  mantles  and  with 


ABORIGINAL  RELIGIONS   OF  AMERICA.  79 


their  faces  blackened  with  soot,  walk  round  the  tent  with  long  poles  or 
lances  in  their  hands,  singing  dolefully  and  striking  the  groundF|meraJrlteg 
in  order  to  frighten  away  the  evil  spirits.     Visits  of  condolence       and 
are  paid  to  the  relatives  of  the  deceased.      The   visitors  howl  mourni 
and  sing  dismally,  squeeze  out  tears,  and  even  prick  their  limbs  with  sharp 
thorns  till  they  bleed.     They  receive  suitable  presents  in  return  for  their 
mourning  display.    If  the  deceased  possessed  horses,  they  are  killed  to  enable 
him  to  ride  in  the  land  of  the  dead,  a  few  only  being  reserved  for  the 
funeral  ceremony.     When  the  bones  of  the  deceased   are  finally  removed, 
they  are  packed  in  a  beast's  skin,  and  laid  upon  a  favourite  horse,  which  is 
decorated  with  mantles,  feathers,  etc.     There  are  several  modes  of  burial. 
One  is  burying  the  skeletons  in  large   square  pits,  sitting  in  a  Burying  the 
row,  with  the  sword,  lance,  bow,  arrows,  etc.,  they  formerly  pos-   skeletons- 
sessed.     The  pits  are  covered  with  beams  or  trees,  canes,  twigs,  etc.,  woven 
together,  upon  which  earth  is  laid.     The  beads  and  plumes  which  adorn  the 
skeletons  are  changed  once  a  year,  when  they  pour  upon  the  grave  some  of 
their  first  made  chica,  also  drinking  some  of  it  themselves  to  the  good  health 
of  the  dead.     The  more  southern  tribes  carry  the  bones  to  a  desert  place 
by  the  sea-coast,  placing  them  in  rows  above  ground,  but  adorned  as  before, 
with  the  skeletons  of  their  dead  horses  around  them. 

The  Fuegians,  according  to  Fitzroy,  had  distinct  ideas  of  beneficent 
and  evil  powers  ;  but  he  never  witnessed  or  heard  of  any  act  on  their  part 
of  a  decidedly  religious  nature,  neither  could  he  satisfy  himself  of  Fuegian 
their  having  any  idea  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  They  in- good  and  Dad 
voked  the  good  spirit  when  in  distress  or  danger,  believing  him  to 
be  the  author  of  all  good.  Their  evil  spirit  they  supposed  to  be  like  an 
immense  black  man,  and  able  to  cause  illness,  famine,  bad  weather,  and 
all  evils,  and  to  torment  them  in  this  world  if  they  did  wrong.  The  wizard 
was  not  absent  from  them,  and  they  believed  entirely  in  omens,  signs, 
and  dreams.  When  a  person  dies,  his  family  wrap  the  body  in  skins,  and 
carry  it  into  the  woods ;  there  they  place  it  upon  broken  boughs,  or  pieces 
of  solid  wood,  and  then  pile  a  great  quantity  of  branches  over  the  corpse. 

The  Chibchas  of  Colombia  believed  that  their  ancestors  arose  from  cer- 
tain mountain  lakes,  under  which  were  the  homes  of  their  tutelary  gods. 
Lake  Guatavita  and  the  adjacent  city  were  their  chief  places  of  t^ 
worship.  Many  costly  offerings  were  thrown  into  these  lakes,  Chibchas. 
such  as  small  golden  figures  representing  men,  women,  and  animals,  and 
various  customs  and  industries.  Many  of  these  have  been  obtained  from 
the  lakes.  The  sacred  graves  also  received  similar  objects,  in  addition  to 
utensils  and  personal  property.  Golden  frogs  and  lizards,  supposed  to  re- 
present the  god  of  water  ;  birds,  the  god  of  the  air,  were  also  among  the 
religious  objects  of  the  Chibchas.  They  sacrificed  a  youth,  the  Guesa,  every 
fifteen  years,  specially  nurtured,  to  carry  the  people's  messages  to  the  moon, 
the  goddess  of  husbandry.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  was  conducted  in  pro- 
cession to  a  pole,  to  which  he  was  bound,  and  killed  by  arrows. 

The  empire  of  the  Incas  of  Peru  has  been  described  as  one  of  the  most 


So 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


WOODEN    IDOL    FOUND  IN  PERU 
'63    FEET    UNDER    GUANO. 


complete  theocracies  the  world  has  seen.     The  Incas 
were  themselves  both  kings  and  priests,  who  reigned 
as  descendants  of  the  sun,  the  chief  god, 
children  of  and  their  person   was  revered  as  divine, 
the  sun.     Qne_tl1ircl  0f  the  country  was  the  property 
of  the  sun-god,  that  is,  of  his  priests ;  and  a  part  of 
the  forced  labour  of  the  people  was  given  to  work- 
ing in  the  lands  of  the  Inca  and  of  the  sun-god. 

The  sun  (Inti,  or  light)  was  usually  represented 
by   a   golden  disc   with  human   features,   and  sur- 

,     ,  rounded  by  rays  and  flames.     Second  to 
The  gods  of  \  • 

the        the  sun,  the  moon  was  worshipped  as  his 
eruvians.  s^ev  an(j  wife ;    she  was  depicted  as   a 

silver  disc  with  human  features.  Next  to  these 
were  two  great  deities  :  Viracocha,  represented  as 
having  risen  out  of  lake  Titicaca,  and  having  made 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  He  evidently  was  a  sur- 
vivor from  a  period  before  the  sun  and  moon  worship 
had  risen  to  great  proportions.  He  is  described  as 
having  neither  flesh  nor  bone,  as  running  swiftly, 
and  as  lowering  mountains  and  lifting  up  valleys. 
The  lake  was  his  sister  and  wife.  Hence  he  was 
evidently  a 


rain-god,  represented  as  a  fertilising 
agent.  Pachacamac  was  another 
ancient  god,  the  divine  civiliser  who 
taught  the  people  all  arts  and  crafts. 
He  was  a  god  of  fire,  and  especially 
of  volcanic  fire;  and,  like  Viracocha, 
he  required  human  victims.  The 
Incas  admitted  these  two  gods  to 
have  been  equally  children  of  the 
sun  with  their  ancestor,  Manco-capac. 
Other  deities  worshipped  by  the 
Incas  were  the  rainbow,  the  planet 
Venus,  many  stars,  fire,  thunder,  the 
earth,  many  trees  and  plants  and 
animals.  Charms  or  fetishes  were 
greatly  in  esteem,  and  the  same 
word,  huaca,  was  applied  to  every 
object  of  veneration,  from  the  sun 
<\>>\vn  to  a  grotesque  stone.  Every 
valley,  every  tribe,  every  temple, 
had  a  guardian-spirit.  Meteorites 
were  much  used  as  huacas,  and  it  is 
said  that  missionaries  found  it  more 


CII1BCHA   IDOL   IN    POTTERY. 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  AMERICA. 


81 


difficult  to  abolish  the  worship  of  the  huaeas  than  that  of  the  sun  and 
moon. 

The  temples  originally  in  use  in  Peru  were  very  like  those  of  Mexico  ; 
but  under  the  Incas  the  building  over  the  altar  was  very  greatly  increased 
in  size,  and  indeed  enclosed  the  whole  structure.  They  were 
furnished  with  great  stone  statues,  and  were  lavishly  decorated 
with  gold.  The  entrance  of  the  great  temple  at  Cuzco  faced  the  east,  and 
at  the  west  end,  above  the  altar,  was  the  great  golden  disc  of  the  sun.  The 
mummies  of  the  deceased  Incas  were  placed  on  golden  thrones  in  a  semi- 
circle round  the  solar  disc.  Near  this  building  were  the  temples  of  the 
moon  and  other  deities  associated  with  the  sun. 

While  all  kinds  of  fruits,  incense  and  drinks  were  offered  to  the  gods, 

animals  were  very  frequently  sacrificed,  and  usually  burned  ;  if  not,  the  flesh 

was  eaten  raw  b}7  the  sacri- 

ficers.     M.  Seville 

.      ,  ,  ,  Sacrifices, 

concludes    that 

this  is  a  custom  handed  down 
from  times  preceding  cook- 
ery. The  idols  and  the  doors 
of  the  temples  were  smeared 
with  the  blood  of  victims.  It 
appears  that  human  sacrifice 
was  less  frequent  under  the 
Incas  than  among  Human 
the  Mexicans.  But  offerings, 
it  is  known  that  when  the 
reigning  Inca  was  ill,  one  of 
his  sons  was  sacrificed  to  the 
sun  as  a  substitute,  and  that 
at  certain  feasts  a  young  in- 
fant was  sacrificed.  "Wives 
of  the   Incas   were  required 

to  be  buried  alive  on  their  husbands'  death.     When  Huayna  Capac  died,  a 
thousand  of  his  retinue  voluntarily  followed  him  into  the  other  world. 

The  organisation  of  the  priesthood  greatly  favoured  the  stability  of  the 
Peruvian  religion.     The  chief  priest  was  next  to  the  reigning  Inca,  and  was 
recognised  as  the  interpreter  of  the  sun's  will.     The  other  chief       The 
priests  were  members  of  the  Inca  family.     At  Cuzco,  and  to  a  less  pnes 
degree  in  the  provinces,  an  imposing  ritual  was  kept  up.     Hymns  to  the  sun 
were  chanted,  but  religious  dances  were  among  the  most  important  parts  of 
the   great   festivals,  or    "  Raymi "    (signifying   dance).      At  the   Festivalg 
festival  of  the  winter  solstice,  in  June,  after  three  clays'  fasting, 
a  great  procession,  with  banners  and  masks,  went  out  to  await  the  dawn, 
and,  when  the  sun  appeared,  fell  on   their  faces  before  him.     The  Inca 
offered  a  consecrated  liquid  to  the  sun,  then  drank  of  it  himself,  and  passed 
it  on  to  his  retinue.     After  this,  on  return  to  the  temple  of  the  sun,  a  black 

G 


MAGE  REPRESENTING  THE  GUESA  OF  THE  CHIBl'HAS. 


8i  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


llama  was  sacrificed  ;  sun-fire  was  kindled  from  the  sun  by  means  of  a  con- 
cave mirror,  and  then  a  number  of  llamas  were  sacrificed  and  distributed 
to  the  families  of  the  upper  classes,  to  be  eaten  with  sacred  cakes  prepared 
by  the  virgins  of  the  sun.  At  the  second  great  festival,  that  of  the  Spring, 
ball-shaped  cakes,  mixed  with  the  blood  of  victims  or  of  young  children, 
drawn  from  above  the  nose,  were  eaten,  to  purify  the  land  from  hostile  in- 
fluences. In  the  evening  an  Inca,  with  four  relatives,  undertook  the  task  of 
chasing  all  maladies  from  the  city  and  its  environs  ;  and  at  night  all  evil 
spirits  of  the  night  were  driven  into  the  river  by  the  hurling  of  torches  into 
its  water.  These  are  only  specimens  of  numerous  feasts  of  the  Inca 
religion.  The  sorcerer  had  but  little  place  in  civilised  Peru,  for  his  place 
was  largely  taken  by  the  priestly  "  diviners  of  the  future,"  or  "  those  who 
made  the  gods  speak." 

It  is  very  worthy  of  notice  that  something  like  convents  were  to  be 
found  among  the  Peruvians,  inhabited  by  "  virgins  of  the  sun,"  of  whom 
The  virgins  there  were  500  at  Cuzco.  They  took  a  vow  to  be  the  consorts 
of  tnesun.  oniy  0f  t]ie  SU11  or  0f  him  to  whom  the  sun  should  give  them. 
Thus  the  reigning  Inca  chose  from  them  the  most  beautiful  for  his  harem  ; 
but  any  of  the  virgins  who  otherwise  broke  her  vow  was  buried  alive,  even 
for  the  offence  of  letting  the  sacred  fire  go  out,  and  her  whole  family  was 
put  to  death.  The  virgins  were  occupied  in  making  garments  for  the  Incas, 
adornments  for  the  temples  and  palaces,  in  preparing  the  sacred  cakes  and 
drinks,  and  in  watching  the  sacred  fire. 

Few  moral  teachings  have  been  discovered  in  the  Peruvian  religion. 
The  most  important  thing  was  to  please  the  sun,  and  his  representative,  the 
Moral  Inca.  The  priests  had  power  to  make  inquisition  into  private 
inquisition.  COnduct,  to  discover  any  actions  detrimental  to  the  state  if  not 
expiated  by  penance.  Children,  a  few  days  after  birth,  were  dipped  in 
water  before  receiving  a  name,  the  dipping  being  supposed  to  drive  away 
evil  spirits  and  malign  influences.  Between  the  ages  of  ten  and  twelve,  at 
the  time  when  the  adult  name  was  given,  the  child's  hair  and  nails  were  cut 
off  as  an  offering  to  the  sun  and  guardian-spirits. 

The  future  life  was  thought  of  as  similar  to  the  present,  and  all  kinds 
of  useful  objects  were  consequently  buried  with  the  deceased.  It  was  not 
imagined  that  the  body  would  be  raised  again  to  life,  although  it 
was  thought  that  the  soul  still  returned  to  the  body  at  times  after 
death.  The  Incas  were  believed  to  be  transported  to  the  mansion  of  the 
sun,  while  the  nobles  might,  if  exceptionally  meritorious,  follow  them  there, 
or  live  under  the  earth  under  the  sway  of  Supay,  the  god  of  the  dead, 
whose  kingdom  was  a  gloomy  one  rather  than  a  place  of  punishment. 


KHOND    (OR    KANDH)    HUMAN    SACRIFICE. 


CHAPTER   V. 
Aboriginal  £digumss  of  finUia  anti  othtv  parts  of  £teia. 

Spirit-world  of  the  Veddahs— Invocation  of  spirits  of  the  dead— Veddah  burial— Bell-god  of  the 
Todas— Buffaloes  in  heaven— Successive  funerals  of  the  Todas— Sins  laid  upon  a  calf  among 
the  Badagas— The  Kotas  —Various  gods  of  the  Bhils —Effigies  of  horses  on  cairns— Bhil  sacri- 
fices—Inspired men  and  witch-doctors— Deities  of  the  Gonds— Rude  symbols  of  gods— The 
spirits  of  disease  and  death— The  goddess  of  small-pox— Human  sacrifices— Exorcisers — 
Memorial  slabs  for  the  dead— Funeral  of  a  Madia— Human  sacrifices  of  the  Khonds— Their 
religious  sincerity— Sacrifices  to  the  god  of  war— Death  a  penalty  for  special  sin— The  leaping 
rock— Khond  priesthood— Khond  oaths— Santal  household  gods— Superior  powers  malevolent- 
National  god  the  Great  Mountain— Spirits  of  natural  objects— Wanderings  of  disembodied 
spirits— The  sacred  river  Damooda— Santal  priests  and  festivals— Worship  in  viHage  groves- 
Funeral  ceremonies —Guardian-spirits  of  the  Karens— Bringing  back  the  Las— The  state  of  the 
dead— Traditions  of  God  and  sacred  books— Inspection  of  fowls'  bones— Priests  and  offerings- 
Funeral  ceremonies— Feasts  for  the  dead— The  god  Puthen  of  the  Kukis— Their  evil  deities  — 
Inferior  deities— Kukis'  idea  of  futurity— Future  punishment— Kuki  priests— Funeral  feasts- 
Gods  of  the  Nagas —Scolding  the  spirits  for  causing  death— Burial  at  doors  of  houses— PUlars 
and  cromlechs  of  the  Kasias— The  oath-stone— Deities  of  the  Bodo  and  Dhimals— Priests  and 
their  functions— Malevolent  demons  of  the  Mishmis— Disease,  death  and  burial— Gods  of  the 
Ostiaks— Ancestor  worship— Convulsions  of  the  Shamans— The  Kalmuck  Shamanists— The 
Voguls— The  Samoyedes—  The  Finnish  religion— The  Kalevala— The  Under-world. 

MAKING    now   a  great  leap  in  distance,  we   come   to   the  aboriginal 
peoples,  still  existing  in  large  numbers  in  India  and  Ceylon,  whose 
religions  are  very  different  from  those  of  the  more  highly  gifted  Splrit_world 
nations   among  whom  they  dwell.      The  Veddahs  of  Ceylon,  a      of  the 
small  but  extremely  interesting  tribe,  have  a  limited  group  of 
beliefs,  presenting  some  striking  resemblances  to  those  current  among  the 


84  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


American  Indians.  G-ood  spirits  predominate  in  their  creed ;  in  fact,  Mr. 
Bailey  could  only  find  one  absolutely  malignant  spirit  whom  they  really 
feared,  though  they  had  a  vague  dread  of  the  spirits  that  haunt  the  dark- 
ness. Every  feature  in  Nature  is  for  them  occupied  by  a  spirit,  as  also  is 
the  air;  but  they  have  no  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being. 

The  spirits  of  the  dead  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  Veddah  beliefs. 

The  spirit  of  every  dead  person  watches  over  relatives  left  behind.     These 

invocation  spirits,  termed  "  nehya  yakoon,"  kindred  spirits,  are  described  as 

of  spirits  of  coming   to   them   in  sickness  and  in  dreams,  and  giving  them 

success  in  hunting.     Thus  they  invoke  them  in  every  necessity, 

and,  curiousty  enough,  it  is  the  shades  of  their  dead  children,  "  bilindoo 

yakoon/'  infant-spirits,  which  they  most  frequently  call  upon.    Some  simple 

ceremonies  are  observed,  one  of  which  is  to  fix  an  arrow  upright  in  the 

ground,  and  dance  slowly  round  it,  chanting  an  address  which  has  been  thus 

translated: 

"  My  departed  one,  my  departed  one,  my  god, 
Where  art  thou  wandering  ?  " 

"When  preparing  to  hunt,  they  promise  a  portion  of  the  game  to  the  spirit, 
and  they  expect  that  the  spirits  will  appear  to  them  in  dreams  and  tell  them 
where  to  hunt.  "  Sometimes,"  says  Bailey,  "  they  cook  food  and  place  it  in 
the  dry  bed  of  a  river  or  some  other  secluded  spot,  and  then  call  on  their 
deceased  ancestors  by  name,  "Come  and  partake  of  this!  Give  us  main- 
tenance as  you  did  when  living !  Come,  wheresoever  you  may  be — on  a 
tree,  on  a  rock,  in  the  forest— come  !  "  and  dance  round  the  food,  half  chant- 
ing, half  shouting  the  invocation.     They  have  no  idea  of  a  future  state  of 

veddah     rewards  and  punishments.     Till  lately  they  did  not  even  bury. 

burial.      t]ie-r  c|eacj^  kut  coverec]  them  with  leaves  and  brushwood  in  the 
jungle,  or  in  the  cave  where  they  died,  which  was  thereupon  forsaken. 

The  Todas  of  the  Neilgherry  Hills  are   somewhat  vague  in  their  re- 
ligious beliefs ;  but,  while  not  venerating  natural  objects,  they  appear  to 

Beii-god     worship  several  deities,  the  principal  being  called  the  bell-god, 

of  the  Todas.  or  buffalo-bell,  represented  by  a  bell  hung  about  the  neck  of  their 

best  buffalo,  which  is  also  an  object  of  worship,  and  held  sacred.     To  the 

bell-god  they  offer  both  prayers  and  libations  of  milk.     They  worship  also  a 

hunting-god  and  the  sun.     While  venerating  the  memory  of  ancestors,  they 

do  not  worship  them.     They  believe  in  a  somewhat  vague  transmigration  of 

souls,  but  in  their  next  world,  which  they  term  "  the  other  district,"  they 

expect  to  follow  the  same  occupation  as  in  this,  that  is,  buffalo-feeding,  and 

all  expect  to  go  to  it.     "  The  Mukurty  Peak,"  says  the  Eev.  F.  Metz,1  "is  a 

spot  held  very  sacred  as  the  residence  of  a  personage  whom  the  Todas  be- 

Buffaioes  in  heve  to  be  the  keeper  of  the  portals  of  heaven.     .     .     .     Their 

idea  is  that  the  spirits  of  deceased  Todas,  together  with  the  souls 

of  the  buffaloes  killed  by  their  friends  to  accompany  them  to  heaven  and 

supply  them  with  milk  there,  take  a  leap  from  this  point  as  the  nearest  way 

1  "  Tribes  inhabiting  the  Neilgherry  Hills." 


ABORIGINAL  RELIGIONS   OF  INDIA,   ETC.  85 

to  the  celestial  regions/'  which  are  situated  in  the  west.  Their  priests  are 
an  odd  compound  of  priest  and  dairyman,  showing  the  importance  of  their 
chief  means  of  livelihood  in  their  eyes. 

The    Todas  burn  their  dead,   at  the  same  time   slaughtering   milch- 
buffaloes,  which,  curiously  enough,  are  sold  to  another  tribe  to  be  eaten. 
This  is  called  the  "  green  funeral,"  followed  a  year  after  by  the  Successive 
"  dry  funeral,"  at  which,  on  a  pile  of  dry  wood,  the  priests  place  funerals  of 
the  bag  containing  the  ashes  of  the  deceased,  with  his  mantle, 
ornaments,  and  wand,  and  gourds  and  baskets  of  grain,  and  ignite  the  whole, 
while  the  mourners  stand  round  and  cry  monotonously,  heh-hey,  heh-hdh ! 
Among  the  funeral  observances,  they  practise  fasting,  cutting  off  the  hair, 
putting  off  ornaments,    chanting   morning   and    evening   laments,  mutual 
condolence,  and  falling  on  the  corpse.     They  also  vacate  the  house  of  the 
deceased  for  a  limited  period. 

The  Badagas,  a  neighbouring  tribe,  had,  according  to  Capt.  Harkness 
("  The  Neilgherry  Hills  "),  a  ceremony  which  reminds  one  of  the  Hebrew 
scapegoat.       The    son    or   representative   of   the    deceased,    seiz-    sins  laid 
ing  a  calf  brought  for  the  purpose,  addressed  it,  beseeching  it  "among  S? 
to  mediate  for  the  departed,  that  the  gates  of  heaven  might  be    Badagas. 
opened  to  him,  and  his  sins,  and  those  of  his  generation,  be  forgiven.     The 
calf  was  then  let  loose  and  ran  off,  all  the  party  shouting,  "  Away,  away  !  " 
The  idea  is  that  the  sins  of  the  deceased  enter  the  calf. 

The  Kotas,  also  inhabiting  the  Neilgherry  Hills,  worship  both  rude 
images  of  wood  or  stone,  and  rocks  and  trees  in  secluded  localities,  and  make 
sacrificial  offerings  to  them.  In  each  village  is  a  recognised  place 
of  worship — a  large,  square  piece  of  ground,  walled  round  with 
loose  stones  three  feet  high,  and  containing  in  its  centre  two  thatched  sheds 
open  in  front  and  behind,  and  having  rude  circles  and  other  figures  drawn 
on  the  supporting  posts.  They  hold  an  annual  licentious  feast  in  honour  of 
their  gods,  lasting  two  or  three  days. 

The  Bhils  of  the  mountains  of  Central  India  are  notable  for  the  great 
number  of  their  gods :  every  tribe  too  has  different  objects  of  adoration, 
arising  from  local  superstitions  and  legends.     The  following  gods     various 
are  worshipped  by  the  Bhils  of  Jebnah : — the  Hindu  Kali,  on  gods  of  the 
many  occasions ;    Halipowa,  at  the  Dewali  and  Dasara  feasts ; 
Waghacha-Kunwar,  to  protect  them  against  wild  beasts  ;  Halk  Mata,  for 
success  in  predatory  journej^s ;  Khorial  Mata,  for  protection  of  cattle  from 
plundering  and  sickness  ;  Devi  Kanail,  for  a  good  harvest ;  Behyu  Baji, 
for  rain  ;  Ghora  Raja,  against  plunderers  ;  Hallam,  at  the  annual  pilgrimage 
to  the  large  hill  of  Retna  Wal ;  Chamconda  Mata,  goddess  of  harvest,  the 
first  of  every  grain  being  offered  to  her ;  Havin  Wana  Mata,  against  mur- 
rain and  lameness  among  cattle ;  Sita  Mata  and  Ghona  and  Bhadri  Bac, 
goddess   of  small-pox  ;    Bhulbag    Mata,    during  epidemics,    especially    in 
cholera. 

The  Bhil  places  of  worship  are  not  elaborate,  being  mostly  limited  to 
heaps  of  stones  on  some  elevated  spot,  on  which  are  frequently  arranged 


86  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


a  number  of  stone  or  burnt-clay  effigies  of  horses,  the  latter  being  hollow, 
with  a  hole  behind,  through  which  the  spirits  of  the  dead  are 
horsed  on   supposed  to  enter  and  travel  up  to  paradise.     On  arrival  there, 
cairns.      ^  norse  is  given  to  the  local  deity.    In  many  of  their  legends 
the   principal    event    depends  upon    the   assistance   or   the   advice   of   an 
enchanted  horse.     According  to  Sir  J.  Malcolm,*  the  sacrifice  or  offering 
to    Bali-powa  and  Waghacha-Kunwar  is  a  bullock;  to  the  other  deities, 
BM1       fowls   and   he-goats ;    a  male   bird   to   the   male   deities,  and  a 
sacrifices,    female  to   the   female    ones.      Their    usual    ceremonies   consist 
merely  in  smearing  the  idol,  which  is  seldom    anything  but  a  shapeless 
stone,  with  vermilion  and  red  lead  or  oil ;  offering,  with  protestations  and 
a  petition,  an   animal  and   some  liquor  ;  casting   a  small  portion  of  each, 
with  some  pulse,  into  the  fire  ;  and  then  partaking  of  the  flesh  and  remain- 
ing liquor,  after  giving  the  presiding  priest-minstrel  his  share. 

The  medicine-man  appears  here  under  the  form  of  a  class  of   men 
specially  inspired  by  the  hill-gods,  whose  powers  are  excited  by  music. 

These  men,  called  Barwas,  travel  with  musicians  in  attendance, 
Inspired  men  '  _  . 

and  witch-  by  whose  performances  they  are  first  excited  to  irenzy,  dancing 
doctors.  frantica]iV)  whirling  and  tossing,  and  throwing  themselves  into 
strong  convulsions.  In  this  state  they  utter  oracles  which  are  highly 
regarded  by  those  who  listen.  The  Barwas  also  act  as  physicians  and  as 
witch-doctors,  following  the  usual  cruel  practices  of  their  kind.  Super- 
stition is  deeply  ingrained.  A  cat  crossing  the  path  of  a  Bhil  when  starting 
on  any  particular  business  will  send  him  straightway  home.  Eclipses  and 
other  celestial  phenomena  he  regards  as  the  diversions  of  the  gods.  He 
believes  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  especially  of  bad 
spirits,  and  that  the  spirits  of  the  dead  haunt  places  they  lived  in  during 
their  lifetime.  Burial  is  performed  with  complex  ceremonies  on  the  banks 
of  streams.  On  the  death  of  a  chief  a  brass  bull  or  horse  is  made  and 
handed  to  the  wandering  minstrel,  who,  carrying  this  image,  makes  an 
annual  circuit  through  the  villages,  commemorating  the  fame  of  the 
deceased  in  songs  and  receiving  a  due  reward. 

The  Gonds  of  Central  India  show  some  resemblances  to  the  Bhils, 

;i>  in  their  offering  earthenware  figures  of  horses  in  sacrifice,  to  propitiate 

Deities  of   ^ne  gnosts  of  their   ancestors.     They  worship  altogether  about 

the        thirty  deities.     The  supreme  being,  under  the  name  of  Bhagwan, 

is  occasionally  prayed  to,  and  receives  offerings  of  sugar  and 
ghee  ;  but,  as  in  so  many  other  tribes,  it  is  to  the  inferior  divinities  that 
worship  is  most  largely  paid.  Badu  Dewa  (great  god)  or  Budhal  Pen  (old 
god)  is  one  of  those  most  worshipped  ;  he  appears  to  be  identical  with 
Rayetal,  or  the  sun-god,  represented  by  an  iron  tiger  three  inches  long. 
His  worship  takes  place  once  a  year  at  the  rice-harvest,  a  hog  being  then 
sacrificed  to  him.  Among  a  subordinate  tribe,  the  Gaiti,  he  is  represented  by 
a  small  copper  coin  kept  in  a  tree  in  the  jungle.  Maty  a,  the  god  of  small- 
pox and  of  towns ;  Sali,  the  protector  of  cattle ;  Gangara,  the  bell-god  ; 
*  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  i. 


ABORIGINAL    RELIGIONS   OF  INDIA,   ETC.  87 

Gadawa,  the  god  of  the  dead ;  Kodo  Pen,  the  horse-god,  are  others  of  the 
varied  deities  whom  the  Gonds  propitiate. 

The  Gonds  do  not  keep  images  of  their  gods  in  their  houses,  and  even 
for  religions  ceremonies  only  use  the  simplest  symbols,  such  as  stones, 
lumps  of  clay,  iron  rods,  blocks  of  wood,  chains  and  bells.  Mutya  Dewa 
is  represented  by  a  small  heap  of  stones,  inside  a  village,  besmeared  with 
red  lead.  He  is  believed  to  be  connected  with  the  prosperity  of  the  village, 
and  his  appropriate  offerings  are  a  goat,  cocoa-nuts,  limes,  dates,  etc. 
Pharsi  Pen,  a  war-god,  is  symbolised  by  a  small  iron  spear-head.  His 
worship  only  takes  place  at  intervals  of  three,  four  or  five  years, 
at  full  moon.  On  such  occasions  a  white  cock,  a  white  he-goat,  symbols  of 
and  a  young  white  cow  are  sacrificed  with  secret  ceremonies,  no  g 
woman  being  permitted  to  attend.  Bhiwasu,  a  god  of  rain,  has  a  festival 
of  four  or  five  days  in  the  Mahadeva  Hills,  being  worshipped  under  the 
form  of  an  unshaped  stone  smeared  with  vermilion,  or  of  two  pieces  of 
wood.  In  one  place,  however,  there  is  an  idol  figure  of  Bhiwasu,  eight  feet 
high.  These  are  but  specimens  of  the  multitudinous  deities  worshipped  by 
these  people,  whose  religious  history,  if  ever  fully  written,  will  be  a  strange 
and  curious  one. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Hislop,1  who  studied  the  Gond  district  carefully,  says  : 

"  In  the  south  of  the  Bundara  district  the  traveller  frequently  meets  with 

squared  pieces  of  wood,  each  with  a  rude  figure  carved  in  front,  j^e  spirits 

set  up  somewhat  close  to  each  other.    These  represent  Bangaram,    of  ^^ase 

Bungara  Bai,  or  Devi,  who  is  said  to  have  one  sister  and  five     death. 

brothers,  the  sister  being  styled  Danteshwari,  a  name  of  Kali,  and  four  out 

of  the   five  brothers  being  known  as  Gantaram,  Champaram,   Naikaram, 

and  Pollinga.     These  are  all  deemed  to  possess  the  power  of  sending  disease 

and  death   upon   men,  and  under   these   or  different   names  seem  to   be 

generally  feared  in  the  region  east  of  Nagpore  city.     ...     It  has  always 

appeared   to  me    a  question   deserving   more    attention    than    it    has   yet 

received,  how  far  the  deities  who  preside  over  disease,  or  are  held  to  be 

malevolent,  are  to  be  looked  on  as  belonging  to  the  Hindus  or  aborigines. 

Kali  in  her  terrible  aspect  is  certainly  much   more  worshipped  in  Gond- 

wana  and  the  forest  tracts  to  the  east  and  south  of  it  than  in 

t  o  11  The  goddess 

any  other  part  of  India.     As  the  goddess  of  small-pox,  she  has    of  smaii- 

attributed  to  her  the  characteristics  of  various  aboriginal  deities  ;       pos 

and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  parties  who  conduct  the  worship  at 

her  shrines,  even  on  behalf  of  Hindus,  may  be  either  Gonds,  fishermen,  or 

members    of  certain   other  low  castes.     The  sacrifices,   too,  in  which  she 

delights  would  well  agree  with  the  hypothesis  of  the  aboriginal  derivation 

of   the   main   features   of   her   character.     At   Chanda  and  Lanji,  in   the 

province  of  Nagpore,  there  are  temples  dedicated  to  her  honour,  in  which 

human  victims  have  been  offered  almost  within  the  memory  of  the  present 

generation.     The  victim  was  taken  to  the  temple  after  sunset  and  shut  up 

within  its  dismal  walls.     In  the  morning,  when  the   door  was  opened,  he 

1  "  Aboriginal  Tribes  of  the  Central  Provinces." 


8S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


was  found  dead,  much  to  the  glory  of  the  great  goddess,  who  had  shown 
Human  her  power  by  coming  during  the  night  and  sucking  his  blood, 
sacrifices.  ]^0  doubt  there  must  have  been  some  of  her  servants  hid  in  the 
Pane,  whose  business  it  was  to  prepare  for  the  horrid  banquet.  At  Dante- 
wada,  in  Bustar,  there  is  a  famous  shrine  of  Kali,  under  the  name  of 
Danteshwari.  Here  man}' a  human  head  has  been  presented  on  her  altar. 
About  1830  it  is  said  that  upwards  of  twenty-five  full-grown  men  were 
immolated  on  a  single  occasion  by  a  late  Raja  of  Bustar." 

The  medicine-man  or  professional  priest  is  not  so  prominent  among 

the  Gonds  as  among  some  other  Indian  tribes  ;  but  men  exist  among  them 

who  profess  to   be  able  to  call  tigers  from  the  jungles  and  to 

Exorcis©rs 

control  their  actions,  to  protect  men  and  cattle,  to  detect  sorcery 
and  to  tell  fortunes.  The  public  festivals  of  the  Gonds  are  largely  con- 
nected with  their  crops.  They  can  also  exorcise  evil  spirits  and  interpret 
the  wishes  of  the  gods,  going  into  a  trance,  leaping  wildly  and  performing 
the  usual  antics  of  their  class,  and  then  declaring  whether  the  god  has 
accepted  the  service  offered  to  him. 

Burial  was  formerly  universal  among  the  Gonds ;  but  cremation  has 

been  largely  adopted  by  them  from  the  Hindus.     They  used  to  bury  the 

Memorial    dead  in  their  own  houses,  afterwards  deserting  them,  but  have  in 

slabs  for  the  later  years  buried  outside  their  villages,     Some  of  the  tribes  erect 

clcid 

rough  unhewn  slabs  of  stone  as  memorials  of  the  dead.  Offerings 
are  presented  to  the  dead,  consisting  of  rice  and  other  grains,  eggs,  fowls,  or 
sheep.  To  persons  of  more  than  usual  reputation  for  sanctity,  offerings 
continue  to  be  presented  annually  for  many  years  after  their  death. 

As  a  specimen  of  Gond  funeral  rites,  we  may  quote  the  following 
from  Mr.  Hislop  : — "  When  a  Madia  (a  tribe  of  Gonds)  dies,  the  relatives 
Funeral  of  kill  and  offer  before  his  corpse  a  fowl.  They  then  place  the  body 
a  Madia.  on  a  'bam|D00  mat;  anci  four  young  men  lift  it  on  their  shoulders. 
All  the  neighbours,  calling  to  mind  their  own  deceased  fathers,  pour  out 
on  the  ground  a  handful  of  rice  in  their  honour ;  then  turning  to  the 
corpse,  they  put  a  little  on  it,  remarking  that  the  recently  departed  had 
now  become  a  god,  and  adjure  him,  if  death  had  come  by  God's  will,  to 
accuse  no  one  ;  but  if  it  had  been  caused  by  sorcery,  to  point  out  the  guilty 
party.  Sometimes,  it  is  said,  there  is  such  a  pressure  exerted  on  the 
shoulders  of  the  bearers,  that  they  are  pushed  forward  and  guided  to  a 
particular  house.  The  inmate  is  not  seized  at  once  ;  but  if  three  times  the 
corpse,  after  being  taken  some  distance  back,  returns  in  the  direction  and 
indicates  the  same  individual,  he  is  apprehended  and  expelled  from  the 
village.  Frequently  also  his  house  shares  the  same  fate.  The  body  is  then 
carried  to  a  tree,  to  which  it  is  tied  upright,  and  burned  amid  the  wailing 
of  the  spectators.  Funeral  rites  are  performed  a  year  or  eighteen  months 
after  the  cremation,  when  a  flag  is  tied  to  the  tree  where  it  took  place. 
After  sacrificing  a  fowl,  the  friends  return  and  eat,  drink  and  dance  at  the 
expense  of  the  deceased  man's  family  for  one  or  more  days,  according  to 
their  ability." 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS  OF  INDIA,   ETC.  89 


The  Khonds  (or  Ivandhs)  of  north-eastern  India  have  an  evil  fame  as 
being  among  the  most  inveterate  and  lavish  in  their  human  sacrifices  of 
any  race  of  mankind,  sacrifices  which  continued  till  quite  the 
middle  of  this  century  when  persistent  government  pressure  sacrifices  of 
appears  to  have  put  a  stop  to  it.  The  Khonds  are  divided  into  the  Khonds- 
two  sects,  one  of  which  abhors  human  sacrifice.  The  other  is  devoted 
especially  to  the  Tari,  the  earth-goddess,  to  whom  human  sacrifices  were 
offered,  a  regular  class  of  victims  being  purchased  from  neighbouring  tribes, 
of  any  age  and  either  sex,  and  held  in  readiness,  well  fed,  for  the  regular 
festivals.  Ten  or  twelve  days  before  the  sacrifice,  the  hair  of  the  victim 
was  cut  off,  and  the  villagers,-  having  bathed,  went  to  the  sacred  grove 
with  the  priest,  who  there  invoked  the  goddess.  The  ceremonies,  attended 
by  unbridled  licence,  lasted  three  days.  On  the  second  day,  the  victim 
was  led  in  procession  through  the  village  to  the  sacrificial  grove,  and  bound, 
sitting,  to  a  post  in  the  middle  of  the  grove,  anointed  with  oil,  ghee,  and 
turmeric,  adorned  with  flowers,  and  even  worshipped.  In  this  attitude  he 
or  she  was  left  all  night,  while  feasting  was  resumed  by  the  people. 

The  details  which  follow,  as  given  by  Major  Macpherson,  are  almost 
inconceivably  horrible.  As  the  victim  must  not  die  in  bonds  nor  show 
any  resistance,  the  arms  and  legs  were  broken,  or  stupefaction  by 
opium  was  produced,  so  that  the  bonds  might  be  unloosed.  The  ment  of  the 
priest  after  this  offered  up  prayers  to  the  earth-goddess.  At  vlctims- 
noon  on  the  third  day,  the  priest  took  the  branch  of  a  green  tree,  cleft 
several  feet  down  the  centre.  The  victim  was  forced  into  the  cleft,  his 
throat  being  in  some  districts  inserted  into  it,  and  then  the  cleft  was  forcibly 
closed  by  cords  twisted  round  the  open  extremity  of  the  stake.  After  the 
priest  had  wounded  the  victim  slightly  with  his  axe,  the  crowd  threw 
itself  on  the  dead  body,  and,  leaving  untouched  the  head  and  intestines, 
stripped  the  flesh  from  the  bones,  and  fled  with  them  to  their  fields.  The 
remains  were  next  day  burned  on  a  funeral  pile,  and  a  further  sacrifice  of 
a  sheep  was  made,  the  ashes  being  scattered  over  the  fields  or  made  into 
a  paste,  with  which  the  floors  of  the  houses  and  granaries  were  smeared. 
Subsequently  a  bullock  was  given  to  the  father  or  procurer  of  the  victim, 
and  another  was  sacrificed  and  eaten  at  the  feast  which  terminated  the 
celebration.  One  year  after  such  a  sacrifice  the  goddess  Tari  was  reminded 
of  it  by  the  offering  of  a  pig.  In  some  districts  the  victim  was  put  to  death 
by  a  slow  fire,  the  great  object  being  to  draw  as  many  tears  as  possible,  in 
the  belief  that  the  goddess  would  proportionately  increase  the  supply  of 
rain. 

Notwithstanding  the  barbarity  of  this  sacrifice,  Macpherson  declares 
that  he  found  it  not  attended  by  any  manifestations  of  passion,  and  that  it 
appeared  to  be  offered  in  a  spirit  essentially  religious,  "  in  fearful  . 
obedience  to  the  express  mandate  of  the  terrible  power,  whose  cerityofthe 
wrath  it  is  believed  to  place  in  abeyance.  And  the  offerings  are 
lives  free,  unforfeited,  undegraded,  generally  in  innocent  childhood,  belong- 
ing to  a  different  race  from  the  immolators,  procured  by  persons  of  another 


9o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


faith,  and  acquired  by  scrupulous  purchase,  which  the  Khonds  believe  to 
confer  a  perfect  title."  An  unbought  life  they  considered  an  abomination 
to  the  deity.  At  one  of  the  later  sacrifices  no  fewer  than  125  victims  were 
immolated.  Afterwards,  by  unceasing  efforts  of  British  officials,  a  large 
number  of  destined  victims  were  set  free  and  cared  for  by  the  British. 

In  Joy  pore  there  were  annual  sacrifices  to  Maniksoro,  the  god  of  war, 

as  well  as  to  the  earth-goddess.     The  victim  was  tied  to  a  post  by  his  hair, 

and  at  the  same  time  his  body  was  held  face  downwards  over  an 

Aces  to  the "  open  grave.     The  priest,   while  praying  for   success  in  battle, 

god  of  wax.    jiackecj  {-kg  neck  of  the  victim,  at  the  same  time  consoling  him 

by  the  assurance  that  he  would  soon  be  honoured  by  being  devoured  by  the 

god  for  the  people's  benefit.     His  head  was  then  cut  off,  the  body  falling 

into   the   grave,    and   the   head   remaining   suspended   until  devoured   by 

birds. 

The  worship  of  deceased  ancestors  is  an  important  feature  of  Khond 
religion.    Other  gods  beside  Tari  are  worshipped.    They  have  introduced  the 
Hindu  goddess  Kali  into  their  worship,  and  employ  Hindu  priests 
for  special    in  celebrating  her   rites.     They  also  firmly   believe   in   magic, 
often  attributing  deaths  or  misfortunes  to  enchantment.     They 
hold  that  death  is  solely  a  penalty  for  offences  against  the  gods,  and  this 
whether  it  occurs  in  battle,  or  by  the  hand  of  men  who  can  transform  them- 
selves into  wild  beasts,  or  by  magicians  who  destroy  by  wicked  arts.     They 
do  not  appear  to  have  definite  views  as  to  a  future  state,  but  believe  man's 
spirit  to  be  imperishable,  animating  a  succession  of  human  forms.     Percival 
says  that  they  believe  the  judge  of  the  dead  resides  beyond  the  sea  on  a 
The  leaping-  slippery  rock    called    the    leaping-rock,    surrounded   by  a  black 
rock.       unfathomable  river.     Souls,  on  quitting   the    body,    go   directly 
thither ;  and  in  attempting  to  leap  the  river  and  gain  a  footing  on  the 
rock,  they  often  get  injured,  and  the  injury  is  expected  to  be  repeated  in  the 
body  they  next  inhabit. 

The  Khond  priests  were  regarded  as  divinely  appointed,  the  original 
priests  being  directly  appointed  by  each  deity,  and  transmitting  the  office 
The  Khond  1  >y  descent.  But  this  does  not  prevent  any  one  from  becoming 
priesthood.  a  priest  by  a  new  divine  call.  One  of  the  priest's  offices  on  the 
occasion  of  a  birth  or  naming  of  a  child  is  to  declare  which  ancestor  of 
the  family  is  born  again.  The  priest  takes  no  part  in  funeral  ceremonies, 
even  if  present ;  he  may  not  touch  a  dead  body. 

The  ceremony  of  taking  an  oath  by  Khonds  is  given  by  Campbell  as 
follows  :     "  Seated  on  tiger-skins,  they  held  in  their  hands  a  little  earth,  rice, 
Khond  oaths.  aU(l  water>  repeating  as  follows:  'May  the  earth  refuse  its  pro- 
duce, rice  choke  me,  waters   drown  me,  and  tiger  devour  me  and 
my  children,  if  I  break  the  oath  which  I  now  take  for  myself  and  my 
In  other  cases  they  sit  on  a  lizard-skin,  whose  scaliness  they  pray 
may  be  their  lot  if  forsworn  ;  or  on  an  anthill,  like  which  they  ask  that,  if 
hey  may  be  reduced  to  powder  ;  while  the  ordeals  of  boiling  water, 
oil,  and  hot  iron  are  constantly  resorted  to. 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  INDIA,    ETC.  91 


The  Santals  of  the  western  portion  of  Lower  Bengal  are  notable  for 
the  family  nature  of  their  religion.  Each  household  has  its  special  deity 
whose  rites  it  carefully  conceals  from  strangers.  According  to  santai  house- 
Hunter,1  even  one  brother  does  not  know  what  another  worships.  hold  gods- 
They  appear  to  pray  chiefly  that  evils  may  be  removed :  "  May  the  storm 
spare  my  thatch,"  "  may  the  black-rot  pass  by  my  rice-fields,"  "  let  my 
wife  not  bear  a  daughter,"  "  may  the  usurer  be  taken  by  wild  beasts."  The 
head  of  the  family  on  his  deathbed  whispers  the  name  of  the  family  god  to 
the  elder  son.  As  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  the  household  deity  represents 
evil  only  ;  but  in  addition  to  this  source  of  misfortune,  the  Santai  worships 
the  ghosts  of  his  ancestors. 

The  Santai  cannot  even  conceive  the  existence  of  a  supreme  and  bene- 
ficent god.     The  impression  of  past  history  is  upon  him — of  having  been 

successively  driven  from  more  desirable  homes  by  a  conquering 

,    J  ...  •        t  1  •         i      •  •    •      °      Superior 

race,  and  superiority  111  power  implies  to  him  desire  to  injure,      powers 

The  idea  of  a  supreme  god  makes  him  say,  "  What  if  that  strong  malevoleilt- 

one  should  eat  me!  "     Demons  and  evil  spirits  are  vividly  before  the  Santal's 

mind,  and  he  endeavours  to  propitiate  them  by  frequent  annual  sacrifices 

and  other  bloody  rites. 

The  national  god  of  the  Santals  is  Marang  Buru,  the  Great  Mountain, 
their  guardian  from  the  earliest  times,  who  is  invoked  with  blood-offerings 
at  every  crisis.  The  victims  are  numerous  and  varied,  of  any 
kind  of  plant  or  animal.  The  Great  Mountain  is  neither  male  god,  the  Great 
nor  female,  but  is  the  great  life-sustainer.  He  is  regarded  as  Mountam- 
having  a  brother  and  a  sister  to  whom  libations  are  offered  by  the  priests,  as 
well  as  white  goats  and  fowls.  The  Great  Mountain  must  receive  blood- 
offerings  ;  if  the  worshipper  has  no  animal,  the  offering  must  be  a  red 
flower  or  a  red  fruit.  When  the  English  first  came  into  contact  with  these 
people,  human  sacrifices  were  regularly  made  to  this  god. 

Wherever  he  goes,  the  Santai  finds  gods,  ghosts,  or  demons,  which  he 
must  appease.  Among  them  are  the  Abgi,  or  ghouls,  who  eat  men,  and  the 
Pargana  Bonga,  local  deities  whose  name  is  legion,  belonging    „ 

0     .  P    '  .  &        ?  &     &     Spirits  of 

to   extinct   villages,    wandering   desolately    through   the    Santai     natural 

territory.     They  have  deities  of  the  rivers,  wells,  tanks,  moun-     °  jec  s' 

tains  and  forests.     So  that  their  worship,  strongly  related  to  the  family  and 

ancestors  on  one  view,  on  another  is  equally  a  Nature  worship. 

Like  their  view  of  the  nature  of  the  gods  is  their  idea  of  the  future. 

As  a  time  of  punishment  for  the  wicked  they  can  comprehend  it,  but  not 

as  a  period  of  happiness  for  those  who  have  been  good.     Fre-  _ 

rr  o  Wanderings 

quently  the  future  is  a  complete  blank  to  them.    Some  think  that     of  disem- 
good  men  after  death  enter  into  fruit-bearing  trees,  while  1111-    c        sp 
charitable  men  and  childless  women  are    eaten  eternally  by  snakes  and 
worms.     Others  think  of  disembodied  spirits  as  flitting  disconsolately  among 
the  fields  they  once  tilled,  standing  upon  the  banks  of  the  streams  in  which 
they  once  fished,  and  gliding  in  and  out  of  the  dwellings  where  they  lived  ; 

1  "  Annals  of  Rural  Bengal." 


92  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


and  these  spirits  must  be  propitiated  in  various  ways,  or  they  will  bring 
evil  upon  the  living. 

Once  a  year  the  Santals  make  a  pilgrimage,  in  commemoration  of  their 

forefathers,  to  the  Damooda,  their  chief  river.    This  is  termed  the  Purifying 

for  the  Dead.     A  similar  regard  for  the  river  is  shown  by  the 

river"    fact  that  however  far  from  it  the  Santal  may  die,  his  nearest 

Damooda.    re]a^ve  carries  a  little  relic  of  him,  such  as  some  fragments  of  his 

skull  in  an  earthen  pot  thither  and  places  it  in  the  current  to  be  conveyed 

to  the  far-off  eastern  land  from  which  his  ancestors  came.     This  is  called 

uniting  the  dead  with  their  fathers. 

The  Santal  priests  belong  to  the  fifth  and  second  tribes,  representing 
the  fifth  and  second  sons  of  their  common  ancestor,  the  former  being  the 
santal  priests  most  esteemed  and  best  rewarded.  Each  village  has  its  grove 
and  festivals.  £or  worshipping  the  village  gods.  The  priests  of  the  second 
tribe  are  chiefly  seers  and  diviners,  and  are  largely  occupied  in  propitiating 
demons.  Festivals  are  held  several  times  a  year  in  the  village  grove,  men 
and  women  dancing  and  chanting  songs  in  honour  of  the  founder  of  the 
community.  Goats,  red  cocks  and  chickens  are  sacrificed  ;  and  the  various 
families  dance  round  the  particular  trees  supposed  to  be  inhabited  by  their 
special  gods.  In  some  tribes  every  family  dances  round  each  tree,  so  as  not 
to  omit  one  in  which  by  any  possibility  one  of  their  gods  might  reside. 
Once  a  year  the  tribal  god  is  solemnly  worshipped,  none  but 
vuiage  male  animals  being  offered,  and  women  being  excluded  from  the 
groves.  feas^  Each  period  in  the  cultivation  of  the  rice-crop — seeding, 
sprouting,  earing,  harvesting — is  marked  by  its  own  festival,  with  sacrifices 
to  the  gods. 

On  the  death  of  a  Santal,  his  body  is  at  once  anointed  with  oil  tinged 
with  red  herbs,  and  laid  out.  His  friends  place  two  little  brazen  vessels, 
Funeral  one  f°r  ^ice,  the  other  for  water,  upon  his  couch,  together  with  a 
ceremonies.  few  rUpees  to  appease  the  demons  whom  he  will  meet  on  the 
threshold  of  the  spirit-world.  These  gifts,  however,  are  removed  when  the 
funeral  pile  is  ready.  The  body  is  carried  by  fellow-clansmen  three  times 
round  the  pile  and  then  laid  on  it.  A  cock  has  meanwhile  been  nailed 
through  the  neck  by  a  wooden  pin  to  a  corner  of  the  pile  or  to  a  neigh- 
bouring tree.  The  nearest  kinsman  has  prepared  a  torch  of  grass,  bound 
with  thread  from  his  own  clothes,  and,  after  walking  silently  round  the 
pile  three  times,  touches  the  dead  man's  mouth  with  the  brand,  averting 
his  face  as  he  does  it.  Then  the  pile  is  lighted,  all  the  clansmen  facing  the 
south.  Before  the  body  is  quite  consumed,  the  fire  is  extinguished,  and  the 
next  of  kin  breaks  off  the  three  fragments  of  skull  to  be  thrown  into  the 
river  Damooda,  as  before  stated. 

In  quite  recent  years  the  Santals  were  excited  by  a  novel  religious 
ferment.  In  1875  one  Bhagrib  Mangi  gave  out  that  he  was  commissioned 
by  heaven  to  free  the  Santals  from  British  rule.  He  gained  great  influence, 
and  received  both  royal  and  divine  honours,  having  a  shrine  set  up  for  his 
worship.     Notwithstanding  his  being  taken  and  imprisoned  and  his  shrine 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  INDIA,    ETC. 


93 


destroyed,  his  religion  grew,  being  preached  by  his  disciples,  the  Kherwar, 
the  chief  of  whom  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  1881. 

The  Karens  of  British  Burmah  regard  the  world  as  more  thickly 
peopled  by  spirits  than  it  is  by  men.  Every  human  being  has  a  guardian 
spirit,  or  La,  either  at  his  side,  or  wandering  in  dreamy  adven- 
tures. If  too  long  absent,  he  must  be  recalled  by  appropriate  spirits  of  the 
offerings  of  food,  etc.,  beating  a  bamboo  to  gain  its  attention.  arens- 
Besides,  he  is  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of  the  spirits  of  the  departed,  whom 
he  must  continually  appease  if  he  would  preserve  life  and  health.  All 
striking  material  objects  inspire  him  with  awe,  and  must  be  reverenced  and 
propitiated.    Moreover,  everything  living  has  its  La.     "  When  sitting  by  the 


A    KAEEN    FUNERAL. 


fire  at  night,  and  an  insect  flies  into  it  and  is  burnt  to  death,  a  Karen  will 
say,  '  There,  the  La  of  some  animal  has  leaped  into  the  fire  and  burnt  itself 
to  death.  "We  shall  have  meal  curry  to-morrow.  The  snares  and  traps 
have  caught  something.'  Plants,  too,  have  their  Las.  So  if  a  man  drops 
his  axe  while  up  a  tree,  he  looks  below  and  calls  out,  '  La  of  the  axe,  come, 
come'!"  (Mason).  Prophets  or  necromancers  are  said  to  have  the  Bringing 
power  of  bringing  back  the  sick  man's  La  when  it  has  wandered  back  the  Las- 
away ;  but  false  prophets  are  said  to  bring  back  the  La  of  some  other  per- 
son, by  which  the  disease  is  augmented.    According  to  some,  each  person  has 


94  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


seven  Las  constantly  devising  his  death,  which  can  only  be  prevented  by  his 
own  guardian  spirit  sitting  on  his  head.  If  this  spirit  removes  thence,  the 
man  is  killed  by  one  of  the  Las.  All  diseases  are  the  work  of  spirits,  which 
must  be  appeased  by  offerings.  Another  class  of  spirits,  working  evil,  is  the 
Na,  which  is  believed  to  inhabit  witches  and  wizards.  These  persons  can 
take  the  form  of  another,  and  can  also  devour  the  Las  of  other  people. 

Ancestor-worship  is  practised  by  the  Karens,  their  ancestors  being 
supposed  to  exercise  a  guardianship  over  their  descendants  on  earth.  The 
■me  state  ^as,  however,  of  many  of  the  dead  are  not  permitted  to  go  to 
of  the  dead.  Hades,  the  land  of  the  happy,  which  is  a  counterpart  of  this 
world,  whose  inhabitants  follow  occupations  similar  to  those  they  engaged 
in  on  earth.  Those  who  have  been  deprived  of  funeral  rites  wander  about 
on  earth.  Those  who  have  died  violent  deaths  remain  on  earth  preying  on 
the  Las  of  men.  Others  who  may  not  go  to  Hades  are  unjust  rulers  or 
criminals  who  have  suffered  death.  These  are  believed  to  take  the  forms 
of  birds  and  beasts ;  and  those  who  dream  of  elephants,  horses,  dogs, 
vultures,  Burmans,  or  Burmese  priests,  are  said  to  see  these  ghosts. 

Dr.  Mason  says  all  the  Karen  tribes  have  traditions  of  God  as  having 
once  dwelt  amongst  them,  but  having  forsaken  them.  Sometimes  He  is 
Traditions  represented  as  dying  and  rising  to  life  again,  sometimes  as  simply 
ancfsacred  departing.  They  have  a  story  that  God  gave  the  Chinese  a  book 
books,  of  paper,  the  Burmese  a  book  of  palm-leaf,  the  Karens  a  book  of 
skin,  which  they  allowed  a  pig  to  tear  up  and  a  fowl  to  eat ;  while  the 
former  peoples  carefully  studied  their  divine  books,  and  hence  came  to  excel 
the  Karens.  Consequently  the  Karens  consult  the  remains  of  fowls,  which 
inspection  of  ^iey  suppose  to  retain  the  knowledge  imparted  by  the  book,  and 
fowls' bones.  undertake  nothing  important  until  a  favourable  response  has 
been  gained  from  the  fowl's  bones,  which  are  inspected  after  prayer.  It 
may  readily  be  imagined  that  it  requires  a  practised  eye  to  read  the  indica- 
tions accurately,  and  there  are  many  nice  distinctions,  known  only  to  the 
elders,  or  priests,  who  do  not  always  agree  in  their  readings. 

Each  village  has  four  hereditary  "  heads  of  the  sacrifice,"  or  priests. 

The  first  is  called  lord  of  the  village  ;  the  second,  the  messenger ;  the  third,, 

Priests  and  keeper  of  the  village;    the  fourth,  Sa-kai,  a  word  of  unknown 

,nn£s-  meaning.  The  offerings  given  by  the  people  vary  according  to 
families  and  tribes.  Some  offer  only  rice  and  vegetables ;  one  group  offers 
fowls,  another  hogs,  another  oxen  or  buffaloes.  It  is  doubtful  sometimes  to 
whom  these  things  are  offered,— often  to  unseen  spirits  generally,  or  to 
deified  ancestors,  or  to  the  goddess  of  harvest. 

Complex  ceremonies  take  place  on  the  death  of  a  Karen  elder  of  the 

Bghai  division.     While  the  body  lies  in  state,  piping  and  mourning  go  on 

Funeral     constantly.      Before  the  burial  an  elder  opens  the  hand  cf  the 
eremomes.  dead  man  and  puj.g  ^  ^  &  ^  Qf  ^^  ^  ^^  ^^   ^  &   ^ 

with  a  sword,  saying,  "May  we  live  to  be  as  old  as  thou  art."  The  rest  of 
the  company  do  the  same,  and  the  fragments  cut  off  are  regarded  as  charms 
to   prolong  life.     Dr.  Mason  further  says  that  when  the  corpse  is  about  to 


ABORIGINAL  RELIGIONS   OF  INDIA,   ETC.  95 

be  buried,  two  candles  made  of  beeswax  are  lighted,  and  two  swords  are 
brought.  A  sword  and  a  candle  are  taken  by  the  eldest  son,  and  a  sword 
and  a  candle  by  the  youngest  son ;  and  they  march  round  the  bier  in  oppo- 
site directions  three  times,  each  time  they  meet  exchanging  swords  and 
candles.  After  this,  one  candle  is  placed  at  the  head,  the  other  at  the  foot 
of  the  coffin ;  then  a  fowl  or  hog  is  led  three  times  round  the  building,  and 
on  completing  the  first  round  it  is  struck  once  with  a  bamboo,  the  second 
time  twice,  and  at  the  end  of  the  third  round  it  is  killed,  and  set  before  the 
corpse  for  food.  When  the  coffin  is  carried  to  the  grave,  four  bamboos  are 
taken,  and  one  thrown  to  the  east  and  one  to  the  west,  some  one  saying, 
"  That  is  the  west,  that  is  the  east,"  contrary  to  the  fact ;  a  third  is  thrown 
towards  the  top  of  a  tree,  with  the  statement,  "  That  is  the  foot  of  the 
tree  "  ;  and  a  fourth  towards  the  root  of  the  tree,  which  is  gravely  termed 
the  top  of  the  tree.  This  is  done  because  in  the  spirit-world  it  is  believed 
that  everything  is  upside  clown  in  relation  to  this  world.  When  the  grave 
has  been  filled  and  a  fence  erected  round  it,  boiled  rice  and  other  food  is 
placed  within  it  for  the  deceased.  On  returning  from  the  grave,  each 
person  takes  three  little  hooked  branches,  and  calls  on  his  spirit  to  follow 
him,  at  short  intervals  making  a  motion  of  hooking,  and  thrusting  the  hook 
into  the  ground.  This  is  to  prevent  the  spirit  of  the  living  from  staying 
behind  with  the  spirit  of  the  dead. 

Annual  feasts  for  the  dead  are  made  for  three  years  after  a  person's 
death.  It  is  a  general  assemblage  of  all  the  villagers  who  have  lost  rela- 
tives. Before  the  new  moon  at  the  end  of  August  or  beginning  Feasts  for 
of  September,  all  kinds  of  food,  tobacco,  etc.,  are  made  ready,  t^edead. 
A  bamboo  is  laid  across  one  corner  of  the  roof  of  the  room,  and  on  it  are 
hung  new  tunics,  turbans,  beads,  and  bangles ;  and  at  the  proper  time — the 
spirits  of  the  dead  being  supposed  to  have  returned  to  visit  them — the  people 
address  them  thus :  "  You  have  come  to  me,  you  have  returned  to  me.  It 
has  been  raining  hard,  and  you  must  be  wet.  Dress  yourselves,  clothe 
yourselves  with  these  new  garments,  and  all  the  companions  that  are  with 
you.  Eat  betel  together  with  all  that  accompany  you,  your  friends  and 
associates,  and  the  long  dead.  Call  them  all  to  eat  and  drink."  Next 
morning,  the  new-moon  day,  they  kill  a  hog,  and  make  thirty  bottles  of 
bamboos,  which  they  fill  with  all  kinds  of  food  and  drink.  Rice  and  meal 
are  cooked,  and  all  the  food  is  spread  out  as  far  as  possible  at  one  moment, 
so  that  none  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead  may  be  delayed  in  eating.  Each  one 
calls  on  his  particular  relative  who  has  died.  If  a  mother,  he  says,  weeping, 
"  Oh  !  prince-bird  mother,  it  is  the  close  of  August ;  oh  !  it  is  the  new  moon 
in  September ;  oh !  you  have  come  to  visit  me ;  oh !  you  have  returned  to 
see  me  ;  oh  !  I  give  you  eatables,  oh  !  I  give  you  drinkables  ;  oh !  eat  with 
a  glad  heart,  oh !  eat  with  a  happy  mind ;  oh !  don't  be  afraid,  mother ; 
oh!  do  not  be  apprehensive,  oh!"  When  the  spirits  have  finished,  the 
people  eat  the  food ;  but  a  further  supply  is  placed  for  the  spirits  to  carry 
away  with  them ;  and  at  cock-crow  next  morning  all  the  contents  of  the 
basket,  including  the  bamboo  bottles,  are  thrown  out  of  the  house  on  the 


96  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


ground,  the  same  ceremony  of  crying  and  calling  on  the  spirits  of  the  dead 
being  repeated. 

The  Kukis  of  Assam  believe  in  an  omnipotent  deity  named  Puthen, 

the  creator  of  everything.     Although  actuated  by  human  passions,  he  is 

benevolent,  and  desires  the  welfare  of  humanity.    He  is  the  judge 

Puthen  of  of  all  men,  and  punishes  them  by  death  and  disease,  both  in  this 

the  Kukis.   wori<j  anc[  ^he  next.      He  is   invoked    and   sacrificed  to  in  all 

troubles,  his  anger  being  deprecated,  or  his  aid  sought  to  avert  the  anger 

of  other  gods. 

Ghumvishve  is  their  evil  deity.  When  he  is  seen,  death  ensues ;  his 
anger  causes  frightful  diseases;  his  essence  is  cruelty  and  malevolence. 
This  being  is  alleged  to  be  married  to  Khuchoin,  a  malignant 
"  goddess  with  special  power  over  diseases  of  the  stomach.  Hilo, 
their  daughter,  is  the  goddess  of  poisons.  These  three  are  never  prayed 
to,  but  sacrifices  are  made  to  avert  their  anger,  as  well  as  to  Puthen  to 
interfere. 

Numerous  subordinate  deities  are  also  recognised  by  the  Kukis,  such  as 
Khomungnoo,  the  household  god  ;  Thingbulgna,  the  forest  god  ;  river-gods, 
inferior  gods  of  mountains  and  rocks,  etc.  Each  metal  has  its  particular 
deities,  go^  presiding  over  matters  to  which  the  metal  is  related ;  thus, 
the  god  of  silver  is  the  god  of  wealth  ;  the  iron  god  is  the  god  of  battle. 
The  moon  is  also  worshipped  ;  and  in  every  house  is  a  consecrated  post, 
before  which  they  place  a  portion  of  all  food  about  to  be  eaten. 

Their  idea  of  the  future  is  not  one  of  eternity,  although  they  believe 

in  a  future  of  rewards  and  punishments.    Even  of  the  soul  their  conception 

„    „  , .  ,  is  vague.     Thev  imagine  that  the  dead  take  the  same  forms,  and 

The  Kukis  °  •/  o 

idea  of  inhabit  a  world  lying  to  the  north.  They  have  a  very  exclusive 
n  y"  idea  of  their  heaven.  It  is  not  for  peoples  of  other  religions,  who 
must  have  other  heavens  situated  elsewhere.  In  touching  similarity  to  the 
American  Indians  and  other  races,  they  look  for  the  assemblage  of  all  their 
people  who  have  been  good,  after  death,  in  a  happy  land,  where  rice  grows 
almost  without  cultivation,  and  where  the  jungles  abound  in  game.  In 
this  future  the  ghost  of  every  animal  a  Kuki  has  slain  becomes  his  property, 

Future  while  every  enemy  he  has  slain  is  his  slave.  Evil  doers  are  kept 
punishment,  separate,  and  perform  menial  offices  for  the  good.  AVar  and 
hunting  are  the  principal  occupations  of  this  heaven.  The  evil  doer  is 
tormented,  hung,  immersed  in  boiling  water,  impaled,  cast  into  a  burning 
gulf,  etc.  They  have  no  definite  idea  how  long  the  torment  or  happiness 
of  this  state  may  last. 

In  every  village  there  is  a  rudely  formed  figure  of  wood,  of  human  shape, 
representing  one  of  their  gods,  generally  under  a  tree.  They  pray  to  it 
when  they  start  on  any  expedition,  and  when  they  return  they  place  be- 
fore  it  the  heads  of  their  enemies  or  of  the  game  they  have  killed. 

It  is  always  a  question  of  importance  with  the  Kukis  to  find  oul 
what  god  has  caused  any  disease.  They  have  priests  or  diviners,  known 
as  Thempoo  or  Mithai,  educated  and  initiated  to  communicate   with   the 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  INDIA,   ETC. 


97 


gods.      These  individuals  feel    a  sick  man's  pulse,  question  him  as  to  his 
disease,  etc.,  and  then  meditate  for   a    time,  after  which   they 
name   the   god   offended,  and    the   sacrifice   needed   to   appease      priests, 
him.     If  the  victim  be  a  fowl,  the  Thempoo  cuts  the  animal's  or     empoc 
throat,  pours  its  blood  as  a  libation  on  the  ground,  mutters  some  praises, 
and  then  roasts  and  eats  the  bird.     The  superstition  of  the  people  is  further 
shown  by  their  carrying  tiger's  teeth  upon  their  persons,  as  a  protection 
against  wild  animals  ;  also  a  small  round  stone,  carried  in  a  wicker  basket, 
is  believed  to  secure  good  sport  to  the  hunter. 

The  tribes  of  the  Kukis  appear  to  vary  in  practice  between  burial  and 
cremation.  No  properly  religious  rites  are  observed.  Feasting,  long-con- 
tinued   and     general,    is     Funeral 


the  most  important  thing  feasts. 
following  death.  It  is  believed 
that  while  the  body  remains  above 
ground  all  the  animals  slain  for  the 
feasts  will  be  attached  to  it  in  the 
spirit-world,  and  hence  the  pro- 
fusion. When  the  body  is  taken 
to  the  burying  ground,  eatables 
and  drinkables  are  placed  on  the 
bier  and  buried  with  it,  and  the 
skulls  of  the  animals  slain  for  the 
feasts  are  stuck  on  posts  all  round 
the  grave.  When  a  Rajah  died,  it 
used  to  be  thought  essential  that 
at  least  the  skull  of  one  freshly 
killed  enemy  should  be  stuck  over 
his  grave,  and  to  this  end  a  war 
party  was  organised  immediately 
after  his  death. 

The  Nagas  of  the  mountains 
of  Assam  do  not  attempt  to  account 
for  the   creation    of  the     Gods  of 
world,  which  appears  to  the  Na^as- 

have  existed  before  their  gods.  Such  religion  as  they  have  is  not  very 
sincere.  One  of  their  gods  is  believed  to  be  blind,  and  consequently  they 
cheat  him  by  placing  small  offerings,  or  only  a  few  leaves,  in  large  baskets. 
They  worship  a  god  of  riches,  to  whom  all  those  who  seek  wealth  make 
sacrifices  ;  he*  punishes  by  diseases  and  reverses  those  who,  having  wealth, 
fail  to  sacrifice  to  him.  Another  of  their  deities  is  god  of  the  harvest, 
and  receives  offerings  in  kind,  with  prayers  for  good  crops.  They  also 
propitiate  a  malignant  deity,  fierce,  ugly,  and  one-eyed,  who  causes  all  mis- 
fortunes. 

Omens  are  carefully  regarded  among  the  Nagas,  in  order  to  discover  what 
deity  has  caused  a  particular  evil  or  can  bring  about  a  desired  good.    When 


KALMUCK    SOAMANESS. 


98  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


this  is  settled,  the  village  is  closed  for  two  days,  and  nothing  but  sacrificing 

scolding  the  and  feasting  goes  on.     When  a  man  falls  sick,  according  to  Major 

forcSsing  Butler,1  the    chief   person   in  the    house   or  family  sacrifices   a 

death.      f0\vl,  and,  after  placing  the  entrails  and  feathers  in  the  road  in 

the  evening,  he  calls  out  to  the  spirit,  "0  spirit,  restore  to  health  the  per- 

bi  >n  you  have  afflicted  in  my  family.     I  offer  you  the  entrails  of  a  fowl." 

When  a  man  of  note  dies  in  a  village,  the  people  do  not  quit  it  for  three 

days,  during  which  they  kill  animals,  and  the  whole  community  feasts  and 

drinks.     At  the  funeral  all  the  men,  in  war  equipment,  make  a  great  noise, 

and  jump  about,  saying,  "  What  spirit  has  come  and  killed  our  friend  ? 

Where  have  you  fled  to?     Come,  let  us  see  you,  how  powerful  you  are.     If 

we  could  see  you,  we  would  spear  you  and  kill  you  with  these  spears  ;  "  and 

they  continually  curse  the  spirit  and  strike  the  earth  with  their  spears  and 

swords.      On   the   grave   they   place   all   the   personal   belongings   of  the 

deceased,  and,  as  with  the  Kukis,  the  skulls  of  pigs  and  cows  are  stuck  on 

sticks  at  one  end  of  the  grave,  but  in  this  case  in  memory  of  the  deceased's 

Burial  t    nospita]ity.      Stewart2   says   the  Nagas  bury  their  dead  at  the 

the  doors  of  doors  of  their  houses,  in  coffins,  a  huge  stone  being  rolled  over 
houses  . 

the  grave.     Thus  Naga  villages  are  full  of  these  rough,  unhewn 

tombstones.     The  people  show  great  regard  for  these  tombs,  at  first  fencing 

them  in  and  scattering  flowers  over  them.     Cases  of  violating  tombs  to  gain 

possession  of  the  buried  articles  were  not  heard  of. 

The  Kasias  of  Assam  are  remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  monumental 

stones  everywhere  by  the  wayside.     Usually  they  are  oblong,  erect  pillars, 

Pillars  and  unnewn  or  carefully  squared.     The  number  in  one  monument 

cromlechs  of  varies  from  three  to  thirteen,  and  is  generally  odd;  the  tallest 

is  in  the  middle.  In  front  of  these  is  a  kind  of  cromlech,  a  large 
flat  stone  resting  on  short  rough  pillars.  In  one  case  a  pillar  was  twenty- 
seven  feet  high  ;  and  a  cromlech  slab,  thirty-two  feet  by  fifteen,  and  two 
feet  thick,  has  been  seen,  raised  five  feet  above  the  ground.  Often  the 
sarcophagus  is  found  to  consist  of  a  large  circular  slab,  resting  on  many 
little  rough  blocks  placed  close  together,  through  whose  chinks  may  be  seen 
earthen  pots  containing  the  ashes  of  the  family.  The  upright  pillars  are 
undoubtedly  monumental ;  and  if  the  Kasia  is  asked  why  his  fathers  went 
to  such  expense  to  erect  them,  he  answers,  "  To  preserve  their  name."  Yet 
they  can  attach  a  name  to  but  few.  The  name  of  one,  "  Mansmai,"  the 
The  oath    oath-stone,   was   explained  by  a  native  thus :   "  There  was  war 

between  Cherra  and  Mansmai;  and  when  they  made  peace  and 
swore  to  it,  they  erected  a  stone  as  witness."  Hence  it  is  suggested  that 
some  of  these  were  erected  as  witnesses  to  notable  compacts. 

The  Bodo  and  Dhimals  of  the  Assam  forests  worship  a  great  number  ot 

Deities  of    deities  I  e-9;  household  gods,  worshipped  at  home,  which  are  at 

thDhi°mlisnd,!"'  same  time  national  gods;  gods  of  the  rivers;    and  gods  of 

sun  and   moon,   mountains,  forests,  etc.     They  are  also  divided 

Travels  and  Adventures  in  Assam." 
"  Journal  of  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,"  vol.  24. 


ABORIGINAL  RELIGIONS   OF  INDIA,   ETC.  99 

into  male  and  female,  young  and  old,  etc.  To  these  gods  they  do  not 
assign  definite  moral  attributes ;  but  several  of  them  are  called  Rajah,  and 
one  of  them  bears  the  name  of  a  known  historic  person.  Hence  it  is 
probable  that  their  gods  are,  at  least  partially,  deified  ancestors.  On  the 
whole  their  deities  have  a  vaguely  benevolent  character,  and  there  is  a 
general  absence  of  cruel  and  savage  rites.  They  do  not  worship  images, 
nor  have  they  temples.  Their  chief  festivals  bear  reference  to  agriculture. 
They  seem  to  have  an  idea  of  a  future  state.  Diseases  are  caused  entirely 
by  preternatural  agencies,  and  hence  they  employ  exorcisers,  who  are  a 
class  of  priests. 

There  is  a  regular  priest  for  each  village,  and  a  class  of  district  priests 
exercising  some  control  over  the  village  priests  of  his  district.     "Whoever 
chooses  may  be  a  priest,  but  must  be  regularly  inducted.     At 
times  the  elders  take  equal  part  with  the  priests.     At  marriages       their 
and  funerals  the  priests  perform  the  essential  preliminary  sacri- 
fices ;  they  conduct  the  great  festivals  and  make  all  sacrifices.     The  lesser 
deities  receive  offerings  of  eatables  and  drinkables-  other  than"  meat,  while 
the   greater    divinities   receive   animal   sacrifices-.      The    dead    are   buried 
decently  and  simply.     The}^  have  no  fixed  burial  grounds  or  monuments. 
Food  and  drink  are  laid  upon  the  grave  at  burial,  and  a  few  days  after  the 
same  is  repeated  and  the  deceased  is  addressed. 

The   Mishmis   of  the   Assam   borders   ascribe   more    destructive    and 
malevolent  powers  to  their  gods  than  the  Bodo  and  Dhimals.     They  fear 
most  a  god  of  destruction ;  they  also  sacrifice  to  a  god  of  health  Malevolent 
and  disease,  and  a  god  of  instruction  and  the  chase.     One  of  demons  of 
these  people,  on  being  told  that  the  English  worshipped  a  good 
Spirit  who  ruled  all  the  demons,  observed,  "  Ah,  you  English  people  must 
be  very  happ3r  in  having  such  a  good  and  powerful  demon  in  your  country. 
The   Mishmis    are  very  unfortunate — we   are   everywhere   surrounded   by 
demons  ;  the}?-  live  in  the  rivers,  mountains  and  trees  ;  they  walk  about  in 
the  dark,  and  live  in  the  winds ;  we  are  constantly  suffering  from  them." 

"When  disease  appears  in  a  Mishmi's  family,  the  priest  is  sent  for  to 
drive  away  the  evil  spirit,  which  he  does  with  antics  which  only  repeat  the 
operations   of    his   class   elsewhere.      The   sacrifice,  however,    is     DlseaEe 
killed  with  unnecessary  cruelty.     Death  of  a  Mishmi,  especially  a  dj  th,  End 
chief,  is  followed  by  extensive  feasting  in  honour  of  the  departed. 
The  body  is  burntr  after  two. days,  and  the  ashes  are  placed  in  a  miniature 
house  close  to  the  house  of  the   deceased.     This  miniature  house  is   sur- 
rounded by  some- of  the  skulls  collected  by  the  chief  during  his  lifetime. 
The  eldest  son  hold's  a  yearly  feast  in  honour  of  his  deceased  father,  and 
this  is  considered  a  most  sacred  observance. 

The  Osiiaks  of  the  Obi  district  in  Siberia,  before  Christian  missionaries 
came  among  them,  appear  to  have  had  a  belief  in  a  Supreme  Being,  of 
whom  they  had  no  image  and  to  whom  they  made  no  offerings.     Gods  of 
Shaitan   is   their   household   god,  guardian  of  all  they  possess.  the  ostiaks. 
They  represent  him  by  the  figure  of  a  man,  carved  in  wood  and  dressed 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


like  an  Ostiak.  To  Shaitan  all  meals  are  first  offered,  all  the  dishes  being 
placed  before  him  ;  and  they  abstain  from  eating  till  the  idol,  who  eats 
invisibly,  lias  had  enough.  Other  divinities  are  worshipped,  including  Long, 
master  of  secret  arts,  medicine,  etc.  Offerings  made  to  him  by  the  sick 
must  be  works  of  art  ;  skins  will  not  do.  Meik  is  a  god  of  ill-luck  :  to  him 
Ostiaks  make  vows  of  gifts  and  service  when  in  danger  of  perishing  in  the 
wilderness,  or  in  snow  storms.  Many  reindeer,  put  to  death  slowly  and 
cruelly,  are  sacrificed  to  their  gods  by  the  Ostiaks.  Ortik,  one  of  their 
deified  heroes,  a  beneficent  being  and  mediator,  is,  like  the  rest,  represented 
as  a  bust  without  legs,  the  face  being  made  of  a  hammered  plate  of  metal 
nailed  upon  wood,  the  body  of  a  sack  stuffed  with  hair  and  skins  and  with 
two  linen  sleeves  sewed  to  it  for  arms,  the  whole  dressed  in  a  linen  frock 
and  placed  on  a  table,  with  sword  and  spear  beside  it.  To  this  being 
offerings  of  furs  are  made. 

Ancestor  worship  prevails  considerably  among  them.  When  a  man  dies, 
the  priests  (shamans)  make  his  relatives  form  a  rude  wooden  image  re- 
Ancestor  presenting  him,  which  is  set  up  in  their  huts,  and  receives  divine 
worship,  honours  for  a  greater  or  less  time,  as  the  priest  may  direct.  At 
every  meal  they  set  an  offering  of  food  before  the  image,  and  the  widow 
embraces  it  from  time  to  time.  The  time  of  worship  apparently  lasts  three 
years.  The  priests,  however,  preserve  the  images  of  their  ancestors  for 
generations,  and  manage,  by  oracles  and  other  arts,  to  procure  offerings  for 
them  equal  to  those  of  the  other  gods,  thus  showing  how  deified  ancestors 
became  regular  national  gods.  The  Ostiaks  also  venerate  trees  and  bears  ; 
they  ask  a  bear's  pardon  after  having  killed  him.  They  even  insult  him 
mockingly  when  his  skin  is  stuffed  with  hay,  and  then  set  him  up  and  pay 
him  worship  in  their  huts. 

The  priests  or  shamans  of  the  Ostiaks  combine  the  offices  of  priest, 
diviner,  exorciser,  and   medicine-man.     They  mediate  between  the  people 
convulsions  anc^  ^ie*r  S°^si  falling  into  convulsive  fits,  during  which  they  are 
of  the      believed  to  be  in  communion  with  their  gods.     When  the  shaman 
falls,  according  to  Erman  ("  Travels  in  Siberia  "),  the  bystanders 
throw  a  cord  round  his  neck,  and  cover  him  with  skins.    Two  men  then  take 
the  ends  of  the  cord,  and  pull  it  with  all  their  might,  while  the  shaman 
under  the  skin  slips  his  hands  to  his  neck  to  prevent  his  being  strangled. 
When  at  last  he  has  had  enough  of  the  struggle,  he  makes  a  sign  that  the 
spirits  have  left  him,  and  communicates  to  the  assembled  people  the  pre- 
dict ions  which  have  been  sought. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  Kalmucks  of  the  Altai  are  still  shamanists, 

and   sacrifice  animals  to  their  good  and  evil  spirits.     Their  images,  rudely 

The        carved  in  wood  or  bark,  resemble  human  forms  with  extended 

sh^maiusts  armS'  and  rel)resent  tlieir  ideas  of  tlie  nature-spirits.     The  spirits 

B-  of  their  ancestors  are  said  to  be  represented  by  ribbons  of  varied 

colours   hung  on  the  branches  of  trees,  and  from  them   the   living   man 

believes  that   he    hears  the   whisperings  of  his   dead   father  giving   him 

counsels  whi.h  he  scrupulously  obeys. 


ABORIGINAL   RELIGIONS   OF  INDIA,    ETC.  101 


Many  of  the  Voguls  are  still   thorough  shamanists,  and    keep  up    a 
complete  system  of  totemism.     They  are  also  said  to  worship   a  national 
god  who  has  a  sanctuary  among  the  forests  in  a  valley  high  up        The 
in  the  Ural.     At  his  festival   a  horse  is  sacrificed,  previous  to     voguis. 
which  each  man  in  turn  drinks  his  blood  as  it  flows  from  a  wound.     They 
are  said  also  to  worship  the  sun  in  an  especial  manner. 

Among  the  Samoyedes  of  Northern  Europe,  though  many  are  chris- 
tianised, the  old  shamanism  and  nature  worship  still  lingers.    Near  the  Ural 
Mountains  may  still  be  seen  their  odd-looking  sacred  stones  or        The 
roughly  carved  idols.     They  believe  in  principal  good  and  evil  samoyed3s. 
divinities,  to  whom  they  offer  arms  and  various  valued  objects.     Bears  and 
many  reindeer  are  sacrificed  to  the  gods. 

By  far  the  most  developed  religion  of  the  Finno-Ugrian  group  of 
peoples,  however,  was  that  of  the  Finns,  which  has  in  recent  times  been 
reconstructed  by  the  collection  of  fragments  handed  down  orally,  The  Finnish 
which  seem  to  represent  a  national  epic,  the  Kalevala,  describing  rell£10n- 
the  history  and  nature  of  the  gods  they  believed  in.  Castren,  a  Swede, 
is  the  special  authority  on  this  subject.  We  find  in  it  a  supreme  god, 
Youmala,  whose  name  is  recognised  in  the  Samoyede  Noum,  the  Lapp 
Youbmel,  and  the  Esthonian  Yoummal ;  and  in  all  these  the  name  signifies 
''the  heaven"  or  "sky."  In  more  modern  times  the  name  was  applied 
generally  to  deities,  and  hence  was  adopted  as  the  name  for  God  The 
by  Christian  missionaries  to  Finland.  It  appears  that  the  name  Kalevala- 
originally  applied  especially  to  the  sky  when  thunder  was  resounding,  being 
supposed  to  indicate  the  personal  divinity.  The  name  Oukko  was  also 
used  for  much  the  same  conception  of  the  sky,  and  for  the  head  of  the 
family  of  gods,  represented  as  a  tall  man  with  armour  giving  forth  flames. 
The  lightning  was  his  sword,  and  he  had  a  hammer  with  which  he  struck 
the  thunderclaps.  From  this  it  may  be  gathered  that  the  old  Finns  had  an 
extreme  dread  of  thunder,  which  is  still  the  case.  At  the  return  of  spring, 
Oukko  was  honoured  with  a  festival,  food  being  offered  to  him  on  the 
mountain-top.  Akka,  the  old  mother,  was  his  wife,  sending  rain  and  often 
acting  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  Oukko.  Each  main  object  of  nature, — sun, 
moon,  stars, — had  an  important  place  in  the  Finnish  nature  worship,  the 
heart  of  a  bear  or  other  wild  animal  being  offered  to  the  sun,  and  no  work 
being  done  after  sunset.  Fire,  also,  was  greatly  revered.  All  these  nature 
gods  in  general  were  favourable  and  propitious  to  mankind.  Many  spirits 
of  the  forests,  of  trees  and  waters,  were  also  reverenced. 

The  Finns  believed  in  a  future  life,  passed  in  an  under-world  called 
Tuonela,  the  domain  of  Tuoni  (also  known  as  Kalma  and  Mana).  He  is 
represented  as  a  gloomy,  severe,  inexorable  man,  never  to  be  The  under- 
persuaded  to  relax  his  grasp  on  souls  he  has  once  seized.  His  world- 
domain  is  pale  and  shadowy,  though  it  has  a  sun,  meadows,  bears,  serpents, 
etc.  The  spirits  of  the  dead  were  feared,  especially  those  of  deceased 
shamans,  and  hence  the  living  ones  who  could  communicate  with  them 
and  hinder  them  from  doing  evil  made  their  occupation  very  profitable. 


TRADITIONAL   PORTRAIT    OF    COSFUCIUS. 


BOOK  II. 

RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA    AND    JAPAN. 


I.    CONFUCIANISM. 


CHAPTER   I. 
life  of  Confuriusu 

A  single  founder— Early  condition  of  China — Birth  of  Confucius— His  early  life— His  studies— Inter- 
view with  Lao-tze— He  refuses  high  office— Official  view  of  Confucius— His  son,  Le— Confucius 
a  magistrate — His  manners  and  demeanour — Dress  and  food— The  Duke  of  Lu  beguiled— Con- 
fucius travels— Employment  not  readily  found— His  life  in  danger— He  is  compared  to  a  stray 
dog— Breaking  a  promise— Scarcity  of  provisions — Confucius  describes  himself— Death  of  Yen 
Hwuy — Later  years — Death  of  Confucius— His  tomb— His  influence—  Personal  description— His 
guarded  speech  — His  self-confidence— Views  on  public  evils— Compromise  of  principles — 
Docl  rines— Alternate  neglect  and  reverence— Modern  worship — Confucius  a  lover  of  antiquity— 
His  special  themes— Belief  in  a  Supreme  Ruler — Worship  of  ancestors  and  spirits— A  future  life 
— The  family — Subordination  of  women— Grounds  for  divorce— The  power  of  example— Filial 
obecience— The  golden  rule— Treatment  of  enemies— Dr.  Legge's  view  of  Confucius. 

THE  predominant  religion  of  China,  Confucianism,  like  Buddhism,  Zoro- 
astrianism,  and  Mahometanism,  is  peculiarly  connected  with  a  single 
founder.  Dating  back  as  far  as,  if  not  farther  than  Gautama,  Confucius 
a  single  still  influences  the  life  of  his  countrymen  in  an  extraordinary 
founder.  degreej  not  on\y  by  ^jg  moral  an(j  religious  teachings,  but  also  by 
his  political  institutions.  In  the  sixth  century  b.c.  the  "Middle  Kingdom" 
was  ruled  over  by  the  dynasty  of  Chow,  as  a  feudal  kingdom,  far  less 
extensive  than  its  modern  successor.     Honan  and  Shansi,  with  portions  of 


LIFE   OF  CONFUCIUS.  103 

surrounding  (modern)  provinces,  comprised  the  whole.     There  was  already 
a  considerable  development  of  the  arts  of  war  and  peace,  and  a       _., 
copious   literature   existed.      Polygamy   was   in   full   play,    and  condition  of 
women  occupied  a  degraded  position.     There  was  no  established 
and  influential  religious  system,   and  the  masses  of  the  people   lived  in 
chronic  misery,  suffering   greatly  under  misrule.      As  Mencius,  the  great 
follower  of  Confucius,  wrote  :    "  The  world  had  fallen  into  decay,  and  right 
principles  had  disappeared.     Perverse  discourses  and  oppressive  deeds  were 
waxen  rife.     Ministers  murdered  their  rulers,  and  sons  their  fathers.     Con- 
fucius was  frightened   by  what  he    saw,  and   he  undertook  the  work  of 
reformation." 

At  this  period,  in  the  year  550  or  551  B.C.,  was  born  Kung-Fu-tze 
(Latinised  into  Confucius),  whose  name  means  "  the  philosopher  or  master 
Kung."     He  was  the  son  of  a  brave  officer  in  the  army,  Shuh-    Birth  of 
leang  Heih,  a  man  of  immense  strength,  and  a  descendant  of  Confucius, 
former  emperors.     The  later  histories  surround  his  birth  with  marvels.    It 
is  claimed  by  two  places  in  the  state  of  Lu,  in  the  modern  Shan-tung. 
Confucius  was  the  child  of  his  father's  old  age,  and  the  father  only  survived 
the  son's  birth  three  years.    His  youth  was  passed  in  comparative    His  early 
poverty,  and  there  is  no  satisfactory  account  of  his  early  educa-        life- 
tion.     He  says  briefly  in  the  Analects  that  at  the  age  of  fifteen  his  mind 
was  bent  on  learning,  and  that  it  was  owing  to  his  low  condition  that  he 
acquired  ability  in  many  mean  matters,  as  he  regarded  them. 

At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  married,  and  his  wife  bore  him  a  son  (Le) 
and  two  daughters.  Soon  after  his  marriage  he  was  appointed  keeper  of 
the  grain  stores  under  the  chief  of  his  district,  and  afterwards  superin- 
tendent of  parks  and  herds,  and  discharged  these  offices  in  a  praiseworthy 
manner,  without  attempting  to  enrich  himself. 

In  his  twenty-second  year  (about  530  B.C.),  Confucius  began  his  career 
as  a  public  teacher,  having  no  doubt  prosecuted  his  studies  while  following 
his  previous  employments.  His  great  desire  was  to  have  earnest 
and  intelligent  students,  rather  than  those  who  could  pay  high 
fees.  Indeed  he  did  not  reject  any  pupil  who  could  pay  the  smallest  fee. 
Two  years  after  this  his  mother  died,  sincerely  and  long  mourned  by  her 
son.  At  this  time  he  seems  already  to  have  foreseen  something  of  his 
future.  "  I  am  a  man,"  he  said,  "  who  belongs  equally  to  the  north  and  the 
south,  the  east  and  the  west."  After  this  he  continued  his  studies,  and  at 
the  age  of  thirty,  he  says,  "  he  stood  firm  "  in  his  learning ;  in  517  b.c  his 
fame  was  so  well  established  that  a  principal  official  of  Lu,  on  his  death- 
bed, recommended  his  son  and  brother  to  study  with  Confucius.  This 
appears  to  have  improved  his  position,  and  to  have  led  to  his  visiting 
the  capital,  the  city  of  Lo,  where  he  examined  the  royal  library,  temple, 

and   sacrificial  grounds,    and   saw    Lao-tze,    afterwards    famous    _  . 

„  •iTii         Interview 

as    the    founder   of    Taoism,    whom    he    appreciated    cordially.       with 

According  to  the  followers  of  Lao-tze,  the  latter  did  not  think 

much  of  Confucius,  and  he  is  reported  to  have  said  to  his  visitor :  "  Those 


,o4  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

whom  you  talk  about  are  dead,  and  their  bones  are  mouldered  to  dust ;  only 
their  words  remain.  .  .  .  Put  away  your  proud  air  and  many  desires, 
your  insinuating  habit  and  wild  will.  These  are  of  no  advantage  to  you." 
These  sayings  are,  as  will  afterwards  be  seen,  quite  in  keeping  with  Lao-tze's 
teaching ;  the  ceremony,  reverence  for  antiquity,  and  self-righteousness 
apparent  in  Confucius  were  very  much  against  the  spirit  of  quietism  and 
rationalism  of  his  great  contemporary. 

Returning  to  Lu,  the  fame  of  Confucius  increased,  and  his  disciples 
are  said  to  have  risen  to  three  thousand ;  but  he  removed  from  Lu  to  Tse 
He  refuses  when  the  chief  clans  expelled  the  reigning  duke.  King,  the 
high  office.  X)uke  of  Tse,  sent  for  him,  and  offered  him  the  city  of  Lin-kew 
with  its  revenues;  but  the  sage  declined  the  tempting  offer,  saying,  "A 
superior  man  will  not  receive  rewards  except  for  services  done.  I  have 
given  advice  to  the  Duke  King,  but  he  has  not  followed  it  as  yet,  and  now 
he  would  endow  me  with  this  place.  Very  far  is  he  from  understanding 
me."  When  the  duke  was  willing  again  to  reward  Confucius,  his  chief 
minister  dissuaded  him  in  words  which  convey  to  us  a  good,  idea  of  how 
official  view  Confucius  impressed  his  contemporaries.  "These  scholars,"  he 
of Confuciussaid,  "are  impracticable,  and  cannot  be  imitated.  They  are 
haughty  and  conceited  of  their  own  views,  so  that  they  will  not  be  content 
in  inferior  positions.  They  set  a  high  value  on  all  funeral  ceremonies,  give 
way  to  their  grief,  and  will  waste  their  property  on  great  burials,  so  that 
they  would  only  be  injurious  to  the  common  manners.  This  Mr.  Kung  has 
a  thousand  peculiarities.  It  would  take  generations  to  exhaust  all  that  he 
knows  about  the  ceremonies  of  going  up  and  going  down.  This  is  not  the 
time  to  examine  into  his  rules  of  propriety.  If  you,  prince,  wish  to  employ 
him  to  change  the  customs  of  Tse,  you  will  not  be  making  the  people  your 
primary  consideration."  Soon  after  this  time  Confucius  returned  to  Lu, 
where  he  stayed  fifteen  years  without  official  employment,  the  whole  State 
being  in  much  confusion. 

During  this  period,  marked  by  the  composition  of  his  Book  of  Odes 
and  Book  of  Offices,  occurred  the  single  incident  in  which  Confucius's  son 
ms  son  Le  "^e  *s  Prominent.  One  of  the  great  man's  disciples  met  the  son 
one  day,  and  asked  him  if  he  received  from  his  father  any 
differenl  instructions  from  those  given  to  the  students  in  general.  "No," 
said  Le.  "He  was  standing  alone  once,  when  I  was  passing  through  the 
court  below  with  hasty  steps,  and  said  to  me,  'Have  you  read  the  Odes?' 
On  my  replying  'Not  yet,'  he  added,  'If  you  do  not  learn  the  Odes,  you 
will  not  be  fit  to  converse  with.'  Another  day  he  said  to  me,  '  Have  you 
read  the  Rules  of  Propriety  ?  '  On  my  replying,  '  Not  yet,'  he  added,  '  If 
you  do  not  learn  the  Rules  of  Propriety,  your  character  cannot  be  estab- 
lished.'"  Nothing  else  of  special  importance  had  the  son  heard  from  his 
father.  The  disciple's  comment  was  characteristic  of  his  kind  in  China : 
1  asked  one  thing,  and  I  have  got  three  things.  I  have  heard  about  the 
Odes ;  I  have  heard  about  the  Rules  of  Propriety ;  I  have  also  heard  that 
the  superior  man  maintains  a  distant  reserve  towards  his  son."     This  last 


LIFE  OF  CONFUCIUS. 


i°5 


practice  was  quite  in  accord  with  the  principles  of  Confucius ;  propriety 
was  to  be  so  far  studied,  even  in  the  parental  relation,  that  there  was  little 
room  for  the  manifestation  of  open-hearted  affection.  Even  when  his  wife 
died,  and  the  son  continued  to  weep  aloud  for  her  after  the  appropriate 
period,  Confucius  sent  to  him  to  tell  him  that  his  sorrow  must  be  subdued. 

Having  contrived  for  many  years  to  steer   clear   of  party  conflicts, 
Confucius,  about  b.c.  500,  was  made  chief  magistrate  of  the  city  of  Chung- 
too.     Here  confuciusa 
he      SOOll   magistrate. 

signalised  himself  by 
his  strict  administra- 
tion, and  by  the  num- 
ber of  rules  that  he 
framed  for  all  con- 
ditions in  life  ;  and  it 
appears  certain  that 
he  effected  a  great 
reformation  in  the 
manners  of  the  peo- 
ple. This  led  to  his 
promotion  through 
several  offices  to  be 
minister  of  crime  to 
the  entire  state. 
Whereupon  we  have 
the  doubtless  exag- 
gerated statement 
that  all  crime  ceased 
from  the  date  of  his 
appointment. 

"We  have  a  pic- 
ture of  the  manners 
and    beha- 


His  manners 
viour     01        and 

Confucius,  demeanour- 

in  the  tenth  book  of 

the  Analects,   which 

appears  very  natural 

to    his    character. 

Everything  with  him  was  a  matter  of  ceremony,  and  every  action  was 

designed  to  be  an  example  to  others.     When  out  of  doors,  in  his  village, 

he  looked  simple  and  sincere ;  in  courts  and  before  princes  his  demeanour 

was  humble,  but  precise  and  self-possessed.     When  receiving  the  visitors 

of  a  prince,  his  legs  bent  under  him,  and  he  showed  uneasiness.    Dress  and 

In  dress,  Confucius  would  only  use  the  correct  colours — azure,       food- 

yellow,  carnation,  white,  and  black  ;  his  under  garment  was  of  silk,  with  fur 


CONFUCIUS  :    KUBBINU    FBOH    A   POKl'HAIT    ON    BRASS. 


io6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

over  it  in  winter,  and  a  thin  garment  again  over  that.  In  his  eating  he 
\\ raa  particular,  though  he  did  not  eat  much.  Everything  must  be  clean, 
well  cooked,  in  season,  properly  served;  and  he  was  never  without  ginger 
when  he  ate.  When  eating,  he  did  not  converse.  When  in  bed,  he  did 
not  speak.  Although  his  food  might  be  coarse  rice  and  vegetable  soup,  he 
would  offer  a  little  of  it  in  sacrifice  with  a  grave,  respectful  air.  "In  bed, 
he  did  not  lie  like  a  corpse.  At  home,  he  did  not  put  on  any  formal  de- 
portment." In  all  these  matters  he  was  consistently  anxious  to  set  a  good 
example.  His  idea  was,  that  if  the  prince's  expressed  desires  and  his  ex- 
ample were  good,  the  people  would  be  good.  And  certainly  he  was  so  far 
successful  that  he  added  to  the  power  of  the  State  of  Lu,  its  inhabitants 
increased  because  of  his  good  government,  the  men  became  loyal  and 
faithful,  the  women  chaste  and  docile.  The  people  were  enthusiastic  for 
him,  and  sang  in  his  praise  at  their  work. 

But  this  bright  period  of  success  was  not  to  last  long,  The  duke  of 
the  neighbouring  State,  instead  of  following  the  example  of  Lu,  took 
The  Duke  of  fright ;  he  thought  Lu  would  become  supreme  and  would  swallow 
Lu  beguiled.  Up  Tse.  Consequently  he  readily  adopted  the  advice  of  one  of 
his  officials,  that  he  should  try  and  procure  the  disgrace  of  the  statesman 
who  was  adding  to  the  fame  of  his  neighbour  so  greatly.  With  skilful 
adaptation  to  oriental  court  habits,  he  sent  a  present  of  eighty  beautiful 
girls,  good  dancers  and  musicians,  with  a  hundred  and  twenty- five  horses, 
to  the  Duke  of  Lu.  The  fascinations  of  harem  and  horses  had  their  effect 
and  the  minister  and  the  council  were  neglected.  At  length,  finding  that 
even  the  recurrence  of  the  great  sacrifice  to  heaven  failed  to  produce  a 
change,  and  that  the  whole  thing  was  hurried  through,  Confucius  slowly 
and  regretfully  took  his  leave  of  the  Court,  and  was  not  summoned  back. 
So  he  began  his  wanderings. 

Even  now  Confucius  hoped  to  find  suitable  employment  for  his  abilities 
in  neighbouring  States.  "  If  any  ruler,"  he  said,  "  would  submit  to  me  as 
Confucius  his  director  for  twelve  months,  I  should  accomplish  something 
travels,  considerable ;  and  in  three  years  I  should  attain  the  realisation 
of  my  hopes."  He  believed  he  could  teach  the  rulers  how  they  ought  to 
behave,  what  they  ought  to  encourage,  what  they  ought  to  forbid.  One 
of  his  expressions  was  that  there  was  good  government  when  the  ruler  was 
ruler  and  the  minister  minister ;  when  the  father  was  father  and  the  son 
son.  That  means  authority  and  submission,  due  subordination  of  ranks. 
But,  notwithstanding  his  firm  faith  in  his  principles,  his  departure  from  Lu, 
in  his  fifty-sixth  year,  was  melancholy,  and  it  is  recorded  that  he  spoke  in 
verse  to  the  following  effect: — 

"  Fain  would  I  still  look  towards  Lu, 
But  this  Kwei  hill  cuts  off  my  view. 
With  an  axe,  I'd  hew  the  thickets  through  :— 
Vain  thought!  against  the  hill  I  nought  can  do. 


LIFE   OF  CONFUCIUS.  107 

How  is  it,  0  azure  Heaven, 
From  my  home  I  thus  am  driven, 
Through  the  land  my  way  to  trace, 
"With  no  certain  dwelling-place  ? 
Dark,  dark  the  minds  of  men  ; 
Worth  in  vain  comes  to  their  ken. 
Hastens  on  my  term  of  years  ; 
Old  age,  desolate  appears." 

Although  many  received  him  well  on  his  journey,  he  did  not  readily 
find  the  employment  he  sought.     The  times  were  unpropitious,  the  internal 
dissensions  of  the  various  States  of  the  empire  foreboded  the 
dissolution   of    the    State   of    Chow ;     and   Confucius,    eager   to  not  readily 
strengthen  that  dynasty,  was  not  likely  to  be  acceptable  to  those 
who  were  fighting  for  self-interest,  or  for  the  downfall  of  Chow.     Even  the 
sage's  disciples  advised  him  to  bend  to  the  times ;  but  he  replied,  "  A  good 
husbandman  can  sow,  but  he  cannot  secure  a  harvest.      An  artisan  may 
excel  in  handicraft,  but  he  cannot  provide  a  market  for  his  goods.     And  in 
the  same  way  a  superior  man  can  cultivate  his  principles,  but  he  cannot 
make  them  acceptable."     And  the  result  at  Wei  clearly  proved  the  latter 
fact,  for  the  duke,  though  showing  him  considerable  honour,  put  a  public 
slight  upon  him,  so  that  the  populace  cried  out,  "  Lust  in  front ;  virtue 
behind !  "  and  Confucius  was  constrained  to  observe,  "  I  have  not  seen  one 
who  loves  virtue  as  he  loves  beauty." 

While  Confucius  was  on  his  journey  from  Wei  to  Chin,  an  officer  of 
Sung   sought   to  kill  him,  greatly  alarming   the   philosopher's   disciples  ; 
whereupon  he  uttered  one  of  his  famous  sayings :  "  Heaven  has   his  life  in 
produced  the  virtue  that  is  in  me  ;  what  can  Hwan  Twy  do  to     dan&er- 
me?"     On  his  farther  journey  Confucius  was  separated  from  his  disciples, 
and  word  was  brought  to  his  followers  in  Ching  that  there  was  a  man  at 
the  city  gate  whose  description  was  given,  with  the  addition  that  altogether 
he  had  the  disconsolate  appearance  of  a  stray  dog.     Identified  He  ig  com_ 
by  the  description,  the  master  was  soon  found,  and  was  greatly   pared  to  a 
amused  by  hearing  of  the  style  in  which  he  had  been  described. 
"  The  bodily  appearance,"  said  he,  "  is  but  a  small  matter  ;  but  to  say  I  was 
like  a  stray  dog, — capital !  capital !  " 

During  495  B.C.,  Confucius  was  in  Chin.     In  493  he  decided  to  return 
to  Wei ;  but  on  the  way  he  was  detained  by  a  rebel  officer  at  Poo,  who 
made  him  promise,  before  releasing  him,  not  to  go  on  to  Wei.  Breaking  a 
But   Confucius  broke  this  promise,  and,  on  being  questioned  as    Promise- 
to  the  morality  of  this  course,  replied  that  it  was  a  forced  oath,  winch 
the  spirits  do  not  hear.     So  he  went  on  to  Wei,   and   was  well  received 
by  the  Duke   Ling,  who,    however,  gave    him  no  office,  perhaps  because 
of  his  great  reverence  for  the  Chow  dynasty  and  the  elders.     After  some 
further  travels,  Confucius  returned  to  Chin,  and  in  b.c.  490  travelled  into 
Tsae.     During  the  journey  his  party  endured  severe  privations  scarcity  of 
from  want  of  provisions.     One  of  his  disciples  asked,  in  surprise  provisions, 
and  mortification,  "  Has  the  superior  man  indeed  to  endure  in  this  way?" 


ioS 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Confucius  replied,  "The  superior  man  may  indeed  have  to  endure  want; 
but  the  mean  man,  when  he  is  in  want,  gives  way  to  unbridled  licence." 
Thus  showing  that  the  distinction  between  the  two  was  adequately  marked 
by  the  wav  in  which  such  calamities  were  borne.  During  this  distress  the 
sage  maintained  his  composure,  and  was  even  able  to  sing  and  play  upon 

the  lute. 

In  488,  Confucius  was  in  She,  where  a  district  chief  had  assumed  the 

title  of  duke.     The  latter  did  not  know  what  to  think  of  such  a  visitor,  and 

hearing  of  his  inquiries,  Confucius  described  himself  as  "  a  man 

describes    who  in  his  eager  pursuit  of  knowledge  forgets  his  food,  who  in 

Mmself'     the  joy  of  its  attainment  forgets  his  sorrows,  and  who  does  not 

perceive  that  old  age  is  coming  on."     Surely  this  is  a  noble  description  of 

a    lofty  -  minded 
man,    eager     for 
truth,   satisfied 
and  happy  in  its 
attainment.    But 
he  could  not  win 
the     opportunity 
to  put  his  views 
into    practice: 
again  and   again 
he  was  foiled  by 
the     jealousy    of 
prime     ministers 
or   courtiers,  the 
indolence  of  rul- 
ers, or  their  dis- 
inclination   to 
change      their 
sordid     courses. 
Finally     he     re- 
turned   to    Wei, 
where  at  first  he 
was  asked  to  undertake  the  government  for  a  young  ruler,  the  grandson 
of  his  old  patron,  who  was  reigning  in  opposition  to  his  own  father.     Con- 
fucius again  showed  strength  of  principle  in  refusing  to  aid  a  ruler  whose 
title  was  founded  on  unfilial  rebellion ;   and  he  remained  several  years  em- 
Death  of    ployed  only  in  his  literary  compositions  and  in  teaching.     During 
YenHwuy.  ^   period   his  favourite   pupil,  Yen   Hwuy,    died,    occasioning 
poignant  grief  to  the  master,  who  exclaimed,  "  Heaven  is  destroying  me  !  " 
It   is  said  that  his  wife  died  in  b.c.  484.    At  last  he  was  recalled  to  Lu  in 
183  l>y  the  powerful  Ke  Kiang,  who  had  heard  anew  the  praises  of  Con- 
fucius from  his  pupil  Yen  Yew.     The  latter  was  judicious  enough  to  warn 
the  ruler  not  to  allow  mean  men  to  come  between  him  and  the  philosopher. 
His  return,   however,  did  not  lead  to  any  very  striking  improvement  in 


TOMB    OF    CONFUCIDS. 


LIFE    OF  CONFUCIUS.  109 


Confucius's  position.  He  was  not  admitted  to  take  any  part  in  state  affairs, 
and  consequently  he  applied  himself  to  the  completion  of  his 
great  works.  We  are  told  that  at  this  period  he  wrote  a  preface 
to  the  Shn  King,  made  a  careful  digest  of  the  ancient  rites  and  ceremonies, 
made  a  collection  of  ancient  poetry,  and  endeavoured  to  make  improve- 
ments in  music.  In  482  his  son  Le  died,  and  in  480  he  had  a  presage  of  his 
own  speedy  death.  In  479  he  lost  another  of  his  notable  disciples,  Tze-loo, 
a  man  of  bold  and  soldierly  presence,  who  would  remonstrate  with  his  chief, 
or  make  inquiries  of  him  which  others  would  not  venture  on  making. 

And  now  came  the  death  of  the  great  philosopher  himself.  Early  one 
morning  in  the  4th  month  of.  478  b.c.  he  rose  from  bed  and  moved  slowly 
about  by  his  door,  saying  : — 

"  The  great  mountain  must  crumble, 
The  strong  beam  must  break  ; 
And  the  wise  man  wither  awa3'  like  a  plant." 

Then  entering  his  house,  he  sat  down  opposite  the  door.  To  a  disciple  who 
hastened  to  him  on  hearing  these  words,  Confucius  declared  his  preference 
for  the  burial  form  of  Yin,  in  which  the  funeral  ceremony  was  Death  of 
performed  between  the  two  pillars,  as  if  the  deceased  were  at  once  Confucius- 
host  and  guest,  instead  of  treating  him  exclusively  as  one  or  the  other. 
"  Last  night,"  said  he,  "  I  dreamt  that  I  was  sitting  with  offerings  before 
me  between  the  two  pillars.  No  intelligent  monarch  arises;  there  is  not 
one  in  the  empire  that  will  make  me  his  master.  My  time  is  come  to  die." 
So  he  took  to  his  bed,  and  died  seven  days  afterwards,  b.c.  478,  in  the 
seventy-third  or  seventy-fourth  year  of  his  age.  He  was  buried  by  the 
river  Sze,  north  of  the  chief  city  of  Lu,  and  his  disciples  continued  mourn- 
ing at  his  grave  for  three  entire  years.  His  most  devoted  surviving  dis- 
ciple, Tsze-kung,  mourned  for  three  years  longer.  He  it  was  who  said, 
"I  have  all  my  life  had  the  heaven  above  my  head,  but  I  do  not  know  its 
height ;  and  the  earth  under  my  feet,  but  I  know  not  its  thickness.  In 
serving  Confucius,  I  am  like  a  thirsty  man,  who  goes  with  his  pitcher  to 
the  river  and  there  drinks  his  fill,  without  knowing  the  river's  depth." 

The  tomb  of  Confucius  is  still  reverently  attended  to  and  visited.  It 
is  surrounded  by  a  forest  of  oak,  cypress,  etc.,  within  a  high  wall.  A 
huge  mound,  covered  with  trees  and  shrubs,  stands .  over  the 
grave,  and  in  front  of  it  are  befitting  arrangements  for  sacrifice. 
A  tall  tablet,  twenty-five  feet  high  and  six  feet  broad,  standing  by  the 
mound,  bears  a  record  of  the  name  and  deeds  of  the  philosopher.  Hard  by 
are  the  tombs  of  his  son  Le  and  of  the  principal  persons  of  his  clan. 

Dr.  Legge  thus  comments  on  the  death  of  Confucius  :  "  His  end  was  not 
unimpressive,  but  it  was  melancholy.  He  sank  behind  a  cloud.  Disap- 
pointed hopes  made  his  soul  bitter.  The  great  ones  of  the  empire  had  not 
received  his  teachings.  No  wife  nor  child  was  by,  to  do  the  kindly  offices 
of  affection  for  him.  Nor  were  the  expectations  of  another  life  present  with 
him  as  he  passed  through  the  dark  valley.  He  uttered  no  prayer,  and  he 
betrayed  no  apprehensions." 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Succeeding  ages  have  known  how  to  do  Confucius  justice,  if  not  more 
than  justice.  His  life  fell  upon  times  unsuited  to  the  development  of  his 
<li  id  rines  of  quiet  orderlv  government.  War,  turbulence,  disorder, 
^prevailed  more  or  less  throughout  his  life.  His  personal  career 
may  be  described  as  a  failure  ;  but  he  succeeded  in  leaving  his  doctrines  to 
his  posterity ;  and  his  fame  grew  so  great  after  his  death,  that  a  whole 
series  of  commentators  and  original  writers  followed  in  his  steps  and  built 
up  a  mass  of  sacred  or  at  any  rate  revered  literature  in  China  which 
compares  even  with  our  own  book-wonders. 

In  person,  Confucius  is  described  as  very  tall,  though  we  may  not 

accept  the  tradition  that  he  was  nine  feet  eight  inches  high.     He  is  imaged 

Personal    as  °f  a  swarthy  complexion  in  the  North,  while  in  the  South  he  is 

description  lighter.     His  statue  in  the  temple  adjoining  his  tomb  represents 

him  as  a  well-built  man  with  a  large,  heavy  head  ;   but  it  is  not  likely  that 

we  can  now  attain  anything  like  a  correct  picture  of  him. 

He  was  not  a  great  talker.  He  esteemed  highly  the  inscription  on  a 
statue  in  the  ancestral  temple  of  Lo — a  statue  with  a  triple  clasp  upon  its 
His  guarded  mouth.  "The  ancients,"  said  the  inscription,  "were  guarded  in 
speech,  their  speech  ;  and  like  them  we  should  avoid  loquacity.  Many 
words  invite  many  defeats.  Avoid  also  engaging  in  many  businesses,  for 
many  businesses  create  many  difficulties."  Confucius's  comment  to  his 
disciples  was,  "  Observe  this,  my  children.  These  words  are  true,  and 
commend  themselves  to  our  reason." 

He  did  not  like  forcing  his  doctrines  on  those  who  showed  themselves 
dull  or  unwilling  pupils.  "  I  do  not  open  the  truth,"  he  said,  "  to  one  who 
is  not  eager  after  knowledge,  nor  do  I  help  any  one  who  is  not  anxious  to 
explain  himself.  "When  I  have  presented  one  corner  of  a  subject,  and  the 
listener  cannot  from  it  learn  the  other  three,  I  do  not  repeat  my  lesson." 
Like  many  another  master,  he  disdained  the  labour  of  making  milk  for 
bab3S,  and  only  offered  strong  meat  for  the  strong. 

Self-confidence  was  a  distinguishing  mark  of  Confucius.  At  thirty, 
he  says,  he  stood  firm  ;  at  forty,  he  had  no  doubts,  apparently,  as  to 
His  self-  what  was  proper  to  do  or  think  under  all  circumstances  ;  at  fifty, 
confidence.  ^e  knew  ^he  decrees  of  Heaven  ;  at  sixty,  his  ear  was  an  obedient 
organ  for  the  reception  of  truth ;  at  seventy,  he  could  follow  what  his  heart 
desired,  without  transgressing  what  was  right.  Truly  a  desirable  state, 
in  which  the  conscience  is  in  full  agreement  with  all  the  actions,  and 
nothing  is  desired  which  at  all  transgresses  the  rule  of  right  which  the 
inner  self  acknowledges. 

He  had  clear  ideas  upon  public  evils,  and  their  connection  with  inward 

wickedness  of  mind.     "  There  are  five  great  evils,"  he  said  :  "  a  man  with  a 

views  of    rebellious  heart  who  becomes  dangerous  ;  a  man  who  joins  to 

public  evils.  vicious  deeds  a  fierce  temper ;  a  man  whose  words  are  knowingly 

false  ;  a  man  who  treasures  in  his  memory  noxious  deeds  and  disseminates 

them  ;  a  man  who  follows  evil  and  fertilises  it." 

Confucius  has  been  criticised  because,  as  he  grew  older,  he  appeared 


LIFE    OF  CONFUCIUS.  m 


sometimes  willing  to  compromise  his  principles  for  the  sake  of  gaining 
employment  or  influence.  One  notable  instance  was  when  anCompromlse 
officer,  Pih  Hih,  of  the  Duke  Ling  was  holding  the  town  oi'of  principles. 
Chung  How  in  rebellion  against  his  chief,  and  Confucius  was  inclined  to 
accept  an  invitation  from  him,  although  he  was  noted  for  his  censures  of 
rebels  and  rebellion.  "When  remonstrated  with  on  this  subject,  his  reply 
was  to  the  effect  that  he  would  not  necessarily  become  like  a  rebel  by  going 
to  see  one.  "Am  I  to  be  hung  up  out  of  the  way  of  being  eaten?"  he 
exclaimed.  Nevertheless,  he  did  not  pay  the  visit  which  he  contemplated. 
There  appears  reason  to  think  that  Confucius  really  was,  in  his  later  years, 
ready  to  relax  some  of  his  rigid  principles,  if  he  could  gain  some  oppor- 
tunity for  exercising  influence.  Expecting  old  age  and  death  to  come  only 
too  speedily,  he  was  anxious  about  his  chances  of  leaving  his  mark  on  his 
generation.  Once  during  his  later  years,  after  a  strange  dream,  he  burst 
into  tears,  and  said,  "  The  course  of  my  doctrine  is  run,  and  I  am  unknown." 
On  being  asked  for  an  explanation,  Confucius  said,  "  I  do  not  complain  of 
Providence,  nor  find  fault  with  men,  that  learning  is  neglected  and  success 
is  worshipped.  Heaven  knows  me.  Never  does  a  superior  man  pass  away 
without  leaving  a  name  behind  him.  But  my  principles  make  no  progress, 
and  I,  how  shall  I  be  viewed  in  future  ages  ?  " 

DOCTRINES   OF  CONFUCIUS. 

Although  thus  keen  as  to  what  future  ages  might  think  of  him,  the 
philosopher  can  scarcely  have  anticipated  the  remarkable  future  which 
awaited  himself  and  his  doctrines.  In  his  eyes  China  was  drifting  through 
confusion  and  anarchy  to  ruin.  But  his  teaching  accorded  singularly 
well  with  the  natural  tendencies  and  limitations  of  the  Chinese  character. 
Indeed,  he  has  been  called  a  typical  Chinaman.  What  then  did  he  teach 
that  can  be  included  within  the  scope  of  religion?  Was  he  really  the 
founder  of  a  religion  ?     Let  us  first  see  how  his  memory  has  been  treated. 

No  sooner  had  he  died  than  the  reigning  duke  exclaimed,  "  There  is 
none  now  to  assist  me  on  the  throne.     Woe  is  me !  "     So,  like  others  who 
have  neglected  great  men  while  they  lived,  he  built  a  temple  to 
him,  in  which  sacrifice  was  to  be  offered  four  times  a  year.    Later  neglect  and 
we  hear  that  after  the  death  of  Confucius,  there  was  an  end  of 
his  exquisite  words ;  and  that  when  his  disciples  had  passed  away,  violence 
began  to  be  done  to  their  meaning,  and  several  varying  editions  of  his 
works  were  current.     Amid  the  conflicts  of  the  different  States,  there  was 
sad  confusion  in  the  teaching  of  scholars ;    and  the  founder  of  the  Tsin 
dynasty,  in  the  latter  part  ot   the  third    century  B.C.,  destnryed    all   the 
literary  monuments  he  could,  in  order  to  keep  the  people  in  ignorance. 
But  the  founder  of  the  Han  dynasty,  which  repaired  much  of  the  mischief 
inflicted  by  the  Tsin,  visited  the  tomb  of  Confucius  in  b.c  194,  in  passing 
through  Lu,  and  offered  an  ox  in  sacrifice  to  him :   and  his  re-     Modem 
maining  writings  and  others  which  he  had  valued  were  carefully    worship, 
collected  and  preserved.    Emperor  after  emperor  has  since  visited  his  grave; 


112 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


and  the  greatest  emperor  of  the  present  ruling  dynasty  knelt  thrice  before 
his  image,  and  each  time  laid  his  forehead  three  times  in  the  dust  before  it. 
Be  has  been  honoured  by  posthumous  titles  of  rank,  such  as  that  of  Duke 
Le ;  but  he  is  now  known  as  Kung,  the  ancient  teacher,  the  perfect  sage. 
More  or  less  definite  acts  of  worship  were  early  paid  to  him ;  and  soon  after 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  it  was  ordered  that  sacrifices  should  be 
offered  to  him  in  the  imperial  and  all  the  principal  colleges  throughout  the 
empire.  From  the  seventh  century  temples  were  built  to  him  in  connection 
with  all  the  examination  halls  which  fill  so  important  a  place  in  the  life  of 
China.     Thus  the  once  neglected  philosopher  is  now  worshipped. 

The  devotion  of  the  Chinese  to  Confucius  is  like  an  attachment  to  the 
golden  age ;  all  the  charms  that  cluster  round  antiquity  surround  his 
memory.  Belonging  himself  to  a  far  distant  age,  he  preserved 
a  lover  of  and  venerated  the  things  that  were  old  in  his  time.  Of  himself 
antiquity,  j^  ga^  «  j  am  nQ^  one  w^i0  wag  born  [n  the  possession  of  know- 
ledge ;  I  am  one  who  is  fond  of  antiquity  and  earnest  in  seeking  it  there." 
He  styled  himself  a  transmitter,  and  not  a  maker ;  and  truly  there  appears 
to  be  little  that  is  original  in  his  teaching ;  but  he  systematised  the  accu- 
mulated experience  of  his  predecessors,  and  set  it  forth  and  enforced  it 
in  a  manner  suited  to  the  Chinese  mind.  He  did  not  claim  to  have  a  divine 
revelation  to  make  known ;  yet  he  did  at  times  say  that  he  had  a  divine 
commission  to  preserve  and  maintain  the  ancient  truth  and  rules.  It  is 
expressly  stated  that  he  seldom  touched  upon  the  appointments  of  Heaven  ; 
but  once,  when  he  was  apparently  in  danger  of  his  life,  he  said  that  Heaven 
did  not  let  the  cause  of  truth  perish,  which  was  lodged  in  him.  What 
could  the  people  of  Kwang  do  to  him  ? 

He  did  not  deal  with  the  origin  or  the  end  of  creation,  nor  even  with  the 
future  state  of  mankind.  The  present  state  of  things  was  enough  for  him. 
His  special  According  to  the  Analects,  his  frequent  themes  of  discourse  were 
themes,  the  Book  of  Poetry,  the  Book  of  History,  and  the  maintenance 
of  the  Rules  of  Propriety.  He  is  said  to  have  taught  four  things :  letters, 
ethics,  devotion  of  soul,  and  truthfulness.  He  did  not  like  to  talk  about  ex- 
traordinary things,  feats  of  strength,  states  of  disorder,  and  spiritual  beings. 
What  then  was  precisely  the  nature  of  his  belief  in  superior  beings  ? 

Dr.  Legge  is  of  opinion  that  Confucius's  faith  in  a  personal  God  was 
less  definite  than  that  of  his  predecessors,  as  given  in  the  Shi-king  and  the 
Belief  in    ^iu~king.     In  these  works  we  hear  of  Te  or  Shang-Te  as  a  per- 
a  supreme  sonal  ruler,  governing  the  nations,  rewarding  the  good  and  punish- 
ing the  evil.     Confucius  preferred  to  use  the  term  Heaven,  rather 
ilia  11   to  refer  to  a  personal  God.     Thus  he  would  say,  "He  who  offends 
ist  Heaven  has  none  to  whom  he  can  pray."     "  There  is  Heaven  ;  that 
knows  me."     Thus  he  did  not  elevate  the  religious  feeling  of  the  Chinese, 
worship  of  ^n  *^e   °tner   hand,  he  exaggerated  the    worship   of  ancestors 
ancestors   and  other  spirits.      "  He  sacrificed  to  the  dead  as  if  they  were 
J'  present;  he  sacrificed  to  the  spirits  as  if  the  spirits  were  present." 
Y<  t  he  never  explicitly  avowed  the  belief  in  the  continued  existence  of  the 


LIFE   OF  CONFUCIUS.  113 


spirits  of  the  departed,  on  which  that  worship  rested.  When  he  was  asked 
whether  the  dead  had  any  knowledge  of  the  service  or  worship  rendered  to 
them,  Confucius  fenced  with  the  question,  saying,  "  If  I  were  to  say  that 
the  dead  have  such  knowledge,  I  am  afraid  that  filial  sons  and  dutiful 
grandsons  would  injure  their  substance  in  paying  the  last  offices  to 
the  departed ;  and  if  I  were  to  say  that  the  dead  have  not  such  know- 
ledge, I  am  afraid  lest  unfilial  sons  should  leave  their  parents  unburied. 
You  need  not  wish  to  know  whether  the  dead  have  knowledge  or  not. 
There  is  no  present  urgency  about  the  point.  Hereafter  you  will  A  fUtUre 
know  it  for  yourself."  This  sort  of  teaching  implies  either  that  llfe- 
he  himself  had  no  opinion,  or  an  opinion  which  he  did  not  care  to  express ; 
and  the  whole  calculated  tenor  of  his  life  and  demeanour  leads  one  to 
imagine  that  he  had  no  strong  belief  in  a  future,  and  that  he  permitted  to 
himself  a  certain  amount  of  insincerity,  or  at  least  cloaking  of  his  real 
opinions.  In  spite  of  his  frequent  praises  of  truthfulness  and  sincerity,  he 
could  sometimes  break  his  word  or  pretend  a  reason  which  was  not  true, 
and  no  doubt  this  has  had  an  injurious  influence  on  Chinese  character. 

We  cannot  here  go  into  Confucius's  views  on  government,  though  they 
are  so  influential  as  to  have  almost  formed  a  religion.     More  important  for 
us  are  his  "  Family  Sajangs,"  in  which  a  condensed  philosophy  of 
home   relationships   is   given.      "  Man   is   the   representative   of 
Heaven,  and  is  supreme  over  all  things.     Woman  yields  obedience  to  the 
instructions  of  man,  and  helps  to  carry  out  his  principles.     On  Subordina. 
this  account  she  can  determine  nothing  of  herself,  and  is  subject     tion  of 
to  the  rule  of  the  three  obediences.     When  young,  she  must  obey 
her  father  and  elder  brother ;  when  married,  she  must  obey  her  husband ; 
when  her  husband  is  dead,  she  must  obey  her  son.     She  may  not  think  of 
marking  a  second  time.      No   instructions  or  orders  must  issue  from  the 
harem.    Woman's  business  is  simply  the  preparation  and  supplying  of  wine 
and  food.      Beyond  the  threshold  of   her  apartments  she  should  not  be 
known,  for  evil  or  for  good.     .     .     .     There  are  five  women  who  are  not  to 
be  taken  in  marriage :  the  daughter  of  a  rebellious  house ;  the  daughter  of 
a  disorderly  house ;  the  daughter  of  a  house  which  has  produced  criminals 
for  more  than  one  generation ;    the  daughter  of  a  leprous  house ;  and  the 
daughter  who  has  lost  her  father  and  elder  brother.    A  wife  may    g  nurds 
bs  divorced  for  seven  reasons,  which  may  be  overruled  by  three  for  dlvorce- 
considerations.     The  grounds  for  divorce  are  :   disobedience  to  her  husband's 
parents  ;  not  giving  birth  to  a  son  ;  dissolute  conduct ;  jealousy  ;  talkative- 
ness ;  and  thieving.      The  three  considerations  which  may  overrule  these 
grounds  are :  first,  if,  while  she  was  taken  from  a  home,  she  has  now  no 
home  to  return  to ;  second,  if  she  has  passed  with  her  husband  through  the. 
three  years'  mourning  for  his  parents  ;  third,  if  the  husband  have  become  rich 
from  being  poor"  (L.).     Thus  we  see  that  Confucius  held  an  essentially  low 
idea  of  women,  and  therefore  lacked  one  great  element  of  elevating  power. 

If  anything  is  special  to  Confucius,  it  is  his  teaching  of  the  necessity  of 
correct  conduct  on  the  part  of  those  in  authority,  and  the  power  of  example. 

1 


ii4  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


"  If  3'ou   lead  on  the   people  with  correctness,"  he  said,  "  who  will  dare 
The  power  n°t  to  be  correct?"     His  theory  unfortunately  is  but  a  theory, 
of  example,  notwithstanding   the  indubitable   effects  of  good   example.     No 
doubt  he  had  as  good  a  soil  for  the  sowing  of  his  seed  as  could  be  found  on 
Fmal      earth,  and  the  result  has  been  as  good  as  can  be  seen  anywhere, 
obedience.   "Let  your  evinced  desires  be  for  what  is  good,  and  the  people 
will  be  good.     The  relation  between  superiors  and  inferiors  is  like  that  be- 
tween the  wind  and  the  grass.     The  grass  must  bend  when  the  wind  blows 
across  it."     Happily  a  more  independent  feeling  rules  in  the  West,  but  one 
that  greatly  shocks  the  Chinese.     Confucius  gives  no  sufficiently  powerful 
motive  for  this  obedience,  and  shows  no  sufficiently  real  and  deep  insight 
into  the  moral  nature  of  mankind.     His  chief  recommendations  relate  to 
external  things.    "  Self-adjustment  and  purification,"  he  says,  "  with  careful 
regulation  of  his  dress,  and  the  not  making  a  movement  contrary  to  the 
rules  of  propriety  ;  this  is  the  way  for  the  ruler  to  cultivate  his  person." 

We  must  note  further  that  Confucius  must  be  credited  with  having  put 
forth  something  like  the  Golden  Eule  long  before  it  was  given  by  Jesus. 
The  Golden  In   the  Analects   a  disciple  asks    Confucius  if    there   were   one 
Rule.      Word  that  might  serve  as  a  rule  of  practice  for  all  one's  life,  and 
received  the  answer,  "  Is  not  reciprocity  such  a  word  ?     What  you  do  not 
want  done  to  yourself,  do  not  do  to  others."    But  this  is  really  only  a  maxim 
of  enlightened   self-interest,  and  is   far  from  being  equal  to  the  positive 
injunction,  "  All  things  whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  unto  you, 
do  ye  also  unto  them."     Confucius's  idea  of  perfect  virtue  was,  "  in  retire- 
ment, to  be  sedately  grave  ;  in  the  management  of  business,  to  be  reverently 
attentive  ;  in  intercourse  wiih  others,  to  be  strictly  sincere.     Though  a  man 
go  among  rude,  uncultivated  tribes,  these  qualities  may  not  be  neglected. 
Confucius  being  asked  what  he  thought  of  the  principle  that  injury 
should  be  recompensed  with  kindness,  he  replied,  "  With  what  then  will 
Treatment  you  recompense  kindness  ?     Eecompense  injury  with  justice,  and 
of  enemies,  recompense    kindness   with  kindness."      But  in  regard  to  great 
offences,  we  find  the  following  precepts:  "  With  the  slayer  of  his  father,  a 
man  may  not  live   under   the  same   heaven;    against   the   slayer   of  his 
brother,  a  man  must  never  have  to  go  home  to  fetch  a  weapon ;  with  the 
slayer  of  his  friend,  a  man  may  not  live  in  the  same  State."     So  that  the 
law  of  revenge  was  plainly  inculcated  ;  and  its  baneful  influence  continues 
in  China  to  the  present  day. 

"  After  long  study  of  his  character  and  opinions,"  says  Dr.  Legge,  "  I 

am  unable   to  regard  him  as  a  great   man.     He  was  not  before  his  age, 

Dr.  Legge's  though  he  was  above  the  mass  of  the  officers  and  scholars  of  his 

Confucius.  tlme'     He  tlirew  n0  new  ]ight  on  any  of  the  questions  which  have 

'  a  world-wide  interest.     He  gave  no  impulse  to  religion.     He  had 

no  sympathy  with  progress.     His  influence  has  been  wonderful,  but  it  will 

henceforth  wane." 

"Life   and  Teachings  of  Confucius"  (L.).      "Sacred   Books  of  the  East,"  vols.  iii.. 
x,m.,.\xMi     xxvi.i.     Douglas's  "Confucianism  ami  Taouisin "  (S.P.O.K.).    Johnson's  "Oriental 
ions:  China."    Williams's  "Middle  Kingdom."] 


CHINESE    BRIDE    AND    BRIDEGROOM    WORSHIPPING    TABLETS    OF    DECEASED    ANCESTORS. 


CHAPTER   II. 
C!)e  Chinese  £>acren  Eoofcs* 

The  Analects — Moral  teachings— The  Great  Learning— Personal  training— Regulation  of  the  family 
— The  doctrine  of  the  mean— Tsze-tsze— Teaching  of  the  Chung-}  ung— Man's  moral  nature  — 
Confucius  on  spiritual  beings— Benevolence— The  sage,  or  perfect  man— Omens  and  divination  - 
Ceremony  and  demeanour— Shu-king,  or  historical  documents— Ancestor  worship  and  sacrifices 
—Music —Counsels  of  Kao-yao— The  appointments  of  Heaven— Mang  and  the  Powers  above— 
— He  desires  to  sacrifice  himself— Instructions  of  I  Yin— The  dynasty  of  Chow — The  great  duke  of 
Chow— The  foundation  of  the  city  Lo— The  goodness  and  perversion  of  men — The  marquis  of 
Chin  on  a  good  minister — The  Shi-king  or  Book  of  Odes— Shang-ti,  the  Supreme  Being— Ancient 
sacrifices  to  ancestors— Prayer  to  Heaven— The  Classic  of  Filial  Piety — The  Book  of  Changes  — 
The  Book  of  Rites— Rules  of  propriety  and  ceremony— List  of  sacrifices— Mourning  for  a  father — 
Sympathy  of  Confucius— Calling  back  the  dead— Mencius— His  life  and  journeyings— The  teach- 
ings of  Mencius— Ideas  of  Heaven  and  God— The  service  of  Heaven— His  ideal  of  personal 
character. 

LjlIRST  among  the  Sacred  Books  of  China  we  must  place  the  Analects, 
-L  or  "  Discourses  and  Dialogues  "  of  Confucius,  although  containing 
many  of  the  sayings  of  his  disciples.  The  whole  is  very  dis- 
jointed and  fragmentary  in  style.  In  many  a  paragraph  the 
praises  of  "  the  superior  man  "  are  sung.  Thus,  Yew  says,  "  The  superior 
man  bends  his  attention  to  what  is  radical.  That  being  established,  all 
right  practical  courses  naturally  grow  up.  Filial  piety  and  fraternal  sub- 
mission, are  they  not  the  root  of  all  benevolent  actions  ?  "  The  superior 
man  is  catholic  and  no  partisan  ;  he  acts  before  he  speaks,  and  then  speaks 
according  to  his  actions.  He  does  not,  even  for  the  space  of  a  single  meal, 
act  contrary  to  virtue :  in  moments  of  haste  and  in  seasons  of  danger  he 
cleaves  to  it.     Four  characteristics  of  the  superior  man  are,  that  in   his 


„6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


conduct  of  himself  he  is  humble ;  in  serving  his  superiors  he  is  respectful ; 
in  nourishing  the  people  he  is  kind  ;  in  ordering  the  people  he  is  just.  ^ 

There  are  many  details  of  Confucius's  life  and  teaching  embodied  in  the 
Analects,  which  we  have  already  referred  to.  Some  additional  teachings 
Moral  on  morals  may  be  given  :  of  religion,  properly  so  called,  there  is 
teachings.  none.  "  He  who  aims  to  be  a  man  of  complete  virtue,  in  his 
food  does  not  seek  to  gratify  his  appetite,  nor  in  his  dwelling-place  does  he 
sock  the  appliances  of  ease  ;  he  is  earnest  in  what  he  is  doing,  and  careful 
in  his  speech;  he  frequents  the  company  of  men  of  principle,  that  he  may 
be  rectified."  The  importance  of  the  thoughts  was  fully  recognised,  for 
the  Book  of  Poetry  was  summed  up  by  Confucius  in  the  words,  "  Have  no 
depressed  thoughts."  In  all  things  filial  piety  is  exalted,  and  this  is  made 
to  include,  in  addition  to  obedience  and  reverence  while  parents  are  alive, 
sacrificial  rites,  full  mourning,  and  keeping  to  their  ways  after  they  are 
dead.  Conservatism  marks  everything.  Hear  and  see  much,  learners  are 
told,  and  put  aside  everything  that  seems  perilous,  while  being  cautious  in 
practising  the  safe  things.  All  through  we  come  across  repeated  references 
to  the  "rules  of  propriety,"  till  we  are  inclined  to  say  the  Chinese  intellect 
has  been  quite  cramped  and  swaddled  in  rules  of  propriety.  A  peculiar 
Confucian  dictum  is  this:  "  It  is  only  the  truly  virtuous  man  who  can  love 
or  who  can  hate  others."  The  term  righteousness,  as  used  by  Confucius, 
falls  far  short  of  our  use  of  it,  for  it  is  a  thing  to  be  performed  according  to 
the  rules  of  propriety. 

"  The  Great  Learning"  is  one  of  the  chapters  of  the  Li-ki,  or  Book  of 
Kites,  of  doubtful  authorship,  but  containing  many  of  the  sayings  of  Con- 
Tne  Great  fucius.  Its  main  object  is  political,  but  it  illustrates  chiefly 
Learning,  virtue  and  morals.  It  shows  how  the  cultivation  of  the  indi- 
vidual is  at  the  root  of  and  leads  to  the  right  regulation  of  the  family  and 
good  government  of  the  State.  The  wearisome  style  in  which  it  is  written 
may  be  illustrated  by  one  of  the  early  paragraphs:  "The  ancients  who 
wished  to  illustrate  illustrious  virtue  throughout  the  empire,  first  ordered 
well  their  own  States.  Wishing  to  order  well  their  States,  they  first  regu- 
lated their  families.  Wishing  to  regulate  their  families,  they  first  culti- 
vated their  persons.  Wishing  to  cultivate  their  persons,  they  first  rectified 
their  hearts.  Wishing  to  rectify  their  hearts,  they  first  sought  to  be 
sincere  in  their  thoughts.  Wishing  to  be  sincere  in  their  thoughts,  they 
first  extended  to  the  utmost  their  knowledge.  Such  extension  of  know- 
ledge lay  in  the  investigation  of  things."  The  book  is  probably  only  a 
fragment  of  a  larger  work  ;  and  it  is  not  possible  to  get  any  very  connected 
system  out  of  it,  One  of  its  important  principles  is  the  following,  which 
may  be  said  to  illustrate  the  golden  rule  on  its  negative  side  :  "  What  a 
man  dislikes  in  his  superiors,  let  him  not  display  in  the  treatment  of  his 
inferiors  ;  what  he  dislikes  in  inferiors,  let  him  not  display  in  his  service  of 
his  superiors;  what  he  dislikes  in  those  who  are  before  him,  let' him  not 
therewith  precede  those  who  are  behind  him,"  and  so  on. 

As  to  personal  training,  it  is  most  truly  said,  that  "the  rectifying  of  the 


THE    CHINESE   SACKED  BOOKS.  117 

mind  is  realised  when  the  thoughts  are  made  sincere,"  when  there  is  no  self- 
deception,  and  when  we  move  without  effort  to  what  is  right,     personal 
The  superior  man  is  watchful  over  himself  when  he  is  alone,    training. 
There  is  no  full  account  of  "  the  investigation  of  things,"  as  we  should 
expect  from  the  paragraph  given  above. 

Supposing  the  cultivation  of   the  person   adequately  performed,  it  is 
expected  that  the  due  regulation  of  the  family  will  necessarily  follow.     The 
virtues  taught  and  practised  in  the  family  will  also  appear  in  the  Reffulation 
State.    From  filial  piety  proceeds  loyalty ;  and  from  fraternal  sub-      of  the 
mission,  obedience  to  elders  and  superiors.     The  great  object  of 
government  is  recognised  as  being  to  make  the  people  happy  and  good. 

The  Chung-yung,  or,  "  The  Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  otherwise  inter- 
preted, "  The  State  of  Equilibrium  and  Harmony,"  is  a  still  more  important 
part  of  the  Li-ki,  and  is  ascribed  to  Tsze-tsze,  the  grandson  of  The  Doctrine 
Confucius,  being  the  son  of  Le.     In  his  early  days   he  received  of  the  Mean- 
his  grandfather's  instructions,  and  greatly  profited  by  them.     He  was  to  a 

considerable  extent  an  ascetic,  and  refused  a  gift  of  wine  as  an   „ 

,  p  Tsze-tsze. 

appliance  of  feasting.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  strong 
will  and  decided  independence  of  character.  He  was  held  in  great  esteem 
by  the  dukes  of  Wei,  Sung,  Lu,  and  Pe.  On  one  occasion  he  recommended 
a  man  of  worth,  Le-yin,  to  the  duke  of  Wei,  although  he  was  only  the  son 
of  a  husbandman.  The  duke  justified  Tsze-tsze's  statement  that  he  could 
not  appreciate  men  of  worth,  by  bursting  into  laughter,  and  saying,  "  The 
son  of  a  husbandman  cannot  be  fit  for  me  to  employ  !  "  The  sage  answered, 
"  I  mention  Le-yin  because  of  his  abilities  ;  what  has  the  fact  of  his  fore- 
fathers being  husbandmen  to  do  with  the  case  ?  " 

In  Lu,  Tsze-tsze  had  several  hundred  disciples,  the  duke  paying  him 
the  highest  honour.  One  day  the  duke  said  to  him,  "  The  officer  there  told 
me  that  you  do  good  without  wishing  for  any  praise  from  men ;  is  it  so  ?  " 
Tsze-tsze  replied  to  the  effect  that  he  did  wish  it  to  be  known  and  praised, 
because  of  its  effect  as  an  example.  We  do  not,  however,  find  that  he  rose 
to  the  same  elevation  as  Confucius. 

The  Chung-yung  is  but  a  short  work,  very  dogmatic,  and  not  contain- 
ing adequate  proofs  of  what  it  advances.  It  begins  by  a  series  of  propo- 
sitions, of  which  the  following  are  specimens.  "  What  Heaven 
has  conferred  is  called  the  Nature.  An  accordance  with  this  oftne° 
Nature  is  called  the  Path  of  Duty ;  the  regulation  of  this  path  is  ^^-J™11^ 
called  the  System  of  Instruction."  We  may  express  this  more  in  accordance 
with  Western  thought  thus :  "  Man  has  received  his  nature  from  Heaven. 
Conduct  in  accordance  with  that  nature  constitutes  the  path  of  duty." 
Later  we  read,  "  When  there  are  no  stirrings  of  pleasure,  anger,  sorrow,  or 
joy,  we  call  it  the  state  of  Equilibrium.  When  those  feelings  have  been 
stirred,  and  all  in  their  due  measure  and  degree,  we  call  it  the  state  of 
Harmony.  This  Equilibrium  is  the  great  root  (from  which  grow  all  the 
human  actings)  in  the  world  ;  and  this  Harmony  is  the  universal  path  (in 
which  they  should  all  proceed).     The  state  of  equilibrium  corresponds  with 


„S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  nature  given  by  Heaven.     The  superior  man  is  he  who  always  exhibits 

the  state  of  equilibrium  and  harmony  ;  yet  few  can  keep  it  for  a  month." 

The  treatise  diverges  without  system,  and  often  without  much  sense. 

In  the  main,  it  amounts  to  teaching  that  man's  moral  nature,  received  from 

Man's  moral  Heaven,  is  a  law  to  himself,  and  must  be  jealously  watched  over. 

nature.     jn  s0  far  as  jie  rightly  and  completely  exercises  it,  and  comes  up 

to  it,  he  may  say,  "  I  am  a  god;    I  sit  in  the  seat  of  God."     One  of  the 

numerous  sayings  of  Confucius  quoted  in  this  book  is  significant.     He  said, 

"  The  Path  is  not  far  from  man.     When  men  try  to  pursue  a  path  which 

is  far   from  what  their  nature  suggests,  it  should  not  be  considered  the 

Path.''     Tims  much  personal  choice  in  morals  is  justified. 

One  of  the  digressions  in  the  Chung-yung  is  interesting,  as  attributing 

to  Confucius  some  definite  belief  about  spiritual  beings  ;   but  it  amounts  to 

little  more  than  crude  animism,  which  he  neither  originated  nor 
Confucius  on  '  .   ,  °. 

spiritual    developed.     He  says,  "  How  abundant  and  rich  are  the  powers 

beings.  p0Ssesseci  anci  exercised  by  Spiritual  Beings  !  "We  look  for  them, 
but  do  not  see  them  ;  we  listen  for  them,  but  do  not  hear  them  ;  they  enter 
into  all  things,  and  nothing  is  without  them.  They  cause  all  under  Heaven 
to  fast  and  purify  themselves,  and  to  array  themselves  in  their  richest 
dresses,  in  order  to  attend  at  their  sacrifices.  Then,  like  overflowing  water, 
they  seem  to  be  over  the  heads,  and  on  the  left  and  the  right  (of  their  wor- 
shippers)."    Then  he  quotes  from  the  Book  of  Poetry  : — 

"  The  spirits  come,  but  when  and  where, 
No  one  beforehand  can  declare  ; 
The  more  should  we  not  spirits  slight, 
But  ever  feel  as  in  their  sight." 

Much  of  the  Chung-yung  is  occupied  with  recounting  the  illustrious 

examples  of  former  emperors,  dukes,  etc.     In  the  second  section  we  find  the 

bold  statement,  "  Benevolence  is  Man,"  that  is,  his  true  self.     It 

BsnGVOlGncG. 

is  followed  by  the  assertion  that  the  greatest  exercise  of  it  is  in 
the  love  of  relatives,  while  the  greatest  exercise  of  righteousness  is  in  the 
honour  paid  to  the  worthy.  Wisdom,  benevolence,  and  fortitude  are  given 
as  the  universal  virtues,  probably  for  all  to  exemplify. 

Tsze-tsze  carries  the  teaching  of  Confucius  much  further  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  book,  and  therein  may  be  called  truly  an  originator.  He  says 
The  sage,  or  that  perfection  of  nature  is  characteristic  of  Heaven,  but  that 
perfect  man.  man  may  attain  to  that  perfection.  The  sage,  or  perfect  man, 
hits  what  is  right  without  any  effort,  and  apprehends  without  any  exercise 
of  thought;  he  chooses  what  is  good,  and  holds  it  fast.  "He  extensively 
studies  what  is  good,  inquires  accurately  about  it,  thinks  carefully  over  it, 
clearly  discriminates  it,  and  vigorously  practises  it."  Some  of  his  expres- 
sions  about  the  persistence  of  effort,  by  which  the  sage  attains  knowledge, 
are  worthy  of  all  commendation.  "If  another  man  succeed  by  one  effort, 
he  will  use  ten  ;  if  another  succeed  by  ten,  he  will  use  a  thousand.  He  will 
not  intermit  his  labour  while  there  is  anything  he  has  not  asked  about,  has 


THE   CHINESE   SACRED  BOOKS.  119 


not  thought  about,  does  not  understand,  or  has  not  studied  in  every  possible 
way.  Let  a  man  proceed  in  this  way,  and,  though  stupid,  he  is  sure  to 
become  intelligent,  though  weak,  he  is  sure  to  become  strong."  This  sage 
is  credited  with  power  to  give  its  full  development,  not  only  to  his  own 
nature,  but  also  to  that  of  other  men,  and  even  to  animals  and  things  ;  he 
can  even  assist  the  transforming  and  nourishing  operations  of  heaven  and 
earth.  When  we  consider  such  expressions  by  the  light  of  the  modern 
influence  of  man,  as  shown  in  the  breeding  and  teaching  of  animals,  the 
investigation  and  culture  of  plants,  and  the  maste^  over  physical  powers 
attained  in  recent  years,  we  shall  be  inclined  to  say  that  the  sage  of  China 
had  a  remarkable  prescience,  although  we  may  not  agree  with  him  that 
"it  is  only  he  who  is  entirely  perfect  that  can  transform." 

The  theme  sinks  to  a  lower  level  in  the  next  paragraph;  for  the  perfect 
man  is  declared  gifted  with  foreknowledge,  which,  however,  is  derived  from 
omens.  "  When  a  State  or  family  is  about  to  flourish,  there  are  omens  and 
sure  to  be  lucky  omens  ;  and  when  it  is  about  to  perish,  there  are  dmnatlon- 
sure  to  be  unlucky  omens.  They  will  ba  seen  in  the  tortoise-shell  and 
stalks  "  [two  favourite  means  of  divination,  the  stalks  being  those  of  Achillea 
(Ptarmica)  sibirica,  a  plant  of  the  same  genus  as  Milfoil]  ;  they  will  affect  the 
movements  of  the  four  limbs  (of  the  tortoise).  "  When  calamity  or  happi- 
ness is  about  to  come,  the  good  is  sure  to  be  foreknown  by  him,  and  the  evil 
also.  Hence  he  who  is  entirely  perfect  is  like  a  spirit."  In  divination  by 
the  tortoise,  the  outer  shell  was  removed,  leaving  the  inner  portion  marked 
by  the  muscular  impressions.  This  being  smeared  with  a  black  pigment, 
and  fire  applied  beneath,  the  pigment  was  found  to  present  various  appear- 
ances, giving  indications  which  were  interpreted  to  mean  rain,  clearing  up, 
cloudiness,  want  of  connection,  and  crossing.  Forty-nine  of  the  divining 
stalks  were  manipulated  in  a  special  way  eighteen  different  times,  resulting 
in  certain  diagrams  which  were  interpreted  by  appointed  persons.  Both  the 
tortoise  and  the  plant  were  held  to  possess  spiritual  intelligence  or  correspond- 
ence, and  the  spirits  were  believed  to  make  revelations  by  their  means. 

The  perfection  of  the  perfect  man  is  then  eulogised  in  a  way  that  does 
not  add  much  to  our  knowledge.  He  is  said  to  effect  changes  without  any 
movement,  and  without  any  exertion.  Then  by  a  sudden  transition  the 
author  rises  to  a  higher  subject  thus  :  "  The  way  of  heaven  and  earth  may 
be  completely  described  in  one  sentence  :  The}'  are  without  any  second 
thought,  and  so  their  production  of  things  is  inexhaustible.  The  character- 
istics of  heaven  and  earth  are  to  be  large  ;  to  be  substantial ;  to  be  high  ;  to 
be  brilliant ;  to  be  far-reaching  ;  to  be  long-continuing."  But  there  appears 
in  this  and  its  subsequent  expansion  no  notion  of  a  personal  deity. 

Then  the  sage  is  once  more  described  and  lauded,  his  admired  greatness 
including  the  three  hundred  usages  of  ceremony  and  the  three  thousand 
modes  of  demeanour.  Some  of  the  excellent  results  of  the  sage's  ceremony  and 
action  are  that,  "  throughout  the  whole  kingdom,  carriages  have  all 
wheels  of  the  same  breadth  of  rim  ;  all  writing  is  with  the  same  characters  ; 
and  for  conduct  there  are  the  same  rules."     Such  a  man  marks  out  the  path 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


fi  >r  all  under  heaven  ;  his  words  are  the  pattern  for  all.  He  shows  himself,  and 
the  people  all  revere  him  ;  he  speaks,  and  the  people  all  believe  him ;  he  acts, 
and  the  people  all  are  pleased  with  him.  "  How  shall  this  individual  have 
any  one  beyond  himself  on  whom  he  depends?  .  .  .  Call  him  Heaven, 
how  vast  is  he!"  In  fact,  the  superior  man  is  all-important,  for  everybody 
will  follow  his  example.  First  catch  your  superior  man,  and  everything 
will  go  well.  But  it  has  not  proved  so  easy  for  the  Chinese  to  catch  their 
superior  man,  in  spite  of  the  most  elaborate  contrivances. 

We  now  turn  to  the  main  mass  of  the  Chinese  classics,  which  existed 
before  Confucius,  and  which  he  was  instrumental  in  collecting,  preserving, 

and  arranging.  There  is  first  the  Shu-king,  or  Book  of  Historical 
Historical  Documents,  purporting  to  begin  with  the  twenty-fourth  century 
Documents.  R  c  ^  an^  coming  down  to  the  seventh.  It  is  but  a  collection 
of  documents,  not  definitely  connected,  and  often  with  considerable  gaps 
between  them.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  great  antiquity  of  many 
of  them,  for  the  ancient  emperors  kept  a  whole  set  of  recorders  to  record 
everything  of  importance  :  and  Dr.  Legge  believes  written  characters  were 
in  use  among  the  Chinese  earlier  than  the  time  of  Hwang  Ti  (dated  B.C. 
2097).  The  greater  number  are  also  credible,  allowing  for  some  colouring 
of  the  narrator  in  favour  of  the  ruling  powers.  Any  discussion  of  historical 
records  would  be  out  of  place  here ;  but  we  may  note  that  at  this  early 
period  the  terms  "  Heaven,"  "  The  Supreme."  or  God,  and  emperor  were 
interchangeable,  being  signified  usually  by  the  syllable  Ti. 

One  of  the  earliest  records  contains  a  reference  to  the   "  Temple   of 
the  Accomplished  Ancestor,"  showing  that  ancestor-worship  was  already 

established.  The  emperor  Shun  sacrificed  specially,  but  with  the 
worship  and  ordinary  forms,    to  God    (or  Heaven)  ;    sacrificed   with   reverent 

purity  to  the  Six  Honoured  Ones  (who  these  were  is  doubtful) ; 
offered  their  appropriate  sacrifices  to  the  hills  and  rivers,  and  extended  his 
worship  to  the  hosts  of  spirits."  Here  we  see  ancestor  and  spirit  worship  in 
a  widely  diffused  form,  combined  with  a  recognition  of  higher  and  supreme 
powers.  Bulls  were  sacrificed  at  this  time.  The  characteristic  severity  of 
Chinese  punishments  is  seen  in  the  naming  of  branding  on  the  forehead, 
cutting  off  the  nose,  cutting  off  the  feet,  whipping,  and  banishment  among 
the  punishments  in  vogue.  Those  who  transgressed  presumptuously  and 
repeatedly  were  to  be  punished  with  death.  Schools  were  already  in 
existence  in  2200  B.C.,  and  the  stick  was  the  orthodox  implement  of  punish- 
ment.  The  three  great  ceremonies  were  the  worship  of  the  Spirits  of 
Heaven,  the  Spirits  of  Earth,  and  the  Spirits  of  Men. 

At  this  time  music  was  considerably  developed,  and  was  combined  with 

poetry.      The   director  of   music   was  to  teach  the   emperor's   sons  to   be 

Music,     straightforward,  yet  mild;  gentle  and  dignified  ;  strong,  yet  not 

tyrannical.  Poetry  is  defined  as  the  expression  of  earnest 
thought,  singing  as  the  prolonged  utterance  of  that  expression  ;  and  eight 
different  kinds  of  musical  instruments  were  in  use.  Divination  was  in 
regular  use  by  means  of  the  tortoise-shell  and  the  divining  stalks. 


THE    CHINESE   SACRED  BOOKS.  121 

The  early  celebrated  minister  of  crime,  Kao-yao,  gave  wise  counsels  to 
them,  placing  the  sovereign's  chief  hope  in  the  steadfast  pursuit  of  personal 
virtue.  He  enumerates  nine  virtues  in  conduct,  viz.,  affability  counsels  of 
combined  with  dignity ;  mildness  combined  with  firmness ;  Kao-yao. 
bluntness  with  respectfulness ;  aptness  for  government  with  reverent 
caution ;  docility  combined  with  boldness ;  straightforwardness  with 
gentleness ;  an  easy  negligence  with  discrimination ;  boldness  with  sin- 
cerity ;  and  valour  combined  with  righteousness.  Kao-yao  ascribes  the 
social  relationships  and  duties  to  Heaven,  which  graciously  distinguishes 
the  virtuous  and  punishes  the  guilty. 

We  must  only  note  some  of  the  religious  references  in  the  Shu-king. 
Thus  we  read  that  to  revere  and  honour  the  path  prescribed  by  Heaven  is 
the  way  ever  to  preserve  the  favouring  appointment  of  Heaven.  TheaDDOint 
"  The  great  God  has  conferred  even  on  the  inferior  people  a  moral    ments  of 
sense.    ...     To  make  them  tranquilly  pursue  the  course  which 
it  would  indicate,  is  the  work  of  the  sovereign.     The  way  of  Heaven  is  to 
bless  the  good,  and  make  the  bad  miserable." 

Thang,  the  first  emperor  of  a  new  dynasty,  b.c.  1766,  represents  him- 
self as  commissioned  by  Heaven  to  make  an  end  of  the  criminality  of  the 
previous  dynasty.     He  requested  the  favour  of  Heaven  on  his  en-  Thang.  and 
terprise,  and  for  his  new  dynasty.     His  inaugural  address  shows  the  Powers 
that  he  was  deeply  anxious  not  to  offend  against  the  Powers  above. 
As  for  his  people  or  princes,  the  good  in  them  he  will  not  dare  to  conceal; 
the  evil  in  himself  he  will  not  dare  to  forgive  himself.      "  I  will  examine 
these  things,"  he  says,  "  in  harmony  with  the  mind  of  God.     When  guilt  is 
found  anywhere  in  you  who  occupy  the  myriad  regions,  let  it  rest  on  me, 
the  One  Man.     When  guilt  is  found  in  me,  the  One  Man,  it  shall  not  attach 
to   you."      In   correspondence   with    these    lofty    sentiments,    there   is    a 
tradition  about  Thang,  that  after  his  accession  to  the  throne,  there  was  a 
great  drought  followed  by  famine.     A  suggestion  was  made  in  accordance 
with  the  principle  mentioned  in  our  Introduction  (p.  16),  that  . 

some  human  sacrifice  was  necessary,  and  that  rain  should  be  sacrifice 
prayed  for.  Thang  answered,  "  If  a  man  must  be  the  victim,  I 
will  be  he."  After  fasting,  and  cutting  off  his  hair  and  nails,  he  proceeded  in 
a  plain  carriage  drawn  by  white  horses  {i.e.  of  the  Chinese  mourning  colour), 
decked  in  rushes  as  a  sacrifice,  to  a  forest  of  mulberry-trees,  where  he- 
prayed,  asking  to  what  fault  of  his  the  drought  was  owing.  Before  he  had 
concluded,  abundance  of  rain  fell.  The  title  of  "  the  One  Man,"  used  of 
Thang,  had  already  come  into  use  as  a  special  designation  of  the  emperor. 

The  Instructions  of  I-yin,  minister  of  Thang's  grandson,  contain  little 
beyond  the  ancient  truths.     He  says  that  Heaven  has   no  partial  affection  ; 
only  to  those  who  are  reverent  does  it  show  affection.    The  spirits  j^^^  ng 
do   not  always  accept  the  sacrifices    that  are   offered  to  them ;         of 
they  accept  only  the  sacrifices  of  the  sincere.    A  virtuous  sovereign        'ym' 
is  spoken  of  as  the  fellow  of  God,  who  rules  on  earth  as  He  rules  above. 
In  retiring  from  office,  I-yin  said  that  it  was  difficult  to  rely  on  Heaven,  for 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


its  appointments  were  not  constant;  but  if  the  sovereign's  virtue  were 
constant,  he  would  preserve  his  throne.  One  of  his  references  shows  that 
the  kings  in  his  time  had  a  temple  of  ancestors  containing  seven  shrines 
or  smaller  temples,  in  which  were  placed  the  spirit-tablets  of  kings  held 
worthy  of  honour.  One  of  his  words  of  advice  to  the  king,  is  a  remarkable 
one  to  be  addressed  to  a  ruler:  "  Do  not  think  yourself  so  large  as  to  deem 
others  small." 

The  latter  portion  of  the  Shu-king  relates  to  the  dynasty  of  Chow  (B.C. 
122  to  256).  In  the  first  book,  "The  Great  Declaration,"  the  founder  of 
The  dynasty  the  dynasty,  Wei,  addresses  his  followers,  and  gives  a  picture  of 
of  chow.  the  wicked  sovereign  whom  he  is  going  to  displace,  which 
shows  clearly  what  conduct  was  thought  reprehensible  then.  "  He  sits 
squatting  on  his  heels,  not  serving  God  nor  the  spirits  of  heaven  and  earth, 
neglecting  also  the  temple  of  his  ancestors,  and  not  sacrificing  to  it.  The 
victims  and  the  vessels  of  millet  all  become  the  prey  of  wicked  robbers,  and 
still  he  says,  '  The  people  are  mine,  the  heavenly  appointment  is  mine,' 
never  trying  to  correct  his  contemptuous  mind."  Wei  relies  on  the  fact  that 
his  own  dreams  coincide  with  his  divinations,  the  auspicious  omen  is  double. 
He  attributes  his  coming  success  entirely  to  the  illustrious  virtue  of  his  own 
late  father,  Wan,  thus  showing  the  true  Chinese  filial  piety. 

A  little  later  we  come  to  the  first  mention  of  the  duke  of  Chow,  whom 
Confucius  regarded  with  such  great  reverence.     He  was  brother  of  King 
Wei ;   and  once  when  Wei  lay  very  ill,  the  duke,  fearing  great 
duke  of     danger  to  the  State  if  he  should  die,  prayed  to  the  three  ances- 
tral kings  that  he  might  be  taken  as  a  substitute  for  his  brother. 
He  offered  himself  as  having  been  lovingly  obedient  to  his  father,  and  as 
possessed  of  many  abilities  and  arts  which  fitted  him  to  serve  spiritual 
beings  (confirming  the  idea  of  service  being  rendered  by  those  sacrificed). 
He   then  divined   with   three   tortoise-shells    (corresponding  to   the  three 
ancestors  prayed  to),  and  consulted  the  oracular  responses,  which  apparently 
were  some  special  formulas  to  be  examined  by  certain  rules  now  unknown. 
His  prayer  was  granted ;  but  neither  king  nor  duke  died.    The  prayer  was 
written  down  and  concealed,  and  served  in  the  reign  of  his  successor  to 
justify  the  duke  from  false  accusations. 

In  the  Announcement  of  the  duke  of  Shao,  we  find  an  interesting 
account  of  the  foundation  of  the  city  Lo,  about  B.C.  1109.  Divination  by 
The  founda-  ^ie  t°rtoise-shell  first  took  place,  then  two  bulls  were  offered  as 
tionofthe  victims  in  the  northern  and  southern  suburbs  of  the  chosen  site, 
perhaps  to  heaven  and  earth  respectively  ;  then  a  bull,  a  ram, 
and  a  boar  were  offered  at  the  altar  to  the  spirit  of  the  land  in  the  new  city. 
The  duke  of  Chow  took  an  important  part  in  this  enterprise,  and  he  is  the 
nit  tor  of  several  later  portions  of  the  Shu-king.  In  one  of  these  "  Against 
Luxurious  Ease,"  he  instructs  the  king  by  reference  to  the  severe  toil  of 
the  agricultural  labourer,  which  affords  a  pattern  to  himself,  and  also  by 
reference  to  the  good  fortune  of  previous  kings  who  had  been  diligent  and 
not  self-indulgent.     The  king  is  not  to  allow  himself  leisure  at  any  time  to 


THE    CHINESE   SACRED   BOOKS  123 


say,   ':  To-day  I   will  indulge  in  pleasure  ;  "  surely  a  hard  lesson  for  an 

absolute  monarch. 

At  various  points  we  find  expression  of  the  belief  that  "  the  people  arc 

born  good,  and  are  changed  by  external  things,''  which  is  a  keynote  of 

Chinese  beliefs,  and  makes  them  resent  the  "Western  teaching  of  _         .  (MM 

*7        The  goodness 

the  natural  depravity  of  man.     The  good  example  of  superiors  and  perver- 
will  alone  suffice  to  bring  them  out  of  error  and  to  confirm  them 
in  the  way  of  virtue.     We  must  conclude  our  extracts  from  this  most  inter- 
esting book  by  noting  the  gist  of  the  marquis  of  Chin's  speech,  about  100 
years  before  the  birth  of  Confucius.     His  principles  of  government  might 
well  be  read  as  a  text  for  modern  rulers  :   "  Let  me  have  but  one  resolute 
minister,  plain  and  sincere,  without  other  ability,  but  having  a  The  marquis 
straightforward  mind,  and  possessed  of  generosity,  regarding  the  ofcninona 
talents  of  others,  as  if  he  himself  possessed  them  ;   and  when  he 
finds  accomplished  and  sage  men,  loving  them  in  his  heart  more  than  his 
mouth  expresses,  really  showing  himself  able  to  bear  them : — such  a  min- 
ister would  be  able  to  preserve  my  descendants   and  people,   and  would 
indeed  be  a  giver  of  benefits.     But  if  the  minister,  when  he  finds  men  of 
ability,  is  jealous  and  hates  them  ;  if  when  he  finds  accomplished  and  sage 
men,  he  opposes  them  and    does  not    allow  their  advancement,  showing 
himself  really  not  able  to  bear  them  : — such  a  man  will  not  be  able  to  pro- 
tect my  descendants  and  people,  and  will  he  not  be  a  dangerous  man?" 
But  all  Western  minds  will  not  agree  that  "  the  decline  and  fall  of  a  State 
may  arise  from  one  man,"  or  that  "  the  glory  and  tranquillity  of  a  State  may 
also  arise  from  the  goodness  of  one  man." 

The  Shi-king  (or  She-king),  the  great  Book  of  Poetn',  includes  more 
than  three  hundred  pieces,  varying  in  date  from  b.c.  1766  to  B.C.  B86.    Only 
a  certain  number  of  them  are  specially  of  a  religious  character ;       gni-king 
many  are  domestic  and  narrative,  others  are  metaphorical  and    or  Book  of 
allusive.     The  authorship  is  uncertain,  but  many  are  ascribed  to 
the  great  duke  of  Chow.     Those  in  the  fourth  part  are  chiefly  concerned 
with  the  ancestral  worship  of  the  Sliang  and  Chow  dynasties  and  of  the  mar- 
quises of  Lu ;  but  these  served  as  a  model  for  the  ancestral  worship  of  the 
common  people.     They  are  so  different  in  their  nature  from  anything  called 
poetry  with  us,  that  it  is  difficult  in  a  brief  space  to  give  an  idea  of  their 
scope  and  variety.     Here  is  one  describing  a  sacrifice  to  Thang :  — 

"  How  admirable !  how  complete  ! 
Here  are  set  our  hand-drums  and  drums. 
The  drums  resound  harmonious  and  loud, 
To  delight  our  meritorious  ancestor. 

The  descendant  of  Thang  invites  him  with  this  music, 

That  he  may  soothe  us  with  the  realisation  of  our  thoughts. 

Deep  is  the  sound  of  our  hand-drums  and  drums 

Shrilly  sound  the  flutes,  all  harmonious  and  blending  together, 

According  to  the  notes  of  the  sonorous  gem. 

Oh  !  majestic  is  the  descendant  of  Thang  ; 

Very  admirable  is  his  music. 


124 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  large  bells  and  drums  fill  the  ear, 

The  various  dances  are  grandly  performed. 

We  have  the  admirable  visitors,  who  are  pleased  and  delighted. 

From  of  old,  before  our  time,  the  former  men  set  us  the  example 

How  to  be  mild  and  humble  from  morning  to  night, 

And  to  be  reverent  in  discharging  the  service. 

May  he  regard  our  sacrifices  of  winter  and  autumn, 
Offered  by  the  descendant  of  Thang  !  " 

111  explanation  of  "  the  realisation  of  our  thoughts,"  we  learn  that  the 
sacrificer  was  required,  before  the  service,  to  fast  for  several  days,  during 
which  he  must  think  of  his  ancestor,  his  demeanour,  words,  aims,  and  de- 
lights. Then  with  a  perfect  image  of  him  in  his  mind,  he  would  inwardly 
see  him  in  his  shrine  when  he  came  to  sacrifice,  and  hear  him  during  the 
service.  The  visitors  referred  to  are  descendants  of  previous  dynasties, 
whom  it  was  always  important  to  have  present. 

Here  is  a  portion  of  an  ode  expressing  the  current  beliefs  about  the 
Divine  Ruler  and  the  primary  goodness  of  men  : — 

"  How  vast  is  God,  the  ruler  of  men  below! 
How  arrayed  in  terrors  is  God, 
With  many  things  irregular  in  his  ordinations. 
Heaven  gave  birth  to  the  multitudes  of  the  people, 
But  the  nature  it  confers  is  not  to  be  depended  on. 
All  are  good  at  first, 
But  few  prove  themselves  to  be  so  at  the  last." 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Supreme  Being  was  early  worshipped 

in  China  by  the  title  Shang-ti,  translated  "  God"  in  the  above  quotations. 

.  ..    Another  title  indicated  Heaven,  but  the  two  are  used  in  a  way 
Shang-ti,  the         ....'.  J 

Supreme  which  is  practically  equivalent.  It  is  recorded  that  as  early 
mg'  as  the  reign  of  Hwang-ti  (b.c.  2697)  a  temple  was  erected  in 
his  honour  ;  and  a  hundred  years  later  music  was  ordered  to  be  performed 
in  connection  with  these  rites.  At  first  he  was  conceived  as  a  personal 
ruler,  interfering  directly  in  the  affairs  of  man  by  rewards  and  punish- 
ments ;  but  it  is  not  doubtful  that  a  degeneration  took  place,  by  which 
Shang-ti  became  more  impersonal,  as  the  Azure  Heaven  ;  and  Confucius,  by 
practically  ignoring  Shang-ti  and  laying  more  stress  on  the  worship  of  the 
spirits  of  ancestors  and  on  filial  piety,  did  much  to  sterilise  and  stereotype 
the  faith  of  his  countrymen.  Several  sacrifices  to  Shang-ti  are  however 
mentioned  in  the  Shi-king,  especially  in  spring  and  autumn. 

Many  interesting  details  of  the  ceremonial  of  sacrifice  to  ancestors  may 

be  gathered  from  the  Shi-king.     After  fasting  by  the  king  or  prominent 

Ancient     Persons  concerned,  a  great  assembly  of  princes,  especially  of  those 

sacrifices  to  bearing  the  same  surname  as  the  royal  house,  took  place.     Liba- 

3.UC6St0f3 

tions  of  fragrant  spirits  were  made,  to  attract  the  spirits  of  the 
ancestors.  The  king  himself  killed  the  chief  victim,  a  red  bull,  and  cut  away 
the  fat,  which  was  burned  with  southernwood.  Numerous  other  victims 
were  sacrificed,  and  the  ceremonial  was  complex  and  laborious.  "  The 
description,"  says  Dr.  Legge,  "  is  that  of  a  feast  as  much  as  of  a  sacrifice  ; 


THE    CHINESE  SACRED  BOOKS. 


125 


and,  in  fact,  those  great  seasonal  occasions  were  what  we  might  call  grand 
family  reunions,  where  the  dead  and  the  living  met,  eating  and  drinking 
together,  where  the  living  worshipped  the  dead,  and  the  dead  blessed  the 
living."  The  departed  spirits  were  represented  by  living  relatives  bearing 
the  same  surname,  received  personally  the  honour  due  to  the  dead,  and  ate 
and  drank  for  them.  They  also  expressed  the  will  of  the  deceased  spirits, 
and  gave  their  blessing  to  the  sacrificing  king  or  prince,  with  the  aid  of  a 
skilled  minister  of  religion.  Thus  the  predominant  idea  of  these  sacrifices 
was  the  maintenance  of  filial  piety  and  of  the  clan  feeling.  The  continued 
existence  and  guardianship  of  ancestors  was  expressed  and  embodied. 

As  a  specimen  of  a  deep  tone  of  appeal  to  Heaven  sometimes  found  in 
the  odes,  we  may  quote  the  following :  "  0  great  Heaven,  how  hast  thou 
shut   up  thy  love  !     Compassionate  Heaven,  arrayed  in  terrors !    Prayer  to 
why  revealest  thou  not  thy   care?      Leaving   criminals    aside,     Heaven, 
who  have  but  paid  just  penalty,  the 
innocent    are   involved    in    the    same 
ruin.     Why  will  he  not  listen  to  jus- 
tice?    Why,    0  officers,  will   ye   not 
respect  each  other,  nor  stand  in  awe  of 
Heaven?     Alas!    there   are   no  words 
for  it ;  'tis  deeper  than  the  tongue  can 
speak.     Words   that    can    be    spoken 
prosper.      Artful    speech    flows     like 
water,  and  the  speaker  dwells  at  ease. 
See  how  perilous  is  office.     By  advice 
given  in  vain,  you  offend  the  prince, 
you  offend  your  friends  even.    Painful 
are  my  inmost  thoughts.    I  weep  tears 
of  blood." 

Tie  tenor  of  the  Hsiao-king,  or 
Classic  of  Filial  Piety,  a  work 
attributed  to  a  member  of  ofniiai 
the  school  of  a  prominent  e  y" 
disciple  of  Confucius,  may  be  sufficiently  understood  from  the  following 
extract :  "  The  service  which  a  filial  son  does  to  his  parents  is  as  follows : — 
In  his  general  conduct  to  them,  he  manifests  the  utmost  reverence  ;  in 
his  nourishing  of  them,  his  endeavour  is  to  give  them  the  utmost  pleasure  ; 
when  they  are  ill,  he  feels  the  greatest  anxiety  ;  in  mourning  for  them,  he 
exhibits  every  demonstration  of  grief ;  in  sacrificing  to  them,  he  displays  the 
utmost  solemnity.  When  a  son  is  complete  in  these  five  things,  he  may 
be  pronounced  able  to  serve  his  parents." 

The  Yi-king,  or  Book  of  Changes,  can  only  be  estimated  by  study.     It 
is  an  explanation  of  certain  line-diagrams,  or  hexagrams,  being    The  Boo]c 
variations  on  these  types  I  Hi  =  and  1  =,  of  changes, 

which  are  believed  to  date  from  the  twelfth  century  b.c,  and  to  repre- 
sent various  moral  and  political  teachings.     There  are  sixty-four  of  these 


EIGHT   DIAGRAMS,    WITH    REPRESENTATION    OF 
MALE    AND    FEMALE    PRINCIPLES    OF    NATURE. 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


hexagrams.  In  the  reign  of  the  tyrant  whom  the  great  Wan  overthrew, 
these  figures  were  already  nsed  in  divination.  Wan,  it  is  said,  was  im- 
prisoned by  the  tyrant  in  1143  B.C.,  and  spent  his  imprisonment  in  studying 
these  hexagrams.  As  he  mused  over  them  and  thought  of  public  affairs, 
he  wrote  the  sixty-four  short  paragraphs  explaining  each  hexagram  as 
a  whole.  His  son  Tan  afterwards  did  the  same  for  each  line,  making  it 
harmonise  with  the  general  paragraph.  M.  Terrien  de  Lacouperie  appears 
to  have  proved  that  the  hexagrams  of  the  Yi-king  are  merely  a  vocabulary 
of  primitive  words  and  expressions,  derived  from  the  earliest  writing  of 
South-western  Asia,  so  ancient  that  the  earliest  critics  did  not  know  what 
it  meant.     (Journ.  Roy.  Asiatic  Soc.  vol.  15,  1883.) 

The   Li-ki,  Book  of  Rites,  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  Chinese 
classics,  as  regards  the  practical  behaviour  of  the  people.     It  is  a  collection  of 

■me  Book    treatises  on  the  Rules  of  Propriety,  or  ceremonial  usages  :  in  its 

of  Rites,  present  form  it  is  not  older  than  the  Han  dynasty,  and  was  only 
completed  in  the  second  century  a.d.  It  has  however  gained  higher  rank  than 
the  two  earlier  rituals  of  the  Chow  dynasty,  which  are  not  reckoned  among 
the  five  chief  classics.  Probably  some  parts  of  it  are  really  as  early  as,  or 
may  be  earlier  than,  these  rituals.  It  has  been  described  "  as  the  most  exact 
and  complete  monograph  which  the  Chinese  nation  has  been  able  to  give  of 
itself  to  the  rest  of  the  human  race."  The  first  book  is  a  summary  of  the 
general  rules  of  propriety  and  ceremony,  and  begins  with  a 
propriety  and  maxim  which  strikes  an  appropriate  keynote:  "Always  and  in 

ceremony.  every thing  let  there  be  reverence."  The  man  who  observes  no 
rules  of  propriety  is  said  to  have  the  heart  of  a  beast.  After  some  general 
moral  expressions,  the  origin  of  the  rules  is  discussed.  "  In  the  highest 
antiquity  they  prized  simply  conferring  good  ;  in  the  time  next  to  this, 
giving  and  repaying  was  the  thing  attended  to.  And  what  the  rules  of 
propriety  value,  is  that  reciprocity.  If  I  give  a  gift  and  nothing  comes  in 
return,  that  is  contrary  to  propriety."  The  services  due  from  juniors  to 
elders  and  from  sons  to  parents,  and  the  rules  of  all  daily  ceremonies  are 
minutely  prescribed.  Thus  :  "  For  all  sons  it  is  the  rule,  in  winter  to  warm 
the  bed  for  their  parents,  and  to  cool  it  in  summer."  A  filial  son,  when  he 
meets  an  intimate  friend  of  his  father,  must  neither  advance  nor  retire 
without  being  told,  nor  speak  unless  questioned. 

In  the  third  part  of  this  first  section,  we  have  a  list  of  sacrifices  which 

is  of  interest.     We  learn  that  the  Son  of  Heaven  (the  king  or  emperor) 

List  of      sacrifices  to  Heaven  and  earth  (representing  the  Supreme  Being), 

sacrifices.  to  tiie  Spir[ts  presiding  over  the  four  quarters,  to  those  of  the  hills 
and  rivers;  and  offers  the  five  sacrifices  of  the  house,  every  year.  The 
feudal  princes  sacrifice  to  the  spirits  each  of  his  own  quarter,  of  its  hills 
and  rivers,  and  the  five  sacrifices.  Great  officers  offer  only  the  latter,  while 
other  officers  merely  present  oblations  to  their  ancestors.  The  Son  of 
Heaven  sacrifices  an  ox  of  a  single  pure  colour  ;  a  feudal  prince,  a  fatted  ox  ; 
a  great  officer,  a  selected  ox  ;  an  ordinary  officer,  a  sheep  or  a  pig.  In  ac- 
cordance with  their  love  for  symbolic  expressions,   the  ox  is  designated 


THE    CHINESE   SACRED  BOOKS.  127 

"  the  creature  with  the  large  foot,"  the  pig,  "  the  hard  bristles,"  a  cock, 
"  the  loud  voice,"  a  dog,  "  the  soup  offering,"  the  stalks  of  dried  flesh,  "  the 
exactly  cut  oblations,"  water,  "  the  pure  cleanser,"  spirits,  "  the  clear  cup," 
etc.  When  the  son  of  Heaven  dies,  he  "  has  fallen  ";  when  a  feudal  prince 
dies,  he  "  has  crashed";  a  great  officer  "  has  ended"  ;  an  ordinary  officer  "  is 
now  unsalaried."  The  corpse  placed  in  its  coffin  is  described  as  being  "  in 
its  long  home." 

In  the  Than-kung,  dealing  chiefly  with  mourning  rites,  we  learn  that 
when  a  father  has  just  died,  the  son  should  appear  quite  overcome,  and  as 
if  he  were  at  his  wits'  end  ;  when  the  corpse  is  in  the  coffin,  he  Mourning- 
should  cast  quick  and  sorrowful  glances  round,  as  if  seeking  for  for  a  father, 
something  he  cannot  find  ;  after  the  funeral,  he  should  look  alarmed  and 
restless,  as  if  seeking  some  one  who  does  not  arrive  ;  at  the  end  of  the 
first  year's  mourning,  he  should  look  sad  and  disappointed  ;  at  the  end  of 
the  second  year,  he  should  have  a  vague  and  unreliant  look.  Many  of 
the  sayings  in  this  book  are  ascribed  to  Confucius,  but  are  regarded  as 
doubtful  or  spurious  by  the  Chinese;  nevertheless  they  show  what  was 
considered  appropriate  to  his  character  at  a  very  early  date,  sympathy  of 
For  instance,  when  Confucius  went  to  Wei,  he  found  the  Confucius. 
mourning  rites  going  on  for  a  man  with  whom  he  had  formerly  lodged. 
Entering  the  house,  he  wept  for  him  bitterly,  and  ordered  the  outside  horses 
of  his  carriage  to  be  given  as  his  mourning  gift.  On  being  remonstrated 
with,  Confucius  said  :— "  I  entered  a  little  while  ago  and  wailed  for  him, 
and  I  found  the  mourner  so  dissolved  in  grief  that  my  tears  flowed  with 
his.  I  should  hate  it,  if  those  tears  were  not. properly  followed."  Again, 
Confucius  said  "  In  dealing  with  the  dead,  if  we  treat  them  as  if  they  were 
entirely  dead,  that  would  show  a  want  of  affection,  and  should  not  be  done  ; 
or  if  we  treat  them  as  if  they  were  entirely  alive,  that  would  show  a  want 
of  wisdom,  and  should  not  be  done."  And  the  Chinese  commentators  say 
on  this,  that  in  the  offerings  put  down  immediately  after  death,  there  is  an 
approach  to  treating  the  deceased  as  living  ;  and  at  the  burial,  an  approach 
to  treating  him  as  a  disembodied  spirit. 

There  are  numerous  references  in  the  Book  of  Rites  to  the  practice  of 
calling  back  the  dead,  still  in  vogue  in  China.  In  calling  back  the  king 
or  emperor,  the  proper  phrase  is,  "Return,  0  son  of  Heaven,"  caning  back 
in  calling  back  a  feudal  prince,  the  phrase  is,  "  Return,  sir  so-  the  dead- 
and-so."  In  Ku-lu  the  practice  was,  to  call  back  the  dead  with  arrows. 
The  soul  of  a  deceased  ruler  is  called  back  in  his  smaller  chambers,  and 
in  the  large  chamber ;  in  the  smaller  ancestral  temples  and  in  the  great 
one ;  at  the  gate  leading  to  the  court  of  external  audience,  and  in  the 
suburbs  all  round.  Calling  the  soul  back,  is  described  as  "  the  way  in 
which  love  receives  its  consummation." 

The  third  section  of  the  Li-ki  contains  "  The  Royal  Regulations."  We 
learn  that  the  ancestral  temple  of  the  Emperor,  or  Son  of  Heaven,  included 
seven  smaller  temples,  three  on  either  side,  and  that  of  his  great  ancestor, 
fronting  the  south.     A  prince  had  five,  a  great  officer  three,  an  ordinary 


i28  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

officer  only  one,  while  the  common  people  presented  their  offerings  in  their 
principal  apartment. 

It  is  impossible  in  any  brief  space  to  give  an  account  of  the  multitude 
of  ceremoniai.forms  and  the  reasons  for  them  detailed  in  the  Book  of  Rites. 
The  few  samples  we  have  given  must  suffice  to  barely  indicate  a  people 
above  all  occupied  with  ceremonial  and  propriety  to  an  extent  which  has 
almost  stopped  progress  and  perpetuated  a  childishness  of  mind  in  some 
respects  which  is  quite  astounding  to  Europeans. 

MENCIUS. 

The  name  of  Mencius  ranks  next  after  that  of  Confucius  in  Chinese 
estimation.  It  is  a  Latinised  form  of  Mang-tsze,  or  Liang  the  philosopher. 
His  statue  or  tablet  is  everywhere  to  be  seen  in  the  temples  of  Confucius. 
Born  early  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  he  lived  to  a  great  age,  and  died  in 
b.c.  289.  He  was  a  great  student  and  admirer  of  Confucius  and  his  writings, 
and  of  the  old  historic  records  which  he  had  collected  ;  he  even  knew  some 
persons  who  had  been  disciples  of  Confucius.  In  his  time  the  feudal  kingdom 
was  broken  up  into  seven  monarchies,  all  at  feud  with  one  another.  Various 
leaders  of  opinion  propagated  opinions  destructive  of  the  State  or  of  the 
His  life  and  special  filial  affection  and  regard  which  Confucius  so  strongly  up- 
journeyings.  held.  Mencius  set  himself  to  rescue  the  country  from  its  impend- 
ing dangers  by  a  plan  similar  to  that  of  Confucius  ;  he  would  travel  about 
from  State  to  State  till  he  got  a  hearing  from  some  ruler  who  would  carry  out 
his  teaching,  and  so  bring  about  a  better  state  of  things.  When  one  State 
had  reached  a  proper  condition  of  order  and  happiness,  it  would  be  sub- 
mitted to  by  all  others — a  visionary  hope  truly.  But  Mencius  went 
confidently  on  his  journeys,  visiting  many  States  in  turn,  often  meeting 
with  a  respectful  hearing,  and  receiving  large  gifts.  He  put  forward  his 
doctrines  with  entire  fearlessness,  not  scrupling  to  censure  faults  and  vices  ; 
but  this  led  to  no  great  result  in  his  life-time,  and  he  at  last  gave  up  the 
fruitless  labour  about  310  b.c,  contenting  himself  with  completing  the  re- 
cord of  his  teaching.  The  restoration  of  the  feudal  kingdom  on  its  old  basis 
was  impossible  ;  the  Chin  dynasty  was  to  change  the  face  of  the  land,  and 
rule  by  a  despotism  which  in  its  essence  has  continued  till  now,  though  the 
dynasties  have  changed. 

The  teaching  of  Mencius,  like  that  of  Confucius,  was  mainly  directed 
to  political  ends,  but  it  has  incidentally  much  moral  and  religious  bearing. 
The  teachings  ^e  can  only  comment  on  his  writings,  now  reckoned  as  one 
of  Mencius.  0f  the  Four  Books,  in  so  far  as  their  view  differs  from  that  of 
Confucius,  or  has  a  peculiar  tone.  He  is  more  of  a  philosopher  than  Con- 
fucius, and  more  definite  in  his  teachings  on  many  points.  He  believes 
that  man  is  good,  and  the  heart  (probably  equivalent  to  our  conscience)  is  a 
sound  guide.  "He  who  has  fathomed  his  heart,  knows  his  nature  ;  if  one 
knows  his  nature,  he  also  knows  Heaven."  Every  heart,  according  to  him, 
has  the  germ  of  perfection,  and  only  falls  short  of  it  by  not  taking  advan- 
tage of  opportunities,  or  missing  them.     Man  has  the  power  of  choice.     He 


THE    CHINESE   SACRED   BOOKS. 


129 


says,  "  There  is  both  a  heavenly  greatness  and  a  human  greatness.  Benevo- 
lence, righteousness,  truth,  faith,  delight  in  goodness  without  weariness,  this 
is  heavenly  greatness."  Concentration  and  symmetrical  cultivation  are 
necessary  to  attain  them  :  but  these  are  opposed  in  some  by  natural  selfish- 
ness, or  by  ignorance,  or  by  external  difficulties. 

Some  of  the  sentiments  and  phrases  of  Mencius  are  extremely  fine  ;  as 
"  The  great  man  is  he  who  does  not  lose  his  child-heart.  He  does  not  think 
beforehand  that  his  words  shall  be  sincere,  nor  that  his  acts  shall  be  reso- 
lute ;  he  simply  abides  in  the  right."  "  To  nourish  the  heart,  there  is 
nothing  better  than  to  keep  the  desires  few.,:  "  When  one  by  force  subdues 
men,  they  do  not  submit  to  him  in  heart ;  when  he  subdues  them  by  virtue, 
in  their  heart's  core  they  are  pleased,  and  sincerely  submit."  "  Every  man 
has  a  heart  sensible  of  sympathy,  shame,  tenderness,  and  conscientiousness, 
and  he  who  is  without  these  is  simply  not  a  man." 
"  Benevolence  (or  love),  is  the  heart  of  man,  right- 
eousness the  way." 

Mencius  expressed  as  his  great  aim  the  im- 
provement or  elevation  of  the  heart.  He  saj^s,  "  I 
wish  to  improve  the  hearts  of  men,  to  put  a  stop  to 
destructive  doctrines,  to  oppose  strange  behaviour, 
to  banish  unseemly  language.  Is  it  because  of  a 
taste  for  controversy  ?  I  cannot  do  otherwise." 
While  not  believing  that  error  and  sin  are  neces- 
sary, Mencius  recognised  their  general  existence. 
Thus,  "  Men  for  the  most  part  go  astray,  and  at 
first  are  able,  after  so  doing,  to  reform.  They  are 
grieved  in  their  hearts  and  oppressed  by  anxiety, 
and  act  accordingly."  It  was  undesirable  to  have 
much  prosperity  and  joy,  for  they  encouraged  the 
desire  for  pleasure,  and  so  caused  ruin.  It  was  the 
struggle  with  adversity  that  led  to  active  effort 
against  error,  and  towards  truth. 

In  his  ideas  about  Heaven  and  God,  Mencius  held  much  the  same  views 
as  Confucius,  but  was  more  full  in  his  expressions.     His  view  of  Heaven  is 
that  it  is  an  overruling  Providence  as  well  as  a  first  Cause.     "  No 
man  nor  emperor  can  bestow  an  empire,  but  only  Heaven  alone."  Heaven  and 
"  When   Heaven  is  about  to  impose  an  important  office  upon  a       God' 
man,  it  first  embitters  his  heart  in  its  purposes  ;  it  causes  him  to  exert  his 
bones  and  sinews  ;  it  lets  his  body  suffer  hunger  ;  it  inflicts  upon  him  want 
and  poverty,  and  confounds  his  undertakings.     In  this  way  it  stimulates  his 
heart,  steels  his  nature,  and  supplies  that  of  which  the  man  would  else  be 
incapable." 

The  true  service  of  Heaven,  according  to  Mencius,  is  the  right  culti- 
vation of  the  heart  and  nature.      The  ruler  serves  Heaven  by  ^g  servlce  of 
serving    both    the    small  and    great.      The    tutelary   deities   or     Heaven, 
spirits  he  believed  to  be  channels  for  the  blessings  of  Heaven  ;  3ret  they 


TRADITIONAL    LIKENESS    O? 
MENCIUS. 


I3o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


were  in  a  peculiar  way  dependent  upon  men,  and  possessed  human  weak- 
nesses. Thus  he  says,  "  When  the  sacrificial  victims  are  perfect,  the 
cm  rn  in  the  vessels  pure,  the  sacrifices  at  their  proper  times,  and  yet  there 
arises  drought  or  flood,  then  the  tutelary  spirits  must  be  changed.  He  also 
believed  in  many  kinds  of  spirits  besides  the  tutelary  spirits,  all  capable  of 
serving  man  and  of  being  propitiated  by  gifts.  Strangely  in  contrast  with 
some  of  his  lofty  ideals,  we  find  the  following,  "  Although  any  one  be  a  bad 
man,  if  he  fasts  and  is  collected,  bathes  and  washes  himself,  he  may  indeed 
offer  sacrifice  to  God  "  ;  but  perhaps  this  ceremonial  indicates  that  the  bad 
man  has  changed  his  heart  and  repented,  and  become  worthy  of  offering 
sacrifice.  For  from  other  passages  we  gather  that  in  Mencius's  idea  "  Shang- 
Ti."  or  the  Supreme  Being,  is  the  Supreme  Ruler  and  Governor  of  the 
World,  desirous  of  the  physical  and  moral  well-being  of  mankind,  a  holy 
Being  whom  nothing  impure  may  approach,  and  who  receives  the  penitent 
with  favour.  All  men  are  under  universal  law  and  destiny;  the  education 
and  cultivation  of  each  man  is  but  a  fulfilment  of  destiny.  Yet  there  is 
moral  freedom,  and  virtue  needs  to  be  inculcated  and  preached. 

We  cannot  go  fully  into  his  disquisitions  on  the  virtues  and  their  re- 
sults, the  character  of  the  superior  man  and  the  sage.  He  takes  as  a  model 
character  an  ancient  holy  man,  Shun,  who  for  a  long  time  dwelt  among  sa- 
vages without  degenerating  under  their  influence.  The  true  disciple  of  Shun 
is  diligent  in  good  things,  and  the  difference  between  the  holy  man  and  the 
robber  is  the  distance  between  selfishness  and  goodness.  He  is  no  friend  to 
cringing  servility.  "He  who  bends  himself  can  never  make  others  straight." 
He  attacks  Phariseeism  and  hypocrisy,  and  lauds  kindness,  truth,  and  be- 
nevolence.   He  blames  uncharitable  speech,  and  unreality  in  words. 

Righteousness  Mencius  held  to  belong  to  the  essential  nature  of  men, 
and  to  have  been  originally  common  to  all  hearts.  He  valued  it  more  than 
True  ^e*  "■"■  ^e  ^e  anc^  ^  a^s0  ^ke  righteousness,"  he  said;  "if  the 
Righteous-  two  are  not  to  be  had  together,  I  let  go  life  and  hold  to  righteous- 
ness. Life  also  appertains  to  the  things  which  I  desire ;  but  if 
amongst  the  things  which  I  desire  there  is  something  greater  than  life,  I 
will  not  on  this  account  retain  it  by  baseness  of  conduct.  Death,  again, 
appertains  to  the  things  which  I  hate ;  but  if  amongst  the  things  which  I 
hate  there  is  something  greater  than  death,  therefore  these  are  calamities 
which  I  do  not  avoid."  Righteousness  is  realised  by  a  practical  recognition 
of  the  rights  of  others  ;  its  result  is  contentment  or  self-satisfaction.  "  He 
who  prizes  virtue  and  rejoices  in  righteousness  may  well  be  cheerful,  there- 
fore in  destitution  the  scholar  does  not  lose  righteousness,  in  prosperity  he 
departs  not  from  the  way."   (F.) 

On  the  whole,  his  doctrines  are  more  practical  than  those  of  Confucius  ; 
but  however  much  reverence  he  may  now  receive,  however  much  he  may 
be  studied  by  the  superior  minds,  his  thoughts  do  not  influence  largely  the 
present  religious  attitude  of  the  mass  of  the  Chinese.  Confucius  is  to  them 
a  god,  in  reverencing  whom  with  the  ancestral  spirits  they  find  such  outlet 

hey  think  they  require  for  their  spiritual  aspirations. 


THE    Clfl.VESE   SACRED  BOOKS. 


*3* 


A  description  of  the  ideal  of  personal  character  compiled  from  Mencius 
includes  many  of  the  finest  maxims.  "  A  real  man  is  one  whose  goodness 
is  a  part  of  himself.  Of  the  qualities  of  the  sage,  none  is  greater  Hig  ideal  of 
than  that  of  being  a  helper  of  men  to  right  living.  He  is  personal  cna- 
ashamed  of  areputation  beyoni  1  his  desert.  Having  found  the  right 
way  within  himself,  he  rests  in  it,  firm  and  serene,  holding  intimate  con- 
verse with  it,  and  reaching  to  its  fountain-head.  He  obeys  the  right,  and 
waits  for  the  appointed.  His  words  are  plain  and  simple,  yet  of  widest  bear- 
ing. His  aim  is  self-culture,  yet  it  gives  place  to  all  men.  ...  If  one 
strive  to  treat  others  as  he  would  be  treated  by  them,  he  shall  not 
fail  to  come  near  the  perfect  life.  Every  duty  is  a  charge,  but  the  charge 
of  oneself  is  the  root,  of  all  others.  The  disease  of  men  is  to  neglect  their 
own  fields  and  go  to  weeding  those  of  others  ;  and  to  exact  much  from 
others,  and  lay  light  burdens  on  themselves."  (J.) 

By  some  thinkers,  as  the  American  Johnson,  Mencius  is  lauded  as  one 
of  the  greatest  teachers,  more  assertive  on  behalf  of  humanity  in  general' 
than  Confucius,  more  positive  in  upholding  the  right  of  revolution  against 
evil  rulers,  more  definite  in  his  plans  of  reform.  There  can  be  no  question 
of  his  greatness  ;  but  it  can  hardly  be  claimed  that  his  theories  have  been 
translated  into  facts  in  China.  His  temple  stands  to  the  south  of  his  native 
city,  Tsin-hien,  enclosed  by  cypress-trees  and  a  high  wall ;  it  is  similar  to 
the  temples  of  Confucius,  but  on  a  greater  scale  than  most  of  them.  The 
huge  marble  tablet  of  the  sage,  twenty  feet  high,  six  feet  wide,  and  twenty 
inches  thick,  stands  on  a  monster  tortoise  twelve  feet  long.  A  large  statue 
•  of  him  is  on  a  platform  in  the  building,  showing  him,  according  to  William- 
son ("  Journeys  in  North  China  "),  as  "  of  middle  stature,  stout,  and  having  a 
ready-for-any thing  appearance,  with  a  round  full  face,  sanguine  bright  eye, 
thin  closed  lips,  and  a  large  flatfish  nose."  The  idea  given  of  him  is,  that  he 
was  thoughtful,  resolute,  outspoken,  and  experienced  in  disappointment  and 
sorrow.  Many  tablets  have  been  erected  in  his  honour  by  emperors  and 
others.  Lineal  representatives  of  Mencius  still  live  in  honour,  and  receive 
large  pensions  from  the  Government. 

[•'Sacred  Books  of  the  East,"  vols.  3,  27,  28.     Faber's  "  Mind  of  Mencius,"  Hutchinson's  trans- 
lation.  (F.)     S.  Johnson,  "Oriental  Religions,"  China.  (J.)] 


PliESENTING    FOOD    TO    THE    SPIRITS    OF    THE    DEAD. 


CHAPTER   III. 
€\)t  Cl)inesK  iflotiern  £>tate  sReltgton,  anfc  Confurianfem, 

The  imperial  sacrifices  to  Heaven— The  emperor  as  high  priest — The  ceremonial— The  animal  sacri- 
fices—The tablets  of  ancestors— The  prayer  to  Keaven— The  ceremony  of  burning— The  prayer  to 
Earth— The  imperial  Temple  of  Ancestors— The  prayer  to  ancestors— Sacrifices  to  spirits  of  the 
land  and  grain -Temples  to  Confucius— Temple  at  his  native  place— Temple  at  Peking— Invoca- 
tion to  Confucius  —Great  Hall  of  the  Classics — The  sixteen  maxims— The  sacred  mountain  of 
Tai-Shau—  Signs  of  progress -Chines  3  morals— Ideas  of  future  life— Obstacles  to  religious 
change. 

WE  now  proceed  to  give  some  account  of  the  present  development  of 
the  State  religion  and  Confucianism  in  China  ;  but  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  separate  this  entirely  from  ideas  connected  with  Taoism  and 
Buddhism.  Not  only  is  there  no  antagonism  recognised  between  these 
three  religions,  but  it  is  possible  and  frequent  to  conform  to  all.  The  ex- 
tent  and  limits  of  the  State  religion  and  Confucianism  will  be  pointed  out 
in  this  chapter,  while  Taoism  will  be  dealt  with  in  the  next,  and  Chinese 
Buddhism  will  be  briefly  treated  later. 

We  must  first  describe  the  great  altar  and  Temple  of  Heaven  at  Peking, 

where  the  emperor  worships  as  Son  of  Heaven.     Within  a  vast  enclosure  of 

trees  is  the  great  south  altar,  a  beautiful  triple  circular  terrace 

TTig  iiriTDGricil 

Bacrifices  to  of  white  marble,  the  outer  one  210  feet,  the  inner  one  90  feet  in 
Heaven  (|;ameter>  ^he  upper  terrace  is  paved  with  marble  slabs  forming 
nine  concentric  circles,  the  inner  being  formed  of  nine  stones  with  a  central 
stone,  the  outer  all  of  multiples  of  nine  stones.  On  the  single  circular 
stone  in  the  centre  the  emperor  kneels  when  worshipping  Heaven  and  his 
ancestors  at  the  winter  solstice.  On  the  next  lower  stage  are  tablets  to  the 
spirits  of  t  In-  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  and  the  god  of  the  year.     A  hundred  feet 


THE    CHINESE   MODERN    STATE    RELIGION.  133 


south-east  of  the  altar  is  a  great  porcelain  furnace,  in  which  a  bullock  is  con- 
sumed by  fire  at  the  yearly  ceremony.  Separated  from  the  Altar  of  Heav<  11 
by  alow  wall,  is  a  smaller,  though  more  conspicuous  construction,  called  the 
Altar  of  Prayer  for  Grain.  On  its  upper  terrace  rises  a  magnificent  cir- 
cular building,  known  to  foreigners  as  the  Temple  of  Heaven,  but  to  the 
Chinese  as  the  Temple  of  Prayer  for  the  Year.  Here,  on  a  day  soon  after 
the  first  day  of  spring  (February  6th),  the  emperor  offers  prayers  to  Heaven 
for  a  blessing  upon  the  year.  When  great  drought  prevails,  prayer  for  rain 
is  made  by  the  emperor  at  this  altar.  Another  great  enclosure,  about  two 
miles  in  circumference,  contains  four  altars,  one  to  the  god  of  the  heavens, 
a  second  to  the  earth,  a  third  to  the  planet  Jupiter,  and  the  fourth  to 
Shin-nung,  the  supposed  inventor  of  agriculture.  On  the  altar  of  the 
heavens  are  four  marble  tablets,  containing  the  names  of  the  gods  of  the 
clouds,  rain,  wind,  and  thunder.  On  the  altar  to  the  gods  of  earth  are  five 
marble  tablets  bearing  the  names  of  celebrated  mountains,  lakes,  and  seas 
of  China. 

The  reason  why  the  emperor  in  person  performs  the  great  sacrifices  of 
the  State  religion  in  China,  is  bound  up  with  the  very  conception  of  the 
empire.  Since  the  emperor  is  believed  to  derive  his  right  direct  Tiie  emperor 
from  Heaven,  and  is  the  one  man  who  represents  mankind  in  the  as  high  priest, 
trinity  of  Heaven,  earth,  and  man,  he  is  necessarily  the  only  possible  high 
priest,  and  he  only  can  offer  the  great  oblations  to  heaven  and  earth.  Imperial 
responsibility  is  in  theory  carried  to  its  extreme  at  Peking,  for  the  emperor 
charges  himself  with  fault  if  the  people  suffer  from  pestilence  or  famine, 
and  acknowledges  himself  to  be  a  disobedient  son,  who  must  atone  by  prayer, 
sacrifice,  and  reformation  for  his  misdoings.  If  he  should  be  ill  or  a  minor, 
these  services  are  all  omitted. 

Although  formerly  the  words  Tien  and  Ti,  signifying  Heaven  and  earth, 
had  a  special  reference  to  a  Supreme  Being,  the  tablets  of  these  two  are 
now  placed  on  an  equality  only  with  those  in  the  great  temple  of  ancestors 
representing  deceased  monarchs  of  the  existing  dynasty,  and  that  of  the 
gods  of  the  land  and  grain.  To  all  these  are  offered  what  are  called  "great  " 
sacrifices.  Medium  sacrifices  are  offered  to  nine  objects,  the  sun,  moon, 
spirits  of  emperors  and  kings  of  former  dynasties,  Confucius,  the  ancient 
patrons  of  agriculture  and  silk,  the  gods  of  heaven,  earth,  and  the  cyclic 
year.  The  first  six  of  these  have  separate  temples  at  Peking.  The 
"inferior"  sacrifices  are  offered  to  the  ancient  patron  of  the  healing  art 
and  the  spirits  of  deceased  statesmen,  philanthropists,  etc.,  spirits  of 
natural  phenomena,  and  even  of  flags,  gates,  cannon,  the  North  Pole,  etc. 
Thus  the  State  worship  of  China  is  not  greatly  above  that  of  many  bar- 
barous tribes. 

Nothing  is  more  remarkable,  however,  in  the  Chinese  State  religion,  or 
more  different  from  the  practices  of  uncultivated  tribes,  than  the  complete 
absence  of  a  priesthood,  unless,  however,  the  emperor  may  be  called    The  cere- 
a  priest.     Women  take  no  part  in  most  of  the  ceremonies ;  only     monlal- 
the  worship  of  the  goddess  of  silk  is  performed  by  the  empress  and  her 


i34  THE    WORLD'S  EEL1GI0NS. 


ladies.  The  emperor,  when  lie  worships  Heaven,  wears  appropriate  "blue 
robes  ;  in  worshipping  the  earth,  his  robes  are  yellow,  to  represent  clay  ;  he 
wears  red  in  worshipping  the  sun,  and  white  for  the  moon.  At  the  winter 
solstice  the  emperor  quits  his  palace  the  evening  before  the  great  sacrifice, 
drawn  in  his  state  car  by  an  elephant,  and  attended  by  thousands  of  cour- 
tiers, musicians,  and  learned  men.  He  is  required  first  to  go  to  the  palace 
of  fasting,  and  prepare  for  his  duties  by  solitary  meditation,  during  which 
he  looks  at  a  copper  statue  fifteen  inches  high,. dressed  like  a  Taoist  priest, 
with  tlir  mouth  covered  by  three  fingers,  inculcating  silence,  and  the  other 
hand  bearing  a  tablet,  on  which  is  inscribed,  "Fast  three  days."  When 
the  worship  is  ready  to  commence,  all  the  attendants  being  in  their  appointed 
places,  the  animals  are  killed,  and  the  emperor  begins  the  solemn  rites,  in, 
the  case  of  the  worship  of  Heaven,  at  midnight,  being  directed  at  every 
step  by  the  learned  members  of  the  Board  of  Rites. 

The  animal  sacrifices  offered  by  the  emperor  must  necessarily  consist  of 

animals  in  use  for  human  food  ;  they  include  cows,  sheep,  hares,  deer,  and 

The  animal  pigs-     The  animals  are  slaughtered  on  the  east  side  of  the  altar, 

sacrifices.  ancj  ^\ie  najr  an(j  ki00ci  are  collected  and  buried,  apparently  with 
the  idea  that  the  sacrifice  is  in  this  way  conveyed  to  the  spirits  of  the  earth, 
as  the  smoke  and  flame  of  the  burnt  offerings  convey  them  to  the  spirits  of 
heaven.  The  idea  of  the  sacrifice,  says  Dr.  Edkins,  is  "  that  of  a  banquet ;  and 
when  a  sacrifice  is  performed  to  the  supreme  spirit  of  Heaven,  the  honour 
paid  is  believed  by  the  Chinese  to  be  increased  by  inviting  other  guests. 
The  emperors  of  China  invite  their  ancestors  to  sit  at  the  banquet  with  Shang- 
ti,  the  supreme  ruler.  A  father  is  to  be  honoured  as  heaven,  and  a  mother 
as  earth."  In  no  way  could  more  perfect  reverence  be  shown,  according  to 
the  Chinese  mind,  than  by  placing  a  father's  tablet  on  the  altar  with  that  of 
Shang-ti,  so  the  emperor's  ancestral  tablets  are  always  placed  on  the  altar 
of  sacrifice  with  that  of  Shang-ti.  "  On  the  upper  terrace  of  the  altar,  the 
tablet  of  Shang-ti,  inscribed  Hwang-tien  (Imperial  Heaven)  Shang-ti, 
placed,  facing  south,  immediately  in  front  of  the  kneeling  emperor.  The 
The  tablets  of  tablets  of  the  emperor's  ancestors  are  arranged  in  two  rows,  facing 

ancestors.  east  an(j  west .  offerings  are  placed  before  each  tablet.  "  These 
include  various  sorts  of  millet  and  rice,  boiled;  beef  and  pork  in  slices,  with 
and  without  condiments,  in  soup  ;  salt  and  pickled  fish,  slices  of  hare  and 
deer,  pickled  onions,  bamboo  shoots,  chestnuts,  walnuts,  wheat  and  buck- 
wheat cakes,  all  in  separate  dishes.  Behind  these  are  jade  stones,  and  silk 
offerings  to  be  burnt;  in  front  are  three  cups  of  tseu,  a  kind  of  arrack.  A 
young  heifer  is  also  in  place  before  the  altar,  and  behind  it  are  the  five  imple- 
ments of  Buddhist  worship  (see  later,  on  Chinese  Buddhism),  an  urn,  two 
'•andelabra,  and  two  flower  jars.  Behind  these  are  other. candelabra ;  and 
at  the  south-west  corner  is  a  table  at  which  the  emperor  reads  the  prayer. 
The  elaborate  ceremonies  gone  through  by  the  emperor  cannot  be  fully 
detailed  here.  His  duties  include  lighting  incense  and  placing  it  in  urns, 
kneeling  before  each  of  the  tablets  of  his  ancestors  and  kindling  incense 
sticks,  prostrating  himself  three  times  before  the  chief  tablet,  and  bowing 


THE    CHINESE   MODERN  STATE   RELIGION  135 

or,  in  fact,  knocking  his  head  nine  times  on  the  ground.  If  it  were  not  done 
as  a  solemn  religious  ceremony,  it  would  appear  ludicrous  to  see  how  all 
this  prostration  is  imitated  by  the  emperor's  attendant  worshippers. 

Part  of  the  prayer  at  the  winter  ceremony  is  as  follows  :  "I,  your 
subject,  by  hereditary  succession  Son  of  Heaven,  having  received  from 
above  the  gracious  decree  to  nourish  and  console  the  inhabitants  The  prayer 
of  all  regions,  think  with  sympathy  of  all  men,  earnestly  desirous  t0  Heaven, 
of  their  prosperity.  At  present,  looking  to  the  approach  of  the  day  Sin, 
and  the  spring  ploughing,  which  is  about  to  take  place,  I  earnestly  look 
up,  hoping  for  merciful  protection.  I  bring  my  subjects  and  servants  with 
offerings  of  food  in  abundance,  a  reverential  sacrifice  to  Shang-ti.  Humbly 
I  pray  for  thy  downward  glance,  and  may  rain  be  granted  for  the  produc- 
tion of  all  sorts  of  grain,  and  the  success  of  all  agricultural  labours."  The 
rest  of  the  prayer  recites  the  praises  of  the  deceased  emperor. 

At  various  times  during  this  ceremony,  a  band  of  some  hundreds  of 
musicians  plays  "  the  song  of  peace,"  the  music  now  taking  the  title 
"  universal  "  peace,  "  excellent  "  peace,  "  harmonious,"  and  "  glorious  " 
peace.  Cups  of  wine  are  offered  to  Heaven,  and  afterwards  wine  is  offered 
to  the  emperor,  who  partakes  of  it,  and  again  bows  and  prostrates  himself. 
This  is  followed  by  the  ceremony  of  burning,  when  the  officers  The  ceremony 
burn  the  tablet  on  which  the  prayer  is  written,  the  incense,  the  of  dut1"11^ 
silk  and  the  viands,  in  the  great  furnace,  and  the  offerings  to  the  deceased 
emperors  in  special  large  braziers.  A  whole  astrological  system  is  involved 
in  the  days  and  hours  at  which  the  sacrifices  are  conducted,  into  which  we 
cannot  here  enter  ;  but  astrology,  cyclic  and  mystic  numbers,  palmistry, 
phrenology,  and  indeed  all  mysterious  modes  of  obtaining  knowledge  of 
lucky  days  and  circumstances,  and  of  foretelling  the  future,  are  highly 
regarded  by  the  Chinese,  and  are  introduced  into  everyday  affairs,  about 
the  cut  of  clothes,  the  day  and  mode  of  a  journey,  the  building  of  a  house, 
the  choice  of  a  grave,  etc. 

The  imperial  worship  at  the  altar  of  Earth  at  the  summer  solstice  is 
substantially  similar ;  but  instead  of  the  offerings  being  burnt,  there  is  a 
burying  of  the  prayer  and  of  the  offerings  of  silk  to  the  Earth,  while  the 
silk  offered  to  the  spirits  of  emperors  is  burnt.  The  prayer  to  Earth  is  .as 
follows  :  "  I,  your  subject,  Son  of  Heaven  by  hereditary  succession,  The  prayer 
dare  to  announce  to  How-too,  the  imperial  Spirit  of  Earth,  that  t0  Earth- 
the  time  of  the  summer  solstice  has  arrived,  that  all  living  things  enjoy  the 
blessings  of  sustenance,  and  depend  for  it  upon  your  efficient  aid.  You  are 
placed  with  imperial  Heaven  in  the  sacrifices  which  are  now  presented, 
consisting  of  jade,  silk,  the  chief  animals  used  for  food,  with  various  viands 
abundantly  supplied."  It  is  only  to  the  Spirits  of  Heaven  and  of  Earth  that 
the  emperor  in  prayer  acknowledges  himself  a  subject.  The  whole  idea 
of  the  service  appears  to  be  that  of  a  banquet,  to  which  the  Spirits  are 
invited. 

The  imperial  Temple  of  Ancestors,  or  Great  Temple,  has  three  large 
halls  and  several  smaller  ones.     The  first  hall  is  used  for  the  common  sacri- 


,36  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


fice  to  all  ancestors  at  the  end  of  the  year.  In  the  middle  hall  are  offered 
the  sacrifices  on  the  first  day  of  the  first  month  of  each  season. 
^empSfoi  Here  are  placed  the  most  important  tablets,  those  of  the  de- 
Ancestors.  ceasec|  emperors  and  empresses  of  the  present  dynasty,  of  recent 
venerations.  In  the  third  hall  are  more  tablets  of  ancestors.  The  sacrifices 
are  made  in  these  two  halls  at  the  same  time,  not  only  four  times  a  year, 
but  on  other  great  occasions  or  events.  Other  secondary  halls  contain 
tablets  of  relatives  and  loyal  officers  who  are  appointed  to  be  guests  at 
the  sacrificial  banquets.  In  the  court  on  the  east  is  a  brazier  in  which 
the  prayer  to  ancestors  and  the  silk  offered  to  them  and  the  relatives 
are  burnt;  in  another  brazier  is  burnt  the  silk  offered  to  meritorious 
officers. 

The  food  and  silk  do  not  include  all  the  offerings.  In  accordance  with 
the  instruction  of  Confucius,  that  the  dead  are  to  be  sacrificed  to  as  if  living, 
chests  of  clothing,  with  mats  and  stools,  are  kept  in  the  temple,  and  pre- 
sented with  the  sacrifices.  One  set  of  offerings  is  presented  before  each 
emperor  and  his  wife.  Here  it  is  to  be  noted  that  "  the  emperor  and 
empress  can  have  their  meals  together  when  dead,  though  they  may  not 
when  living ; "  and  reasoning  from  this  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  ex- 
clusion of  women  from  the  social  meal  is  not  so  ancient  as  the  time  when 
the  sacrifices  were  instituted. 

In  this  ceremony,  the  prayer,  instead  of  being  read  by  the  emperor 
himself,  is  read  by  an  officer  upon  his  knees,  in  the  emperor's  name.  After 
announcing  the  emperor's  title  and  descent,  and  his  proper  name,  it  pro- 
Tne  prayer  ceeds  : — "  I  dare  announce  to  my  ancestor,  that  I  have  with  care, 
to  ancestors.  on  fljjg  f^rs^  month  of  spring  (summer,  etc.),  provided  sacrificial 
animals,  silk,  wine,  and  various  dishes,  as  an  expression  of  my  unforgetting 
thoughtfulness,  and  humbly  beg  the  acceptance  of  the  offerings."  Several 
odes  are  sung,  of  which  the  following  is  a  sample.  "  Ah  !  my  imperial 
ancestors  have  been  able  to  become  guests  with  supreme  Heaven.  Their 
meritorious  acts  in  war  and  peace  are  published  in  all  regions.  I,  their  filial 
descendant,  have  received  the  decree  of  Heaven,  and  my  thought  is  to  carry 
out  the  aims  of  those  who  preceded  me,  thus  ensuring  the  gift  of  long  pros- 
perity for  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  years."  The  ceremony  is 
rather  more  elaborate,  if  anything,  than  the  sacrifice  to  Heaven.  The 
emperor  has  to  kneel  sixteen  times,  and  to  knock  his  forehead  thirty-six 
times  against  the  ground,  thus  showing  the  immense  importance  assigned 
to  piety  towards  anc<  stors. 

Another  important  part  of  the  imperial  worship  consists  of  the  sacrifices 

to  the  gods  of  the  land  and  grain.     The  altar  to  the  spirit  of  the  land  has 

sacrifices  to  two  terraces,  the  upper  of  which  is  covered  with  earth  of  five 

orttofiand  different  colours.     There  are  tablets  to  the  spirit  or  god  of  the 

and  grain.    l;UKlj  an(]  a]so  one  to  t|ie  ^ft  Qv  god  0f  gram  .   tw0  ot}ier  tablets 

occupy  positions  as  guests,  and  represent  founders  or  chief  promoters  of 
Chinese  agriculture.  This  worship  takes  place  in  the  middle  months  of 
spring  and  autumn,  as  well  as  on  other  impoitant  occasions,  when  it  is 


THE    CHINESE    MODERN  STATE    RELIGION. 


i37 


necessary  to  make  announcements  to  these  spirits.     The  sacrifices  are  essen- 
tially of  the  same  character  as  those  previously  described. 

The  whole  system  of  Chinese  thought  is  so  different  from  our  own,  thai 
it  is  difficult  to  realise  that  in  these  ceremonies  the  emperor  discharges  the 
highest  religious  functions  for  almost  four  hundred  millions  of  people,  tli.it 


he  represents  them  more  fully  (in  idea)  than  the  Pope  of  Rome  represents 
the  members  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  that  he  accuses  himself  of  any 
fault  which  may  have  brought  widespread  calamities  on  the  people,  and  that 
to  the  Chinese  mind  he  stands  as  God  on  earth.  Nor  is  it  more  easy  to 
realise,  that  in  close  connection  with  every  examination-hall  in  the  empire 


I3S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


is  a  temple  to  Confucius,  together  with  a  temple  containing  tablets  to 
Temples  to  the  national  sages,  both  being  arranged  in  a  manner  similar  to 
Confucius.  tiKlI  0f  the  temples  to  deceased  ancestors.  It  is  very  rare  to  find 
any  image  of  Confucius  ;  but  worship  is  paid  before  the  tablet,  which  is 
called,  "  the  place  of  the  soul."  There  are  no  prayers,  however,  to  Confucius, 
fclie  worshipper  simply  prostrating  himself  to  express  his  reverential  respect. 
On  either  side  of  his  tablet  down  the  hall  are  the  tablets  of  seventy-two  of 
his  most  distinguished  followers,  the  tablets  containing  as  usual  their  names 
and  titles.  On  the  entrance  gates  are  inscriptions,  such  as  the  following: 
"  The  teacher  and  example  for  ten  thousand  generations ; "  "  Equal  with 
heaven  and  earth."  Sacrifices  are  offered  to  the  sage  at  the  spring  and 
autumn  equinoxes,  when  oxen  and  sheep  and  other  animals  are  killed  and 
skinned,  the  bodies  being  then  placed  on  tables  in  front  of  his  tablet.  This 
offering  takes  place  at  8  a.m.,  in  the  presence  of  the  mandarins,  and  after- 
wards the  flesh  is  divided  among  the  literate  class  in  the  chYy,  and  eaten 
by  them.  It  is  scarcely  correct  to  say  that  Confucius  is  worshipped  as  a 
god ;  but  the  reverence  paid  to  him  differs  little  from  any  other  religious 
ceremonial  among  the  Chinese,  although  prayers  are  not  offered  to  him. 
Children  are  taught  to  bow  to  Confucius  when  they  enter  school,  and  they 
do  the  same  when  they,  in  riper  years,  enter  the  examination-hall.  Thus 
is  justified  the  title  of  "  the  throneless  king,"  which  the  Chinese  commonly 
give  to  Confucius. 

The  most  important  temple  of  Confucius  is  that  adjoining  his  tomb, 
Kiu-fu-hien,  his  native  place,  which  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  his  descendants. 
The  principal  building  is  of  two  stories,  the  upper  verandah  rest- 
Ws  native  ing  on  gorgeous  marble  pillars  twenty-two  feet  high,  which  at  a 
distance  appear  as  if  huge  dragons  were  coiled  around  them ;  but 
they  are  all  cut  out  of  one  solid  piece  of  marble.  The  tiles  of  the  roof  are 
of  yellow  porcelain.  Within  is  a  statue  of  Confucius  eighteen  feet  high,  in 
a  shrine  with  gorgeous  curtains.  He  is  represented  as  tall,  strong,  and 
well-built,  with  a  full  red  face,  and  large  heavy  head.  His  attitude  is 
serious  and  contemplative,  with  eyes  gazing  upwards.  On  the  tablet  is  the 
inscription,  "  The  most  holy  prescient  sage  Confucius — his  spirit's  resting- 
place."  The  roof  is  crowded  with  tablets  in  honour  of  the  sage,  lauding 
him  in  most  extravagant  terms.  There  are  separate,  smaller  and  plainer 
t'ln pies  in  honour  of  his  father  and  mother,  his  wife,  his. ancestors,  etc.  In 
one  temple  are  three  pictures  of  Confucius  on  marble,  and  a  series  of  en- 
gravings on  marble,  illustrating  all  the  principal  scenes  in  his  life,  with 
verbal  explanations  at  the  side.  These  number  altogether  120  slabs,  built 
int..  the  wall,  and  are  extremely  interesting  from  their  representations  of 
ancient  dress,  furniture,  carriages,  etc. 

There  is  a  less  elaborate  temple  to  Confucius  at  Peking,  having  no 
statues,  but  containing  in  the  court  six  monuments  with  yellow-tiled  roofs, 
Temple  at  recording  foreign  conquests  of  various  emperors  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, which  were  thus  announced  to  the  spirit  of  Confucius.  The 
tempi*'  includes  a  great  hall,  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  and  contains 


THE   CHINESE   MODERN  STATE   RELIGION 


i39 


tablets  to  the  sage  and  his  principal  disciples.  The  roof  has  many  tablets 
to  the  praise  of  Confucius;  every  fresh  emperor  adds  one.  Around  thia 
temple  are  other  buildings  in  which  are  placed  tablets  of  many  celebrated 
followers  of  Confucius. 

The  emperor  goes  in  state  twice  a  year  to  this  temple,  and  honours 
the   sage   by  the  following  invocation,  after  having  twice  knelt  and  six 


CHINESE    AGRICULTURAL    CEBEMONY. 


times  bowed  his  head  to  the  ground  :  "  Great  art  thou,  0  perfect  Sage ! 
Thy  virtue  is  full ;  thy  doctrine  is  complete.  Among  mortal  men  invocation  to 
there  has  not  been  thine  equal.  All  kings  honour  thee.  Thy  Confucius, 
statues  and  laws  have  come  gloriously  down.  Thou  art  the  pattern  of  this 
imperial  school.  Reverently  have  the  sacrificial  vessels  been  set  out.  Full 
of  awe  we  sound  our  drums  and  bells."  This  is  followed  by  the  presentation 
of  the  appropriate  offerings  of  food,  wines,  and  silk  ;  a  mandarin  then  reads 


i4o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


this  prayer:  "On  this  .  .  .  month  of  this  .  .  .  year,  I,  the  emperor, 
offer  a  sacrifice  to  the  philosopher  Kung,  the  ancient  teacher,  the  perfect 
sage,  and  say,  0  teacher,  in  virtue  equal  to  Heaven  and  Earth,  whose 
doctrines  embrace  the  past  times  and  the  present,  thou  didst  digest  and 
transmit  the  six  classics,  and  didst  hand  down  lessons  for  all  generations! 
now  iii  this  second  month  of  spring  (or  autumn),  in  reverent  observance 
of  the  old  statutes,  with  victims,  silks,  spirits,  and  fruits,  I  carefully  offer 
sacrifice  to  thee.  With  thee  are  associated  the  philosopher  Yen,  continuator 
of  thee ;  the  philosopher  Tsang,  exhibitor  of  thy  fundamental  principles ; 
the  philosopher  Tsze-tsze,  transmitter  of  thee  ;  and  the  philosopher  Mang 
Mencius),  second  to  thee.     Mayest  thou  enjoy  the  offerings  !  "  (Legge.) 

Adjoining  the  temple  of  Confucius  is  the  Great  Hall  of  the  Classics, 
built  by  the  emperor  Kien-lung,  a  lofty  building  with  long  cloisters, 
Great  Han  of  containing  the  complete  text  of  the  classics,  engraved  on  about  200 
the  classics.  ]arge  st0nes.  The  hall  is  a  very  elaborate  structure,  in  which 
the  emperor  enthrones  himself  once  in  his  reign,  at  a  solemn  assembly  of  all 
the  scholars  of  the  capital,  and  listens  to  the  reading  of  a  classical  essay, 
nominally  composed  by  himself. 

Here  we  may  quote  the  sixteen  maxims  of  the  emperor  Kang-hi,  about 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  which  sum  up  the  principles  of  Con- 
nie sixteen  fucianism  as  px'omulgated  among  the  common  people.  These 
maxims.  are  ,  ^  Esteem  most  highly  filial  piety  and  brotherly  submission, 
in  order  to  give  due  prominence  to  the  social  relations.  2.  Behave  with 
generosity  to  the  branches  of  your  kindred,  in  order  to  illustrate  harmony 
and  benignity.  3.  Cultivate  peace  and  concord  in  your  neighbourhoods, 
in  order  to  prevent  quarrels  and  litigations.  4.  Recognise  the  importance 
of  husbandry  and  the  culture  of  the  mulberry-tree,  in  order  to  ensure  a 
sufficiency  of  clothing  and  food.  5.  Show  that  you  prize  moderation  and 
economy,  in  order  to  prevent  the  lavish  waste  of  your  means.  6.  Make 
much  of  the  colleges  and  seminaries,  in  order  to  make  correct  the  practice 
of  the  scholars.  7.  Discountenance  and  banish  strange  doctrines,  in  order 
to  exalt  the  correct  doctrine.  8.  Describe  and  explain  the  laws,  in  order 
to  warn  the  ignorant  and  obstinate.  9.  Exhibit  clearly  propriety  and 
yielding  courtesy,  in  order  to  make  manners  and  customs  good.  10.  Labour 
diligently  at  your  proper  callings,  in  order  to  give  settlement  to  the  aims  of 
the  people.  11.  Instruct  sons  and  younger  brothers,  in  order  to  prevent 
them  from  doing  what  is  wrong.  12.  Put  a  stop  to  false  accusations,  in 
order  to  protect  the  honest  and  the  good.  13.  Warn  against  sheltering 
deserters,  in  order  to  avoid  being  involved  in  their  punishments.  14. 
Promptly  and  fully  pay  your  taxes,  in  order  to  avoid  the  urgent  requisition 
of  your  quota.  15.  Continue  in  hundreds  and  tithings,  in  order  to  put  an 
end  to  thefts  and  robbery.  16.  Study  to  remove  resentments  and  angry 
feelings,  in  order  to  show  the  importance  due  to  person  and  life." 

The  ancestral  tablets  vary  in  form  and  make  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  In  that  we  figure  (p.  141),  as  used  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Fu- 
chow,  it  is  made  of  three  blocks  of  wood,  one  forming  the  pedestal,  the 


THE    CHINESE   MODERN  STATE   RELIGION 


141 


second  the  back  and  upper  part,  and  the  third  the  front.  In  the  centre  of 
the  latter  we  see  in  Chinese  characters  the  name  of  the  reigning  dynasty, 
the  title,  ancestral,  and  given  name  of  the  person  commemorated  by  the 
tablet.  The  name  of  the  son  or  other  person  who  has  erected  it  is  added  in 
smaller  characters  on  the  left.  If  the  tablet  is  erected  by  a  son  in  memory 
of  his  mother,  the  ancestral  name 
of  her  father  as  well  as  that  of 
her  husband  is  put  on  the  tablet. 
On  the  front  of  the  pedestal  is 
seen  the  image  of  some  fabulous 
animal,  said  to  appear  only  when 
sages  live ;  while  the  upper  part 
of  the  tablet  has  the  head  of  the 
Chinese  dragon.  The  whole  tablet 
varies  from  nine  to  eighteen 
inches  in  height,  and  from  two  to 
four  inches  in  width  ;  and  the  en- 
graved and  lettered  portions  are 
usually  covered  with  gold  leaf. 
The  tablets  for  the  father  and 
mother  are  alike,  the  chief  differ- 
ence being  in  the  inscription. 
As  long  as  a  family  lives  together, 
they  worship  the  tablet  erected  by 
the  eldest  son ;  when  it  breaks 
up,  each  of  the  younger  sons  may 
erect  a  different  tablet,  com- 
memorating all  the  ancestors  of 
the  family ;  then,  when  each 
younger  son  dies,  his  eldest  son 
may  erect  tablets  of  the  other 
kind  to  his  father  and  mother 
and  so  the  series  goes  on.  After 
the  third  or  fifth  generations  they 
usually  cease  to  be  worshipped. 

As  another  side  of  Chinese 
religious  superstition,  we  will  de- 
scribe the  chief  of  the  _ 

.        The  sacred 

five    sacred    mountains  mountain  of 

in  China,    Tai-shan,    in 

the  interior  of  Shan-tung.     It  is 

termed    on    a    map,    "  equal    to 

heaven  in   merit,  and  lord  of  this  world."      It  is    believed    to    determine 

births,  deaths,   misfortune  and  happiness,  honour  and  dishonour.     It   has 

many  peaks,  and  is  said  to  be,  of  all  places  under  heaven,   the  most  worthy 

of  being  visited.     At  the  top  of  the  hill  the  principal  temple  contains  an 


ANCESTKAL    TADIiET    OF    ONE    l'EKhO.N. 


I42  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


image  of  the  "  Old  Mother,"  who  is  held  in  great  veneration,  being  especially 
prayed  to  by  sick  and  unfortunate  persons,  childless  women,  etc.  The  main 
building  is  closed  all  the  year  round,  with  merely  a  hole  in  the  door,  through 
which  pilgrims  cast  money  and  other  offerings.  Once  a  year  a  great  pro- 
cession marches  to  this  temple,  and  some  official  appointed  by  the  emperor 
opens  the  1  mill  ling  and  takes  all  the  contents.  Near  this  is  a  temple  to  the 
god  of  the  Tai-shan  mountains,  who  is  termed  equal  to  the  Almighty  God. 
Aimt her  temple  on  the  highest  peak  is  sacred  to  the  Taoist  deity  who  is 
active  governor  of  all,  under  their  Trinity.  Other  temples  are  erected  to 
Confucius,  the  god  of  spring,  heaven  and  earth,  and  many  others  belong- 
ing to  the  Taoist  system.  One  is  to  the  star  Wun-chang,  the  patron  of 
literature,  another  to  Kwan-ti,  the  god  of  war,  another  to  the  spirits  of 
women  who  commit  suicide  after  the  death  of  their  husbands.  The  spirits 
or  gods  of  fire,  of  riches,  of  agriculture,  of  roads,  of  land,  and  grain  are  all 
honoured  with  temples.  Mr.  Williamson  says  of  the  entire  sacred  city, 
"  A  plan  of  the  hill  and  city  gives  a  very  poor  idea  of  the  beauty  of  the 
place.  If  the  reader,  however,  causes  his  imagination  to  fill  the  city  with 
streets  and  shops ;  the  causeway  up  the  hill  to  the  top  with  rows  of  beauti- 
ful trees  on  each  side  ;  the  hills  with  trees,  brushwood,  verdure,  and  rocks 
piled  rugged  and  threatening,  with  waterfalls  here  and  there ;  temples  of 
gaudy  colours,  and  strings  of  pilgrims,  old  and  young,  men  and  women, 
marching  up  in  Indian  file,  with  richer  men  among  them,  in  mountain 
chairs  ;  small  companies  sipping  tea  at  the  several  arches,  beggars  lying  on 
the  road  like  bundles  of  living  rags,  or  animated  sores,  with  beggar  chil- 
dren following  each  companjr  of  pilgrims,  he  will  have  some  idea  of  the 
bewildering  variety  of  the  scene." 

Notwithstanding  the  immense  amount  and  intensity  of  superstition  and 
blind  conservatism  in  China,  there  are  some  signs  of  progress  even  within 
signs  of  the  Confucian  ranks.  Before  the  rule  of  the  present  dynasty, 
progress,  there  was  in  vogue  a  strong  spirit  of  denial  of  the  personality  of 
Shang-ti,  the  supreme  ruler,  who  was  asserted  to  be  nothing  but  a  "prin- 
ciple "  underlying  all  existence.  It  was  a  vague  panthesim.  Nowadays 
there  is  a  distinct  return  to  belief  in  a  personal  ruler,  and  it  is  asked,  "  Can 
a  principle  become  angry?  Can  a  principle  be  said  to  approve  the  actions 
of  men,  and  be  pleased  with  the  offerings  of  men?  Yet  these  acts  are 
ascribed  to  Shang-ti  in  the  classical  books.  Shang-ti,  therefore,  cannot  be 
a  principle,  but  must  be  a  personal  being."  Many  educated  Chinese  claim, 
in  answer  to  Christian  missionaries,  that  they  too  worship  God,  who  is 
present   in  all  nature,  and  that  all  their  study  of  science  is  honouring  God." 

AV hat  has  been  the  result  on  the  Chinese  of  the  Confucian  morality  ? 

asks  I>r.  Edkins.     He  replies,  that  "  It  has  not  made  them  a  moral  people. 

Chinese     Many  of  the  social  virtues  are  extensively  practised  among  them ; 

but   they   exhibit  to  the  observer  a   lamentable  want  of  moral 

gth.  Commercial  integrity  and  speaking  the  truth  are  far  less  common 
among  them  than  in  Christian  countries."  It  is  but  fair  to  add  that  other 
competent  observers  credit  the  Chinese  with  quite  as  much  commercial 


THE    CHINESE  MODERN  STATE  RELIGION  143 

integrity  as  Europeans,  if  not  more.  As  to  a  future  life,  it  is  scarcely 
within  the  scope  of  Confucianism,  though  this  encourages  so  much  Ideas  of 
reverence  and  prayer  to  ancestral  spirits.  Confucius,  as  we  have  a  future  life- 
seen,  did  not  care  to  discuss  supernatural  appearances  or  spirits  ;  and  it  is 
difficult  to  say  that  Confucius  believed  anything  definite  on  the  subject; 
the  beliefs  of  Taoists  or  Buddhists  are  far  more  extensive  and  definite. 
No  doubt  the  continued  existence  of  the  souls  of  the  departed  is  believed, 
but  their  happiness  is  mainly  dependent  upon  the  honour  paid  to  them  by 
the  living.  Dr.  Edkins  says,  that  according  to  the  strict  Confucian  doctrine, 
there  is  no  heaven  in  the  Western  sense.  "  The  soul,  if  it  does  not  return 
to  its  elements  and  become  for  ever  dissipated,  exists  in  a  widowed  and 
lonely  state,  hopeless  and  helpless.  The  time  of  its  enjoyment  as  a  con- 
scious individual  agent  has  passed.  It  is  only  during  the  period  of  union 
with  the  body  that  it  can  be  called  happy,  except  in  receiving  the  approval 
and  reverence  of  posterity." 

People  who  have  not  visited  and  studied  China  have  little  conception 
of  the  strength  of  the  obstacles  to  religious  change  there.  In  fact,  the 
whole  power  of  the  State  is  combined  with  religion  to  maintain 

*  Obstacles 

the  divine  authority  and  representative  character  of  the  emperor,  to  religious 
This  has  been  impressed  on  Chinese  minds  for  thousands  of  years,  chan&e- 
and  is  about  as  deep-seated  in  them  as  the  feeling  "  I  must  eat "  is  in  the 
body.  Ignorance  and  contempt  of  foreign  ideas,  deep-seated  as  those  of  the 
Chinese,  can  be  overcome  sooner  than  this  prejudice  and  prepossession  in 
favour  of  their  emperor,  which  in  its  turn  supports  the  sacrifices  and  beliefs 
of  the  State  religion.  It  might  be  imagined  that  filial  reverence  and  an- 
cestor worship,  a  "respect  for  the  dead  indicative  of  noble  feelings,"  were 
favourable  to  enlightenment ;  but  it  is  a  most  powerful  support  to  early 
betrothals  and  polygamy,  for  the  Chinaman  cannot  bear  the  possibility  of 
having  no  descendants  to  provide  the  sacrifices  for  him  in  his  turn.  The 
power  which  this  regard  for  ancestors  and  for  every  ancient  custom  exer- 
cises is  enormous  in  preventing  change.  Though  change  does  come,  as 
seen  in  the  progress  of  Buddhism  and  Mohammedanism,  such  tendency  to 
change  as  there  is  by  no  means  favours  the  adoption  of  European  ideas. 

[J.  Edkins,  "  Religion  in  China  "  ;  S.  Wells  Williams,  "  The  Middle  Kingdom  "  ;  A.  Williamson, 
1,1  Journeys  in  North  China."] 


II.    TAOISM 


CHAPTER   IV. 
2La£ut*r, 

Life  of  Lao-tze  -Antagonism  to  Confucius  —Interviews  with  Confucius— Lao-tze's  dislike  of  profes- 
sions—The Tao-te-king  —  The  mystery  of  existence— The  relativity  of  things — The  sublime  Tao 
or  Way— What  may  be  done— Characters  of  Tao— The  conduct  of  the  good  man— Self-deprecia- 
tion, humility,  reality,  frugality— Imaginary  interpretations— Originality  of  Lao-tze. 

CONFUCIUS  sought  to  rectify  evils  by  rectifying  names  ;  but  there  was 
already  a  living  philosopher,  whom  he  visited,  who  had  elaborated  a 
very  different  mode  of  mending  the  world.  Lao-tze  ("  the  Venerable 
Life  of  Philosopher  "),  the  accredited  founder  of  Taoism,  is  most  authen- 
Lao-tze.  tically  known  to  us  by  the  narratives  of  the  Confucian  school, 
probably  compiled  in  the  third  century  a.d.  from  old  records,  and  from  the 
brief  history  of  Lao-tze  in  the  historical  records  of  Sze-ma  Chien  dating 
from  about  B.C.  100.  We  need  not  relate  the  mythical  accounts  given  of 
hi  in.  which  are  full  of  marvels;  but  he  appears  to  have  been  born  in  the 
State  of  I  hu,  in  the  present  province  of  Ho-nan,  about  604  B.C.  He  became 
one  of  the  royal  recorders  at  the  court  of  Chow,  having  charge  of  the  royal 
library.  Thus  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  his  having  had  great  historical 
knowledge.      At  least  one  interview  took   place   between   Confucius  and 


LAO-TZE.  145 

Lao-tze,  to  which  we  have  already  referred.     Chien's  brief  account  says : 

"  Lao-tze  cultivated  the  Tao  and  virtue,  his  chief  aim  in  his  studies  being 

how  to  keep  himself  concealed  and  unknown.     He  resided  at  the  capital  of 

Chow ;  but  after  a  long  time,  seeing  the  decay  of  the  dynasty,  he  left  it, 

and  went  away  to  the  gate  leading  from  the  royal  domain  into  the  regions 

beyond.     Yin  Hsi,  the  warden  of  the  gate,  said  to  him  :  '  You  are  about  to 

withdraw  yourself  out  of  sight ;  I  pray  you  to  compose  for  me  a  book  before 

you  go.'     On  this  Lao-tze  made  a  writing,  setting  forth  his  views  on  the 

Tao  and  virtue,  in  two  sections,  containing  more  than  5000  characters. 

He  then  went  away,  and  it  is  not  known  where  he  died."     Chien  further 

relates  that  Lao-tze  was  a  superior  man,  who  liked  to  keep  in  obscurity 

and  concludes  his  narrative  with  the  following  statement : — "  Those  who 

attach  themselves  to  the  doctrine  of  Lao-tze  con  lemn  that  of  the  Antagonism 

literati  (the  followers  of  Confucius),  and  the  literati  on  their  part t0  Confucius. 

condemn  Lao-tze ;  thus  verifying  the  saying,  '  Parties  whose  principles  are 

different  cannot  take  counsel  together.'    Lao-tze  taught  that  transformation 

follows,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the  doing  nothing  to  bring  it  about,  and 

rectification  ensues  in  the  same  way  from  being  pure  and  still." 

The  most  interesting  records  about  Lao-tze,  apart  from  his  book,  are 

those  connected  with  Confucius.     It  is  difficult  to  come  to  a  conclusion  as  to 

their  authenticity,  but  they  at  any  rate  preserve  for  us  very  early  ,  t 

J  '  .  J  ...  Interviews 

beliefs  as  to  the  antagonism  between  their  principles  and  modes       with 

of  thought.  Even  the  flow  of  language  of  Confucius  was  distasteful 
to  Lao-tze,  who  told  him  in  plain  terms:  "If  it  be  known  that  he  who 
talks  errs  by  excess  in  arguing,  and  that  he  who  hears  is  confused  by  too 
much  talk,  the  Way  can  never  be  forgotten."  According  to  this  expression, 
the  Way  consists  neither  in  excess  of  arguing  nor  in  too  much  talk.  Con- 
fucius was  very  unsuccessful  in  interesting  Lao-tze  in  his  views  about  the 
ancients  ;  the  Old  Philosopher  retorted  upon  his  junior  in  this  wise  :  "  The 
men  of  whom  you  speak  are  dead,  and  their  bones  are  mouldered  into  dust ; 
only  their  words  remain.  Moreover,  when  the  superior  man  gets  his  oppor- 
tunity, he  mounts  aloft  and  takes  office ;  and  if  he  do?s  not  get  his 
opportunity,  he  goes  through  life  like  a  wisp  of  straw  rolling  over  sand. 
I  have  heard  that  a  good  merchant,  who  has  his  treasure-house  well  stored, 
appears  devoid  of  resources,  and  that  the  superior  man  of  perfect  excellence 
has  an  outward  semblance  of  stupidity.  Put  away,  sir,  your  haughty  airs' 
and  many  desires,  your  insinuating  habit  and  extravagant  will ;  these  are 
all  unprofitable  to  you.  This  is  all  I  have  to  say  to  you."  It  is  evident,  if 
this  be  authentic,  that  there  was  little  sympathy  between  the  two.  Lao-tze 
disliked  Confucius  as  a  formal  and  conventional  teacher,  extravagantly 
conservative ;  the  latter  regarded  Lao-tze  as  a  dragon  soaring  into  the 
clouds,  far  beyond  his  practical  mind.  When  Lao-tze  beheld  Confucius 
studying  the  Book  of  Changes,  which,  according  to  him,  treated  of  humanity 
and  justice,  he  replied  :  "  The  justice  and  humanity  of  the  day  are  no  more 
than  empty  names ;  they  only  serve  as  a  mask  to  cruelty,  and  trouble  the 
hearts  of  men ;  disorder  was  never  more  rife  than  at  present.     The  pigeon 

L 


I46  7 HE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


does  not  bathe  all  day  to  make  itself  white  ;  nor  does  the  crow  paint  itself 
each  morning  to  make  itself  black.  ...  So,  sir,  if  you  cultivate  the 
Way.  if  yon  throw  yourself  towards  it  with  all  your  soul,  you  will  arrive 
at  it.  To  what  good  is  humanity  and  justice  ?  .  .  .  Master,  you  only 
trouble  man's  nature." 

Here  we  see  again  how  fundamentally  Lao-tze  is  contrasted  with  Con- 
fucius. He  despised  the  latter's  rectification  of  names— practising  humanity 
ami  calling  it  humanity,  practising  reverence  towards  parents 
dislike  of  and  calling  it  filial  piety,  etc.  To  profess  a  thing,  in  Lao-tze's 
professions.  m^n^  was  ^0  iack  ft  The  generous  man  needs  not  to  profess 
generosity,  nor  the  loyal  man  loyalty.  If  these  virtues  really  exist,  they 
need  not  be  named  or  professed ;  the  profession  of  them  signifies  their 
absence.  Try  as  he  would,  Confucius  could  not  fathom  the  Way  which 
Lao-tze  desired  to  set  before  him  ;  but  it  was  evidently  a  mystery  not  easy 
for  him  to  understand.  "  If,"  said  Lao-tze,  "  the  Way  could  be  offered  to 
men,  there  is  no  one  who  would  not  wish  to  present  it  to  his  parents ;  if  it 
could  be  transmitted  to  men,  there  is  no  one  who  would  not  wish  to  transmit 
it  to  his  children.  Why  then  are  you  not  able  to  acquire  it  ?  This  is  the 
reason ;  you  are  incapable  of  giving  it  an  asylum  at  the  bottom  of  your 
heart."  Confucius  brought  forward  his  literary  labours  and  compositions, 
but  Lao-tze  objected :  "  That  with  which  you  occupy  yourself  results  only 
in  obsolete  examples,  and  all  you  do  is  to  walk  in  the  footprints  of  the  past, 
without  producing  anything  new."  We  do  not  gather  a  very  pleasant  view 
of  Lao-tze's  amiability  from  these  narratives ;  they  may  perhaps  be  more 
readily  accounted  for  when  we  consider  that  Confucius  was  fifty  years 
younger  than  the  Old  Philosopher,  who  was  not  disinclined  to  use  the 
privileges  always  accorded  to  age  in  China. 

Lao-tze's  single  book,  the  Tao-te-king,  is  brief  and  exceedingly  con- 
densed, containing  a  few  more  than  five  thousand  characters.  It  begins 
thus  :— 

The  "The  Way  (Tao)  that  can  be  spoken  is  not  the  Eternal  Way. 

Tao-te-king.        rnic  Name  that  can  be  named  is  not  the  Eternal  Name. 
Nameless,  the  Way  is  the  Source  of  Heaven  and  Earth; 
Named,  it  is  the  Mother  of  all  beings. 

He  that  is  free  from  selfish  desires  shall  behold  it  in  the  spirit; 
He  that  is  possessed  by  passions,  in  the  outward  form  alone, 
And  those  two  are  one  in  substance,  though  differing  in  name ; 
Depth,  and  the  depth  of  depths,  the  entrance  to  all  spiritual  life." 

Thus  did  Lao-tze  seek  to  penetrate  the  mystery  of  creation  and  exist- 
ence ;  with  one  straight  flight  reaching  as  far  as  man  can  know, — if  indeed 
•me  mystery  any  such  speculation  can  be  termed  knowledge, — and  realising' 
of  existence,  the  difference  between  those  who  penetrate  behind  the  veil  of 
physical  nature,  and  those  who  are  dominated  by  physical  nature.  By 
these  few  sentences  Lao-tze  shows  himself  to  be  indeed  a  master  philosopher, 
though  struggling  to  express  a  conception  which  he  could  hardly  define. 
and  which  by  the  nature  of  the  case  transcended  his  powers;   struggling, 


LAO-TZE.  147 

moreover,  to  speak  in  a  language  which  possessed  little  pliancy  for  such  a 
purpose. 

Lao-tze  realised  the  relativity  of  things ;  that  good  implied  its  contrast, 
evil ;  beauty,  ugliness.     The  sage,  he  said,  would  confine  himself  to  what  is 
without  effort,  acting  without  presuming  on  the  result,  completing        The 
his  work,  but  assuming  no  position  for  himself.     A  singular  view  relativity  of 
of  his  is,  that  not  exalting  worth  keeps  people  from  rivalry,  as  ngs" 

not  prizing  things  hard  to  procure  keeps  them  from  theft.  His  plan  of 
government  consists  in  keeping  the  people  from  the  knowledge  and  desire 
of  evil,  and  in  makirg  those  that  have  the  knowledge  not  dare  to  act. 

The  sublime  Way,  or  Tao,  which  the  philosopher  imagines,  even  appears 
to  him  to  have  been  before  Shang-ti  (the  Supreme  Being).  Heaven  and 
earth  last  long,  he  says,  though  not  aiming  at  life ;  so  the  sage  -n^  sublime 
puts  himself  last  and  yet  is  first,  abandons  himself  and  yet  is  Tao,  or  way. 
preserved.  Is  not  this,  he  asks,  through  his  having  no  selfishness  ?  Pur- 
suing this  idea  of  self-abnegation,  Lao-tze  says :  "  When  a  work  of  merit 
is  done  and  reputation  is  coming,  to  get  out  of  the  way  is  the  Way  of 
Heaven." 

In  Section  Ten,  "  What  may  be  done,"  the  old  philosopher  rises  to  an 
elevation  immeasurably  beyond  Confucius.  "  By  undivided  attention  to  the 
passion-nature,  and  increasing  tenderness,  it  is  possible  to  be  a  what  may 
little  child.  By  putting  away  impurity  from  the  hidden  eye  of  be  done- 
the  heart,  it  is  possible  to  be  without  spot.  By  loving  the  people,  and  so 
governing  the  nation,  it  is  possible  to  be  unknown.  One  may  be  bright 
and  transparent  on  all  sides,  and  yet  be  unknown.  To  produce  and  to 
nourish,  to  produce  and  to  have  not,  to  act  and  expect  not,  to  enlarge  and 
cut  not  off — this  is  called  sublime  virtue."  (C.) 

Again,  he  says  that  virtue  in  its  grandest  aspect  is  simply  following 
the  Way  (Tao),  which  indeed  is  a  thing  impalpable,  yet  containing  forms 
and  ideas ;  it  is  immaterial,  unchangeable,  all-pervading,  giving  characters 
life  to  all,  supporfcing^allpand~lording  it  over  none.  It  is  ever  of  Tao- 
inactive,  yet  leaves  nothing  undone.  Without  striving,  it  conquers  ;  with- 
out speaking,  it  answers ;  without  calling,  men  come  to  it  of  themselves. 
The  net  of  heaven  has  very  wide  meshes,  yet  misses  nothing. 

The  word  Tao,  however,  signifies  more  than  the  Way.  As  Professor 
Douglas  puts  it,  it  is  the  Way  and  the  way-goer ;  it  is  an  eternal  road 
along  which  all  beings  and  things  walk.  No  Being  made  it,  for  it  is  Being 
itself ;  it  is  everything  and  nothing,  and  the  cause  and  effect  of  all.  All 
things  originate  from  it,  conform  to  it,  and  at  last  return  to  it.  Thus  Tao 
stands  for  the  Absolute  Deity,  and  all  the  phenomena  produced  by  Him, 
and  also  for  the  good  man's  nature  and  principles. 

The  conduct  of  the  good  man  constitutes  the  subject  of  many  sections 
of  the  Tao-te-king ;  and  the  remainder  of  it  consists  of  Lao-tze's  ^  conduct 
political  system.     Nothing  is  more  prominent  than  his  opposition      |*  tjj^ 
to  self-display.     "  He  who  is  self-displaying  does  not  shine.     He 
who  is  self-approving  is   not  held  ij>  esteem.     He  who  is  self-promising 


I43  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


has  no  merit.     He  who  is  self-exalting  does  not  stand  high."     In  fact,  it  is 

Self.  not  possible  to  go  beyond  Lao-tze  in  self-depreciation.  In  one 
depreciation.  place  he  S;i ys  :  "  In  mind  how  like  I  am  to  the  fool.  I  am  all  in 
a  maze.  The  common  people  are  brightly  intelligent;  I  alone  seem  to  be 
in  thf  dark.  I  am  tossed  as  the  ocean  ;  I  roll  as  if  never  to  stop.  All  other 
men  have  something  that  they  can  do ;  I  alone  am  good  for  nothing,  and 
despicable.  I  alone  differ  from  other  people,  but  I  glory  in  my  nursing 
mother  (Tao)."  Again  he  says,  that  any  one  wishing  to  reform  the  world 
will  never  have  done.  The  spiritual  vessels  of  the  world  must  not  be  made. 
He  that  makes  mars.  He  that  grasps  loses.  While  one  goes  ahead,  an- 
other will  lag  behind.  While  one  blows  hot,  another  will  blow  cold. 
Therefore  the  wise  man  simply  puts  away  all  excess  and  gaiety  and 
grandeur.  .  .  .  He  who  conquers  others  is  strong.  He  who  conquers 
himself  is  mighty.  He  who  knows  when  he  has  enough  is  rich.  He  who 
dies,  but  perishes  not,  enjoys  longevity." 

Again,  he  says  :  "  True  goodness  and  humanity  are  good,  because  they 

make  no  account  of  mere  doing.     The  great  man  abides  by  the  solid,  and 

Humility    never  rests  in  what  is  flimsy."     Three  things  he  held  precious, 

reality,     compassion,  frugality,  and  humility.    The  good  should  be  treated 

with  goodness,  and  also  the  not-good.     Virtue  is  good,  absolutely. 

The  faithful  should  be  met  with  faith,  and  also  the  not-faithful.     Virtue  is 

faithful,  absolutely.     The  sage  thinks  of  all  the  people  as  his  children.     He 

takes  care  of  his  own  part  of  the  contract,  and  exacts  nothing  of  others. 

He  who  knows  his  true  life  shall  fear  no  wild  beast,  nor  needs  he  armour  in 

the  armed  host.     He  has  no  mortal  part.     The  saint  hoards  not ;  the  more 

he  does  for  others,  the  more  he  has  of  his  own.    The  more  he  gives  to  others, 

the  more  he  is  increased.     "  This  is  the  Way  of  Heaven,  which  benefits  and 

does  not  injure.    This  is  the  Way  of  the  sage,  who  acts  but  does  not  strive." 

So  ends  this  small  but  remarkable  book. 

We  cannot  go  into  the  political  teachings  of  Lao-tze,  which  are  based 
upon  his  moral  system.  The  government  should  be  conducted  by  the  best 
people,  who  should  rule  through  humility  and  service,  repressing  selfishness. 
Reality,  rather  than  over-regulation,  should  be  aimed  at.  Nor  can  we  dis- 
cuss the  fanciful  views  of  Homan  Catholic  missionaries,  who  have  imagined 
imaginary  in-  that  they  found  many  things  about  the  Trinity  in  Lao-tze's 
terpretations.  mvstic  utterances.     Some  have  even  believed  that  the  following 

iges  contained  the  characters  of  the  Hebrew  name  for  God  (Jehovah  or 
•  Jahveh).  'That  which  is  as  though  it  were  visible,  and  yet  cannot  be 
seen,  is  called  EM  (to  be  read  1),  that  which  is  visible  and  yet  speaks  not  to 
the  ears  is  called  Hi,  that  which  is  as  though  it  were  within  one's  reach, 
and  yet  cannot  be  touched,  is  called  Wei."  However,  we  cannot  but  place 
Lao-tze  ahead  of  all  the  sages  of  the  Oriental  world  whose  outline  is  clearly 
originality  seen  by  us.  Even  Buddha  cannot  be  held  to  surpass  him  in 
tze-  range  and  originality  of  thought,  although  he  went  beyond  him 
in  prad  icality  of  ideas.  The  man,  who  six  centuries  before  Christ,  invented 
or  endorsed  the  view  that,  "  He  who  bears  the  reproach  of  his  country  shall 


LAO-TZE. 


'49 


be  called  the  Lord  of  the  land,  and  he  who  bears  the  calamities  of  his 
country  shall  be  called  King  of  the  world,"  well  deserves  to  be  held  in  per- 
petual remembrance.  In  teaching  that  goodness  was  to  be  manifested 
equally  to  the  good  and  the  evil,  faithfulness  to  the  faithful  and  the  un- 
faithful, he  rose  beyond  every  teacher  of  the  East  except  the  Founder  of 
Christianity. 

Lao-tze  was  not  the  founder  of  a  religion,  yet  his  name  is  identified  with 
one,  and  he  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  modern  Taoism.  This,  however, 
is  so  different  from  anything  that  he  imagined  or  originated,  that  it  must 
be  dealt  with  in  a  separate  chapter. 

[Chalmers,  "The  Speculations  of  'The  Old  Philosopher,'  Lau-tsze"  (C).  Doolittle,  "Social 
Life  of  the  Chinese."  Douglas's  "  Confucianism  and  Taouisin."  Legge,  "  The  Religions  of  China." 
In  "  Chuang  Tzu,"  188!),  Mr.  H.  A.  Giles  attacks  the  Tao-te-king,  saving,  tbat  while  it  undoubtedly 
contains  many  of  Lao-tze's  sayings,  it  contains  much  that  he  never  said  aud  never  could  have  said, 
belonging  rather  to  the  period  when  the  pure  Tao  began  to  be  corrupted  by  alcbemistic  research  and 
gropiugs  after  the  elixir  of  life.] 


TAOIST    PRIEST,    TALI. 


THE    THREE    PURE    ONES    (see  p.  157). 


CHAPTER   V. 
JBebelopment  antr  frafcnt  Condition  of  Caotenn 

Development  of  Taoism— Lieh-tze's  teaching— Chwang-tze— Desire  of  longevity  favoured  magic — 
The  Chin-jin— Temple  to  Lao-tze— Ups  and  downs  of  Taoism — The  use  of  charms— Asceticism — 
Public  worship— Reported  reappearances  of  Lao-tze —Walking  through  fire— Sects  of  Taoists— 
The  Book  of  Blessings— Book  of  Actions  and  Retributions— Great  number  of  Taoist  deities — The 
Three  Pure  Ones— Yuh-hwang  Shang-ti— Wan-chang— Deified  powers  of  nature  and  deified  men 
—A  Taoist  temple— Several  trinities— Kwan-ti,  the  god  of  war— Purgatory  and  remission- 
Horrible  punishments— Dread  of  evil  spirits— The  feng-shui— Selection  of  graves  and  sites. 

LAO-TZE'S  life,  retiring  and  inconspicuous,  left  no  such  mark  on  the 
Chinese  character  as  that  of  Confucius,  public  and  ever  seeking  to 
regulate  the  outward  life.  His  thoughts  were  as  alien  to  the  average 
Development  Chinese  mind  as  those  of  Confucius  were  in  accord  with  it. 
of  Taoism.  Wlule  Confucius  satisfied  every  one  who  was  proud  of  his  coun- 
try and  its  ancient  kings,  Lao-tze  was  only  welcomed  by  those  who  were 
discontented  with  the  whole  state  of  society.  How  then  has  Taoism  be- 
come a  great  system  or  congeries  of  beliefs  and  practices,  constituting  a  more 
widely  prevalent  religion  than  even  Confucianism  ?  The  answer  is,  that  it 
gradually,  in  developing,  adapted  itself  to  popular  beliefs  and  created  new 
Lieh-tze's  superstitions.  Already,  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  Lieh-tze,  a  fol- 
teaching.  ]ower  0f  Lao-tze,  is  found  introducing  magical  marvels  and 
preaching  a  philosophy,  not  of  self-depreciation,  humility,  and  frugality,  but 
one  of  selfish  enjoyment  and  absence  of  anxiety.  Since  death  was  close  at 
hand,  he  would  enjoy  to-day,  leaving  to-morrow  to  take  care  of  itself.  He 
describes  imaginary  states  of  happiness  seen  in  dreams,  where  life  was 
satisfactory  because  desires  were  kept  within  bounds,  and  the  people  cared 
for  nothing  and  feared  nothing.  To  this  he  added  particulars  of  the  fairy- 
talc  type,  depicting  people  walking  in  water  without  being  drowned,  sur- 
round. >d  by  fire  and  not  burnt,  cut  without  being  hurt,  etc.  Thus  he 
fostered  belief  in  magical  possibilities.  Thus  he  travestied  Lao-tze's  teach- 
in-  about  the  possible  union  of  mankind  with  the  spirit  pervading  the 
universe,  and  so  becoming  superior  to  the  laws  of  nature.  He  tells  many 
wondrous  tales  of  magic  and  conjuring — of  a  man  who  after  three  months' 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  TAOISM.  151 

deep  thought  was  able  to  change  the  seasons  and  produce  ice  in  summer 
and  thunder  in  winter,  etc.  He  further  advances  a  scheme  of  creation  by 
spirits  or  gods,  whom  he  named  "The  great  Change,"  "  The  great  Begin- 
ning," ';  The  great  First,"  and  "  The  great  Pure."  So  much,  however,  was 
Lieh-tze's  teaching  adapted  to  the  popular  ignorance,  that  it  was  readily 
swallowed  ;  and  its  countenance  of  sensual  and  selfish  enjoyment  made  it 
the  more  acceptable. 

Chwang-tze,  a  little  later,  contemporary  with  Mencius,  adhered  more 
closely  to  Lao-tze,  and  was  strongly  antagonistic  to  the  Confucians.     He 
preached  the  vanity  of  human  effort,  disliking  efforts  and  strug- 
gles to  become  benevolent  and  righteous,   as  well  as   ceaseless 
attenrpts  to  observe  the  rules  of  propriety.    He  believed  that  Tao  and  virtue 
were   being   destroyed  by   the   very  endeavours    to  establish  benevolence 
and  righteousness  by  works.     Scholars  and  sages,  as  well  as  mean  men, 
were  greedy  after  some  object ;   and  Chwang-tze  did  not  consider  that  the 
difference  in  their  objects  entitled  the  former  to  praise.    All  were  outraging 
nature.      Chwang-tze  went  further,   and  doubted  the  reality  of  personal 
existence  ;  everything  was  a  series  of  phantasms.     He  cared  to  live,  but  was 
indifferent  to  death ;   for,  he  said,  "  I  will  have  heaven  and  earth  for  my 
sarcophagus,  the  sun  and  moon  shall  be  the  insignia   when  I  lie  in  state, 
and  all  creation  shall  be  the  mourners  at  my  funeral."     He  did  not  object 
to  his  body  being  exposed  to  the  birds.     "  What  matters  it  ?     Above  are 
the  birds  of  the  air ;  below  are  the  worms  and  ants.     If  you  rob  one  to  feed 
the  other,  what  injustice  is  there  done  ?  "     It  is  readily  seen  that  Chwang- 
tze  had  no  teaching  which  could  elevate.     Thus  the  loftier  parts  of  Lao- 
tze's  teaching  found  little  favour,  especially  its  features  of  humility  and 
self-depreciation  ;  while  magic  and  charms  gradually  assumed  prominence. 
Everybody  wanted  to  live  as  long  as  possible,   and  already  in  Che-hwang- 
tirs  time  charms  to  confer  this  boon  were  loudly  vaunted  ;  and    Desire  of 
the  king  himself  exempted  the  Taoist  books  from  the  general    fav^ed 
destruction  of  literature  which  he  endeavoured  to  bring  about,      magic. 
Such  a  believer  was  likely,  as  he  did,  to  favour  professors  of  magical  arts, 
who  promised  him  riches  and  long  life,  and  to  spend  vast  sums  in  expe- 
ditions in  search  of  various  wonders.     These  professors  called  themselves 
the  Chin-jin,  or  true  men,  and  gave  themselves  credit  for  being  able  ^  Chin_jin. 
to  achieve  all  sorts  of  impossibilities.     Their  death  put  an  end  to 
their  prophecies  ;  but  their  allies  always  gave  out  that  they  had  disappeared 
into  an  unknown  paradise.     These  professors  made  themselves  more  and 
more  essential  to  the  Chinese  emperors  of  several  dynasties,  and  in  fact  con- 
stituted themselves  a  priesthood ;  and  emperors  and  priests  devoted  them- 
selves to  a  search  for  the  elixir  of  life  and  the  philosopher's  stone,  leaving 
on  one  side  all  the  lofty  teachings  of  Lao-tze. 

But  about  the  time  of  the  Christian  era  these  magicians  were  played 
out,  and  both  Confucianism  and  the  teaching  of  Lao-tze  revived.  Temple  to 
During  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Hwan  (a.d.  147-168)  imperial     Laotze- 
sacrifices  were  first  offered  in  the  temple  dedicated  to  Lao-tze  at  Ku-hien, 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


his  supposed  birth-place.     Buddhism  was  now  rapidly  advancing  in  favour, 
and  !)•  gan  to  influence  Taoism,  so  that  legends  of  Lao-tze  appeared,  bearing 
a  great  resemblance  to  those  about  Buddha.     For  a  long  time  after  Hwan's 
reign   Taoism   languished;  and  in  the  fourth  century  all  religious  orders 
u  sand     were    abolished,    including    the    Taoist    magicians  and   doctors, 
downs  of    But  iii  the  fifth  century  a  Taoist  became  the  emperor  Tai-wu-ti's 
adviser,  and  persuaded  his  master  to  avow  his  adhesion  to  Taoism 
by  accepting  a  magical  charm,  signifying  that  by  practising  benevolence, 
love,    rest,    and   self-rectification,    he  had   won  long   life  and   become   in- 
corporated with  Tao.     This  charm  consisted  of  a  white  book,  containing 
5,000  characters  giving  the  names  of  the  officers  of  heaven,  and  various 
incantations  for  deceiving  demons. 

Ko-hung,  a  Taoist  doctor  in  the  fourth  century,  thus  described  the 
use  of  charms.  "  All  mountains,"  he  said,  "  are  inhabited  by  evil  spirits.  If 
The  use  of  the  traveller  has  no  protection,  he  will  fall  into  some  calamity, 
charms.  _  #  _  Mountains  should  not  be  traversed  during  the  winter  ;  the 
third  month  is  the  best,  and  then  a  lucky  day  should  be  chosen  for  setting 
out.  Fasting  and  purification  for  several  days  beforehand  are  necessary,  and 
a  suitable  charm  should  be  worn  on  the  person.  Sometimes  a  mirror  is 
needed  ;  for  living  things,  when  they  grow  old,  can  all,  by  means  of  their 
pure  part,  assume  the  human  form.  In  such  cases  their  true  forms  can  be 
infallibly  detected  by  means  of  a  mirror,  which  should  be  nine  inches  in 
diameter,  and  suspended  from  the  neck  behind.  These  deceiving  elves  do 
not  dare  to  approach  it ;  or  if  one  should  approach,  bent  on  mischief  to  the 
wayfarer,  a  glance  in  the  mirror  at  the  reflected  image  of  the  monster  will 
reveal  its  true  form." 

The  influence  of  Buddhism  led  the  Taoists  to  adopt  a  kind  of  asceticism, 

not  with  the  object  of  gaining  absorption  in  Tao,  but  in  order  to  gain  length 

Ascetics      °^  years-     Sitting  still  and  cross-legged  in  an  upright  position, 

the  devotee  was  supposed  to  diminish  the  expenditure  of  vital 

energy,   to  repress  the  passions,   and  so  ward  off  death.     No  doubt  many 

as  ;etics  attained  a  great  age,  and  thus  increased  the  vogue  of  the  system. 

Next  Taoism  became  developed  in  the  direction  of  public  worship,  and 

temples  and  monasteries  were  built  in  the  fifth  century  for  the  Taoists, 

Public      resembling  so  closely  those  of  the  Buddhists  as  to  lead  to  frequent 

worship.    qUarre]s   between  them.     The   Buddhists,   as   originally  foreign 

immigrants  into  China,  were  pointed  at  for  expulsion  by  the  Taoists,  whom 

the  former  in  turn  called  jugglers.     The  Emperor  Woo,  after  his  ascent  to 

the  throne  (a.d.  566)  held  a  great  assembly  of  priests  and  learned  men  to 

discuss  the  three  contending  religious  systems,  and  finally  gave  his  decision 

in   favour  of  Confucianism,  placing  Taoism  after  it,  and  Buddhism  last ;  a 

little  later  be  abolished  the  two  latter.     Soon  another  change  was  brought 

•'I ""it    by  the  Emperor  Tsing  (a.d.  580)  who  again  recognised  them,  and 

commanded  that  in  every  temple  where  there  were  statues  of  Buddha  and 

fcze  (termed  "  the  honoured  one  of  heaven  ")  they  should  be  placed  in 

positions  of  equal  honour.     We  cannot  follow  the  varied  fortunes  of  Taoism 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  TAOISM. 


'53 


and  the  other  religions  during  succeeding  ages,  now  one  gaining  ascend- 
ency, now  another.     More  than  once  Lao-tze  was  reported  to  have  appeared 


TEMPLE    IN    MOUNTAINS    OF    FOKKIN. 


i  again  on  earth,  leading  to  his  being  dignified  with  the  title  of  Greatre^£J$£ce 
l  Sage  Ancestor,  and  the  distribution  of  his  Tao-te-king  throughout  of  Lao-tze. 


154 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  empire.  At  one  period  the  Taoist  priests  or  doctors  married,  and 
engaged  in  ordinary  occupations ;  at  another  they  were  forbidden  to  marry, 
and  the  Buddhists  were  compelled  to  accept  some  of  them  as  rulers  of 
fcheir  religion.  The  Manchus  again  put  down  the  Buddhists,  while  the 
Mongols  of  Jenghiz  Khan  found  in  them  apt  representatives  of  their  own 
sorcerers  and  soothsayers.  In  the  time  of  Kublai  Khan  they  held  great 
walking  festivals  to  the  "High  Emperor  of  the  Sombre  Heavens,"  and 
through  nre.  walked  through  a  great  fire  barefoot,  preceded  by  their  priests, 
bearing  images  of  their  gods  in  their  arms.  Notwithstanding  the  severe 
burns  they  always  received,  they  constantly  asserted,  that  if  they  possessed 
a  sincere  mind  they  would  not  be  hurt  by  the  fire.  Later  emperors  now 
favoured,  now  tabooed  the  influential  religion  of  the  Taoists,  who  kept  their 
hold  on  the  people.  The  Manchu  emperors  of  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries  promulgated  penal  decrees 
against  them.  -Their  sects  had  grown  so  nu- 
merous and  interfered  so  much  with  common 
life,  that  the  emperor  Chang-hi  commanded 
that  all  members  of  the  Do-nothing,  the  White 
sects  of  Lily,  the  Incense-burners,  the  Hung, 
Taoists.  the  Origin  of  Chaos,  the  Origin  of 
the  Dragon,  and  the  Great  Vehicle  sects  should 
be  treated  as  criminals.  But  superstition  dies 
hard,  and  at  the  present  day  Taoism  is  more 
firmly  seated  in  China  than  ever. 

Before  describing  the  present  state  and 
practices  of  Taoism,  we  must  give  some  account 
The  Book  of  °f  two  books  which,  much  more  than 
Blessings,  j^q  Tao-te-king,  are  the  literary 
guides  of  the  Taoists,  namely,  the  Kan-ying- 
peen,  or  "  Book  of  Actions  and  their  Retribu- 
tions," otherwise  translated  "  Book  of  Rewards 
and  Punishments,"  and  the  Yin-chi-wan,  or 
Book  of  Secret  Blessings.  The  latter  is  pro- 
bably ancient,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  the  god  Wan-chang 
Te-cheun  ;  but  it  has  no  reference  to  the  special  doctrines  of  the  Taoists. 
It  exclusively  relates  to  moral  questions,  and  being  very  short,  containing 
only  541  words,  it  is  widely  distributed,  and  is  given  away  freely  by  well- 
disposed  persons.  With  comments  and  pictures,  some  editions  form  a  con- 
siderable volume.  Many  of  its  precepts  are  of  a  high  quality,  thus  :  "  Use 
not  thy  riches  to  oppress  the  poor.  Invite  to  virtue  by  practising  it  in 
body  and  soul.  Hide  the  faults  of  others  and  make  known  their  virtues. 
Let  not  thy  tongue  say  what  thy  heart  denies.  Give  to  posterity  the 
instruction  that  will  reform  mankind.  Surrender  thy  riches  for  the  good 
of  the  human  race.  In  action  be  conformed  to  Heavenly  Reason  ;  in  speech, 
to  the  moral  sense  of  humanity.  Examine  thy  conscience  in  the  solitude 
of  thy  bed."     Its  general  principle  is  the  necessity  of  purifying  the  heart. 


CUAItll    TO    WARD    OFF    EVIL    SPIRITS 
FROM    A    UIIIDE. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  TAOISM: 


155 


Straightforwardness,  compassion,  fidelity  to  friends  and  masters,  filial  con- 
duct to  friends,  are  among  the  virtues  inculcated.  The  hungry  are  to  be 
fed,  the  naked  clothed,  and  the  dead  buried.  The  poor  and  unfortunate 
must  be  kindly  treated,  the  aged  honoured,  the  sick  and  thirsty  succoured, 
the  good  loved.  A  neighbour's  faults  are  to  be  hidden,  and  only  their  good 
deeds  published.  Just  weights  and  measures  only  are  to  be  used,  and  the 
people  are  not  to  be  overtaxed.  Animals  are  to  be  protected,  even  insects  in 
the  forests.  Travellers  are  to  be  guided  and  helped  ;  stones  and  debris  are 
to  be  removed  from  the  roadway,  and  footpaths  and  bridges  repaired.  We 
can  scarcely  credit  such  a  book  with  other  than  a  good  influence  ;  yet,  in 
spite  of  it,  the  lives  of  the  Chinese  contradict  many  of  its  precepts,  as  those 
of  Christian  peoples  discredit  the  teachings  of  the  New  Testament. 

The  Book  of  Actions  and  Retributions  is 
still  more  widely  read,  and  has  been  called  the 

Bible   of    the    Taoists.      It    consists  _.■-,_. 

The  Book  of 

mainly  of  some  two  hundred  pre-  Actions  and 
cepts  as  to  good  and  bad  conduct,  e  n  u  10ns- 
ascribed  without  grounds  to  Lao-tze  himself, 
but  probably  not  dating  more  than  a  few  cen- 
turies back.  It  is  in  such  a  form  that  Chinese 
of  all  religions  can  accept  its  precepts,  though 
they  may  not  believe  in  the  connecting  frame- 
work. It  begins  by  asserting  that  there  are  no 
special  doors  for  calamity  and  blessing,  which 
come  as  men  call  them  ;  meaning,  that  our  bad 
and  good  fortunes  are  not  determined  in  ad- 
vance, but  come  in  accordance  with  our  conduct. 
Recompenses  follow  good  and  evil  actions  as 
the  shadow  follows  the  substance.  It  is  then 
stated  that  spirits  exist  in  heaven  and  earth 
which  search  out  the  faults  of  men,  and  shorten 
their  lives  by  periods  of  a  hundred  days,  accord- 
ing to  the  gravity  of  their  offences.  This  cur- 
tailment of  life  is  attended  by  numerous  calamities,  punishments,  and  mis- 
fortunes. Many  of  these  spirits  are  named,  some  dwelling  in  the  bodies  of. 
men,  one  being  the  spirit  of  the  hearth  in  each  household.  These  go  on 
stated  days  to  the  palace  of  Heaven,  to  report  on  men's  conduct. 

This  preliminary  is  followed  by  a  considerable  number  of  positive 
moral  precepts,  in  the  main  like  those  of  the  Book  of  Secret  Blessings. 
Of  the  man  who  keeps  them,  it  is  said  that  all  men  respect  him  and  Heaven 
protects  him,  the  spirits  defend  him,  and  demons  flee  from  him.  Whatso- 
ever he  does  shall  prosper,  and  he  may  hope  to  become  an  Immortal.  It  be 
desires  to  be  an  Immortal  of  heaven,  he  must  do  1,300  good  works  ;  but  300 
will  suffice  to  make  him  an  immortal  of  earth.  Next  follow  more  than  two 
hundred  prohibitions  of  conduct  characteristic  of  the  bad  man,  many  being 
those  of  universal  morality,  others  specially  characteristic  of  the  Chinese, 


KU-SlXti,    A    GOD    OF    LITERATUP.i:. 


i56 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


such  as,  "  Do  not  introduce  vexatious  reforms  into  the  administration  of 
the  empire ;  do  not  shoot  at  birds  nor  hunt  animals ;  do  not  drive  insects 
from  their  holes,  nor  frighten  roosting  birds ;  do  not  bury  the  effigy  of  a 
man  to  charm  away  his  life  ;  do  not  listen  to  what  your  wife  and  concu- 
bines say ;  do  not  kill  and  cook  domestic  animals,  except  in  accordance  with 
the  rites  ;  do  not  abuse  the  spirits  ;  do  not  leap  over  a  well  or  a  hearth,  thus 
insulting  the  gods  ;  do  not  pass  either  over  food  or  over  men ;  do  not  kill 
your  children,  either  before  or  after  birth."  Several  refer  to  ordinary 
Chinese  practices.  "  Do  not  sing  and  dance  on  the  last  day  of  the  month  or 
year;  do  not  weep  or  spit  towards  the  north,  where  resides  the  prince  of 
the  stars  of  the  north  ;  do  not  rise  in  the  night  naked,  a  crime  against  the 
gods,  who  walk  abroad  at  night ;  "  and  so  on. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  book  we  find  the  statement,  that  when  a  man 


MA-CHC,    GODDESS    OF    SAILORS,    AND    HER    TWO    ASSISTANTS. 

takes  unjustly  the  riches  of  others,  the  spirits  calculate  the  number  of  his 
wives  and  children,  and  make  them  die  one  by  one  as  a  retribution,  or  cause 
him  to  suffer  disasters  by  fire,  flood,  thieves,  sickness,  or  slander.  Finally, 
the  treatise  ends  with  the  following  sentence :  "  When  one's  mind  is 
directed  to  good,  though  the  good  be  not  yet  done,  the  good  spirits  follow 
him ;  and  when  one's  mind  is  directed  to  evil,  though  the  evil  be  not  yet 
done,  the  evil  spirits  follow  him.  If  he  has  done  the  wicked  thing,  and 
afterwards  alters  his  way  and  repents,  not  doing  anything  wicked,  but- 
endeavouring  to  do  everything  good,  after  a  time  he  will  obtain  good 
fortune  and  prosperity  :  this  is  changing  calamity  into  blessing." 

;'  The  words,  looks,  and  deeds  of  the  good  man  are  all  good.  If  all 
these  are  seen  to  be  so  every  day,  after  three  years  Heaven  will  surely  send 
down  blessing  on  him.  The  words,  looks,  and  deeds  of  the  bad  man  are 
ail  evil     Should  you  not  exert  yourself  to  do  what  is  good  ?  " 


MODERN   TAOISM. 


1 57 


But  modern  Taoism  is  largely  a  religion  of  gods  and  spirits  and 
demons.  Originally  it  had  no  special  objects  of  worship,  though  Shang-ti, 
the  supreme  God,  and  various  nature  and  ancestral  spirits  wereGreatnumb  r 
believed   in.       The    great    development    of    Taoist   ideas    about    ofTaoist 

deities 

deities  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  due  to  the  advent  of 
Buddhism.    In  imitation  of  the  honour  paid  to  Buddha,  Lao-tze  was  deified, 
and  represented  as  the  third  member  of  a  divine  trinity  ;  or  the   The  Three 
trinity  is  represented  as  the  same  person  in  different  incarna-  Pure  0nes- 
tions.     The  trinity  is  known  as  San-tsing,  the  Three  Pure  Ones,  the  image? 
of  which  are  always  to  been  seen  in  Taoist  temples. 

According  to  Edkins,  the  highest  god  of  the  Taoists  of  the  present  day, 
Yuh-hwang  Shang-ti,  dwells  in  the  heavens,  being  their  creator  and  sus- 


KWAX-TI,    GOD    OF    WAR. 


GOD    OF    THIEVES. 


Wan-chang. 


tainer,  and  the  source   of   all  truth ;   he   is  immaterial  and  spontaneous. 
The  second   divinity,  Wan-chang,  presides  over  literature,   and  yUh-kwang 
is  the  diffuser  of  renovating  influences.     The  third  is  Lao-tze.     Shang-ti. 
Wan-chang  is  officially  worshipped   at  every  altar  twice  each 
year  by  representatives  of  the  emperor.     Part  of  the  invocation 
to  him  runs  thus;   "From  generation  to  generation  thou  hast  sent  thy 
miraculous   influence   down   upon   earth.      Thou   hast  been  the  lord  and 
governor  of  learning  among  men.     In  upholding  that  which  is  right,  long 
hast  thou  brightly  shone  and  stirred  up  hearts  to  thankfulness.     .     . 
May  the  fumes  of  this  sacrifice  and  the  odour  thereof  be  acceptable  to 
thee.     Look  down,  we  beseech  thee,  on  our  devotion  and  our  humility." 

Not  only  is  imperial  worship  paid  to  Wan-chang,  but  there  are  temples 
in  every  city  dedicated  to  him,  often  adjoining  the  colleges.     In  the  prin- 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


cipa]  hall  of  the  temple  may  be  seen  an  altar  and  shrine,  within  which  is 
••  a  venerable  figure,  seated  in  calm  and  dignified  repose,  a  benign  expres- 
sion manifested  in  the  gilded  features,  and  a  flowing  beard  descending  to 
the  lap  upon  which  the  hands  lie  folded.  In  front  stand  the  narrow  per- 
pendicular tablets,  set  in  deep  frameworks  of  elaborate  carving,  which  in- 
dicate the  titles  of  the  object  of  worship."  In  Canton  alone  there  are  ten 
of  these  temples.  His  principal  temple  is  at  Chu-tung-yun,  where  Wan- 
chang  is  said  to  have  been  born,  or  rather  incarnated,  for,  as  with  many 
others  of  their  gods,  it  is  said  that  a  star  descended  and  became  incarnate, 


-'X     i  1 

1 

■ 

lib. 

■     : 

\  - 

PASSING    THROUGH    THE    DOOR. 


not  once,  but  many  times,  in  virtuous  men ;  his  representative  in  the 
heavens  is  a  small  constellation  near  the  Great  Bear.  The  great  regard 
paid  to  this  deity  by  the  student  class  in  China  shows  that  Taoism  has 
deeply  influenced  Confucians,  in  spite  of  the  old  antagonism  between  these 
two  systems.  The  image  of  Ku-sing,  the  god  of  Literature,  we  figure,  is 
placed  directly  in  front  of  Wu-chang's ;  he  represents  a  particular  star. 

There  is  practically  no  end  to  the  multitude  of  Taoist  deities  now 
Deified      worshipped ;   and  it  is  this,  with  their  ancestor- worship,  which 

Dowers  of         •  *  l  • 

nature  and  gives  rise  to  the  saying  that  in  China  more  gods  are  worshipped 
deified  men.  than  there  are  people.     They  belong  to  two  main  classes,  deified 


MODERN   TAOISM. 


*59 


powers  of  nature  and  deified  men.  There  are  sea  and  river  gods,  star  gods, 
weather  gods,  agricultural  gods.  On  the  sea-coast  may  be  found  temples 
to  the  spirit  of  the  sea,  the  king  of  the  sea,  and  the  god  of  the  tide. 
Dragon-kings  have  their  shrines  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  ;  they  are  sup- 
posed to  reside  partly  in  air,  partly  in  water.  Any  remarkable  phenomenon 
in  the  sky  or  water  is  often  pointed  at  as  a  dragon.  Many  of  the  stars  are 
worshipped  as  gods,  and  are  regarded  as  sublimated  essences  of  material 
things.  The  earth  is  described  as  made  up  of  five  kinds  of  matter,  metal, 
wood,  water,  fire,  and  earth ;  and  these  are  all  said  to  have  souls  or  essences, 
which  when  highly  purified  rose  to  the  starry  heavens  and  became  planets, 
Mercury  being  the  essence  of  water,  Venus  of  metal,  Mars  of  fire,  Jupiter 


SACRIFICE    TO    GOD    OF    KITCHEN. 


of  wood,  and  Saturn  of  earth.  The  fixed  stars  are  also  essences  or  souls  of 
matter,  and  there  are  other  invisible  ones,  which  are  also  called  stars  by 
the  Chinese.  "In  this  way,"  says  Edkins,  "  the  word  star  has  come  to  have, 
in  the  Chinese  language,  a  meaning  additional  to  the  common  one.  A 
living  material  soul,  the  sublimated  essence  of  matter,  is  so  denominated." 
iThe  Taoists  see  in  the  starry  firmament  the  upper  portions  of  the  sea  of 
i  ether  of  which  our  atmosphere  forms  the  lower  part.  In  it  the  star 
{divinities  revolve  and  powerfully  influence  the  fortunes  of  men.  So  it 
j comes  to  pass  that  alchemy  and  astrology,  dealing  with  essences  and  stars, 
are  so  important  in  the  Taoist  religion  and  in  Chinese  thought. 

We  cannot  devote  space  to  any  fuller  account  of  these  deities.     It  is 
! evident  that  the  task  would  be  endless,  while  a  specimen  suffices  to  indi- 


i6o 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS 


cate  their  nature. 


A  Taoist 
temple. 


Nor  can  we  recount  the  numberless  legends  of  imaginary 
genii  or  spirits,  some  of  islands  and  mountains,  some  celestial 
and  residing  in  various  heavens.  A  complete  Taoist  temple 
makes  provision  for  all  aspects  of  the  popular  Taoist  beliefs.  There  are 
halls  set  apart  for  the  superior  and  inferior  divinities,  corresponding  to  the 
heavens  in  which  they  are  believed  to  dwell,  and  some  of  them  are  repre- 
sented by  images.  Among  them  are  to  be  found  ancestral  worthies, 
hermits  and  alchemists,  termed  collectively  Seen-jin ;  and  among  higher 
deities  the  great  god,  Yuh-hwang  Shang-ti,  and  the  Three  Pure  Ones 
already  mentioned  have  the  highest  place.  The  former  they  identify  with 
the  Confucian  Shang-ti,  and  make  him  out  to  be  the  ancestor  of  the 
hereditary  chief -priest  of  their  religion,  whose  family  name  is  Chang.  The 
birthday  of  the  god  is  kept  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  first  month. 

The  Taoists  have  other  trinities  besides  the  Three  Pure  Ones  ;   one  is 

that  formed  by  the  gods  of  happi- 
severai  ness,  rank,  and  old  age. 
trinities.  These  are  stars  and  star 
gods,  and  are  very  common  sub- 
jects for  Chinese  paintings  and 
carvings.  Another  trinity  is  the 
San-kwan,  the  three  rulers  of 
heaven,  earth,  and  water,  said  to 
form  in  their  unity  one  great  god, 
and  to  send  down  good  and  ill 
fortune  on  men  and  save  the  lost. 
Another  important  divinity  is  the' 
god  of  riches,  worshipped  by  the 
trading  classes,  who  believe  he 
causes  their  profits  and  losses. 
The  number  of  temples  erected  to  j 
him  is  very  great.  There  is  even 
a  god  of  Thieves,  worshipped  by 
those  who  wish  to  gain  wealth.  The  State  gods  have  been  readily  adopted 
by  the  Taoists,  who  in  most  cases  discharge  the  rites  for  them.  Among 
Kwan-ti,  the  recent  additions  to  the  list  is  Kwan-ti,  the  god  of  war,  who 
god  of  war.  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  god  in  1856,  and  made  equal  to 
Confucius  in  particular,  because  of  a  victory  over  the  Tai-pings.  The  de- 
scription of  many  of  the  gods  shows  a  Buddhist  colouring,  and  the  style  of' 
many  of  the  prayers  is  Buddhistic,  exhibiting  similar  views  of  the  universe 
and  of  the  interference  of  divinities  in  the  affairs  of  men. 

A  recent  further  development  of  Taoism  adopts  the  Buddhist  ideas  of 

transmigration  of  souls  in  a  very  gross  form,  together  with  an  elaborate 

Pure-atorv  Purgat°ry  and  hell.     A  book  called  the  Divine  Panorama,  said 

and   "    to  be  published  by  the  mercy  of  Yu-ti  (the  same  as  Yu-hwang 

Shang-ti),  that  men  and  women  may  repent  and  make  atonement 

for  their  sins,  gives  a  full  account  of  it.     In  it  the  souls  of  men  are  said  to 


BRINGING    HACK    THK    SOUL    OF    A    SICK    MAN    INTO    HIS 
CLOTHES    ON    THE    BAMBOO. 


MODERN  TAOISM. 


161 


live  for  ever,  and  retribution  is  declared  for  all  evil  done  in  this  life.    There 

are  said  to  be  ten  courts  of  justice  at  the 
bottom  of  a  great  ocean  under  the  crust  of 
the  earth,  and  pictures  of  the  punishments 
inflicted  are  shown  in  the  temple  of  the 
"  Spirit  of  the  Eastern  Mountain,"  an  ap- 
pendage of  the  temple  of  the  greater  tu- 
telary deity  of  each  provincial  city.  It  is 
related  that  on  the  birthday  of  the  saviour, 
Pu-sa  (a  brief  Chinese  rendering  of  the 
Buddhist  Bodhi  sattva,  or  one  who  has  only 
to  pass  through  one  more  human  life  be- 
fore attaining  Buddhahood,  but  used  by  the 
Chinese  for  a  deity  in  general,  and  here  for 
the  ruler  of  the  infernal  regions),  as  the 
spirits  of  purgatory  were  offering  their 
congratulations,  the  ruler  of  the  infernal 
regions  said:  "My  wish  is  to  release  all 
souls,  and  every  moon  as  the  day  comes 
round,  I  would  wholly  or  partially  remit 
the  punishment  of  erring  shades,  and  give 
them  life  once  more  in  one  of  the  six  paths 
(the  six  kinds  of  existence,  see  Buddhism 
later).  But  also  the  wicked  are  many,  and 
the  virtuous  few.  Nevertheless  the  punish- 
ments in  the  dark  region  are  too  severe  and 
require   some    modification.      An}r   wicked 

soul  that  repents  and  induces  one  or  two  others  to  do  likewise,  shall  be 

allowed  to  set  this  off  against  the  punishment  which  should  be  inflicted. 

The  judges  of  the  ten  courts  then  agreed  that  all  who  lead  virtuous  lives 

from  their  youth  upwards  shall  be  escorted 

at  their  death  to  the  land  of  the  immortals ; 

that  all  whose  balance  of  good  and  evil  is 

exact,  shall  escape  the  bitterness  of  the  three 

states  (hell,  pretas,  and  animals)  and  be  born 

again  among  men ;  that  those  who  have  re- 
paid their  debts  of  gratitude  and  friendship, 

and  fulfilled  their  destiny,  yet  have  a  balance 

of  evil  against  them,  shall  pass  through  the 

various  courts  of  purgatory,  and  then  be  born 

again    among    men,    rich,    poor,  old,    young, 

diseased  or  crippled,  to  be  put  a  second  time 

upon  trial.     Then,  if  they  behave  well,  they 

maj7   enter   into    some    happy  state ;    but   if 

badly,  they  will  be  dragged  by  horrid  devils 

through  all  the  courts,  suffering  bitterly  as  they  go,  and  wi  1  again  be  born, 

M 


TALL   WHITE    DEVIL. 


p1-'1'1  P   Ik 

>^*\i 

3  r/y-"  Jjfl^^fl 

V ''^1 

I"    WW'^'S 

S6&3 

W?L£jKE> 

RJGil 

^t'jT  >4H 

-^=- 

BHgL 

»3J§  - 

\MI 

-     -« 

^  rh~ 

"  SHORT    BLACK    DEVIL." 


162  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


to  mi  lure  in  life  the  uttermost  of  poverty  and  wretchedness,  in  death  the 
everlasting  tortures  of  hell."  (Appendix  to  Giles's  translation  of  "  Strange 
Stories  from  a  Chinese  Studio.") 

This  relaxation  in  severity  of  punishments,  having  been  approved  by 
the  judges  of  the  ten  courts,  was  sanctioned  by  the  ruler  Pu-sa,  and  then 
submitted  to  Yu-ti,  who  authorised  it,  and  added  that  any  mortal  who 
repented  and  had  had  two  punishments  remitted,  if  he  succeeded  in  doing 
five  virtuous  acts,  should  escape  all  punishment  and  be  born  again  in  some 
happy  state  ;  if  a  woman,  she  should  be  re-born  as  a  man.  More  than  five 
such  acts  should  enable  a  soul  to  obtain  the  salvation  of  others,  and  redeem 
his  wife  and  family  from  hell. 

The  description  of  the  various  courts  as  given  is  too  long  to  quote. 
One  of  them  has  a  great  gehenna,  many  leagues  wide,  with  sixteen  wards, 
Horrible  an(i  ^ne  following  horrible  punishments  are  said  to  be  inflicted  in 
punishments,  them,  still  further  exemplifying  the  Chinese  genius  for  devising 
tortures.  "  In  the  first,  the  wicked  souls  have  their  bones  beaten  and  their 
bodies  scorched.  In  the  second,  their  muscles  are  drawn  out  and  their  bones 
rapped.  In  the  third,  ducks  eat  their  heart  and  liver.  In  the  fourth,  dogs 
eat  their  intestines  and  lungs.  In  the  fifth,  the}^  are  splashed  with  hot 
oil.  In  the  sixth,  their  heads  are  crushed  in  a  frame,  and  their  tongues  and 
teeth  are  drawn  out,"  and  so  on  through  a  sickening  catalogue  of  bar- 
barities. Contrast  this  with  the  original  teaching  of  Lao-tze,  and  it  will  be 
seen  how  far  a  religion  can  degenerate,  and  how  childish  as  well  as  de- 
graded must  be  the  minds  which  can  accept  this  as  true. 

An  exaggerated  animism  marks  Taoism  as  well  as  Confucianism  ;  and 
a  vast  number  of  the  spirits  believed  in  are  malevolent.  The  simple  China- 
Dread  of  evil  man  dreads  spirits,  and  imagines  them  in  all  the  sounds  of  the 
spirits,  night  and  in  many  natural  phenomena,  as  producing  sicknesses 
and  continually  trying  to  deceive  men.  The  Taoist  priests,  little  elevated 
above  Mongolian  Shamans,  except  sometimes  in  cunning,  are  magicians 
who  find  occupation  and  wealth  in  overcoming  the  evil  spirits  by  charms 
and  spells.  "  The  charms,"  says  Dr.  Legge,  "  are  figures,  and  characters, 
single  or  combined,  drawn  and  written  in  grotesque  forms.  The  myriads 
of  doors  on  which  you  see  them  pasted  shows  the  thriving  trade  that  their 
writers  must  have.  A  few  years  ago,  over  a  large  extent  of  country,  men 
were  startled  by  the  sudden  and  unaccountable  disappearance  of  their  pig- 
tails. An  invasion  of  cholera  could  not  have  frightened  the  people  more. 
It  was  the  work  of  malevolent  spirits !  There  was  a  run  upon  the  charm 
manufactories.  It  was  thought  that  four  characters,  mysteriously  woven 
together  and  wrapped  up  in  the  pigtail,  warded  the  spirits  off." 

In  this  connection  we  must  mention  the  practices  known  as  feng-shui, 
or  wind  and  water,  ceremonies  by  which  the  spirits  of  air  and  water  are 

The       propitiated,  and  including  the  repose  of  the  dead,  the  influence  of 

feng-shui.    tne  dead  upon  the  we]fare  0f  tlie  livingj  the  selection  of  sites  for 

dwellings,  and  of  graves  for  the  dead.     Every  individual  has  three  souls, 

the  rational  in  the  head,  the  sensuous  in  the  breast,  and  the  material  in  the 


MODERN  TAOISM. 


163 


stomach.  At  death  the  first  may  become  fixed  in  the  memorial  tablets,  the 
second  in  the  tomb,  the  third  escapes  into  space  and  seeks  to  enter  some  other 
body.  If  proper  observances  are  neglected, it  will  become  hostile  to  the  family. 
Incense  sticks  are  kept  constantly  burning  at  the  entrance  of  houses  and 
shops,  in  order  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  these  and  other  malignant  spirits. 


The  selection  of  a  grave  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  must  be  per- 
formed by  persons  skilled  in  interpreting  signs  or  in  inventing 
them.     "I  have  known  bodies  kept  unburied,"  says  Dr.  Legge,  graves  and 
"  lying  in  their  large  and  carefully  cemented  coffins,  for  a  long      8ites" 
time,  from  the  difficulty  of  selecting  the  best  site  for  the  grave.   I  have  known 


1 64  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

great  excitement  and  expenditure  in  connection  with  the  removal  of  a  coffin 
from  a  grave  which  had  turned  out  unpropitious,  to  one  that  was  likely  to 
enable  its  tenant  to  rest  in  peace,  and  leave  his  family  circle  unmolested." 
The  same  spirit  pervades  all  kinds  of  practices.  Good  and  evil  spirits  being 
continually  passing  to  and  fro,  it  is  most  necessary  to  build  houses,  make 
ron,  Is  and  bridges,  canals  and  wells,  in  such  a  way  as  to  obstruct  the  evil  and 
aid  the  journeys  of  the  good  spirits.  In  every  part  of  the  country  mines 
and  quarries  have  been  filled  up  owing  to  complaints  that  they  have  caused 
bad  harvests  by  letting  the  demons  pass.  Neighbours  accuse  each  other  of 
having  turned  the  good  spirits  aside  by  making  changes  on  their  lands.  The 
planting  of  a  tree  on  a  favourable  spot  or  a  new  tower  rightly  built,  may 
bring  fortune  to  a  whole  district.  All  straight  lines  are  disastrous,  while 
curves  in  anything  promote  prosperity  ;  good  spirits  come  from  the  south, 
evil  spirits  from  the  north. 

No  wonder  that  the  Taoist  priests  are  despised  by  the  educated  Chinese, 
and  win  their  chief  spoils  from  the  ignorant ;  but  the  extent  to  which  they 
have  received  recognition  by  the  Government  in  connection  with  the  State 
religion  is  undoubtedly  an  evil.  The  priests  are  supposed  to  study  five 
years,  but  practically  they  do  little  but  assist  the  acknowledged  priests, 
learning  their  tricks  and  practices,  and  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge 
which  will  enable  them  to  give  proper  "  oracles  "  in  answer  to  the  prayers 
of  the  sick  and  dying.  Their  morals  are  low,  and  their  nunneries  are 
generally  believed  to  be  haunts  of  vice.  There  is  scarcely  any  religion  of 
a  great  people  which  can  surpass  Taoism  in  degradation.  A  volume  could 
readily  be  filled  with  descriptions  of  their  ceremonies  and  practices,  but  our 
space  is  exhausted.  Mr.  Doolittle's  "  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese  "  may  be 
referred  to  for  abundant  information  on  this  head. 

Ave  must  briefly  describe  some  of  our  illustrations,  not  otherwise 
referred  to.  "  Passing  through  the  Door  "  (p.  158)  is  an  important  cere- 
mony for  children,  performed  more  or  less  frequently  till  childhood  is  over. 
1  aoist  priests  come  to  the  house,  arrange  an  altar,  place  on  it  censers,  candle- 
sticks,  and  images  of  gods,  especially  that  of  the  goddess  "Mother";  and 
also  a  table  full  of  various  eatables.  Certain  goddesses  are  invited  by  name 
to  be  present,  by  ringing  of  bells,  beating  of  drums,  and  reciting  the  names 
and  residences  of  the  goddesses.  The  priests  recite  prayers  and  invitations 
while  the  goddesses  partake  of  food.  The  "  door  "to  be  passed  through  is 
made  of  bamboo  covered  with  red  and  white  paper,  and  is  seven  feet  high. 
After  several  ceremonies,  a  procession  is  formed  to  pass  through  the  door, 
the  head  of  the  family  and  all  the  children  following.  This  is  repeated 
several  times,  the  "door"  being  successively  removed  to  all  corners  of  the 
room,  while  the  priest  recites  various  formulas.  Soon  after,  the  door  is  cut 
to  pieces  and  publicly  burnt.  The  idea  is,  to  benefit  the  children  by  causing 
them  to  recover,  if  sick,  or  to  continue  well  if  in  good  health. 

Incense  and  candles  are  regularly  burnt  before  the  god  of  the  kitchen 

e  first  and  fifteenth  of  every  month,  morning  and  evening ;  some  do  it 

daily.     An  annual  sacrifice  of  meats  (p.' 159)  is  made  to  the  kitchen  god, 


MODERN  TAOISM. 


165 


and,  together  with  mock  money,  is  put  upon  the  kitchen  furnace  before  a 
slip  of  paper  representing  the  god.     The  Chinese  believe  that  the  kitchen 


god  ascends  to  heaven  and  reports  to  the 
supreme  ruler  the  behaviour  of  the  family 
during  the  year. 

When  a  man  is  very  ill  and  his  spirit, 
or  one  of  his  spirits,  is  believed  to  have 
left  his  body  and  to  be  hovering  near,  the 
Taoist  priests  repeat  their  formulas  for  his 

benefit,  and  attempt  to  bring  back  his  soul  by  the  following  means  (see 
p.  160).  A  long  bamboo  with  green  leaves  at  the  end  is  taken,  and  a 
white  cock  is  often  fastened  near  the  end.      A  two-foot  measure  is  sus- 


!66  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


pended  from  the  bamboo,  and  to  it  is  fastened  a  coat  recently  worn  by 
the  sick  man.  A  mirror  is  so  arranged  as  to  occupy  the  place  where  the 
head  would  be,  one  of  the  family  holds  the  bamboo  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion, while  a  priest  repeats  his  formulas,  with  the  name  of  the  sick  person, 
to  induce  his  spirit  to  enter  the  coat.  If  the  pole  turns  round  slowly  in  the 
hands  of  the  holder,  success  is  believed  to  have  been  attained,  and  the 
spirit  can  be  taken  back  to  the  sick  man  ;  the  coat  is  then  placed  as  soon 
as  possible  on  his  body. 

"Tall  White  Devil,"  and  "Short  Black  Devil"  (p.  161),  are  only 
foreigners'  names  for  two  of  the  five  images  of  emperors  or  rulers  who 
control  epidemics,  and  which  are  paraded  about  the  streets  of  Fu-chow. 
The  image  is  formed  of  a  bamboo  framework  in  each  case,  covered  with  a 
garment,  and  carried  by  a  man  standing  inside  it. 

Our  illustration  (on  p.  163)  depicts  a  strange  custom  observed  by  many 
families  soon  after  a  death.  First  has  come  the  loud  outburst  of  lamentation 
immediately  following  death.  The  deceased  being  believed  to  be  unable  to 
see  how  or  where  to  walk,  candles  and  incense  are  lighted  to  enable  him  to  see. 
After  the  body  has  been  laid  out,  the  sons-in-law  of  the  deceased  erect  a  sort 
of  bamboo  chandelier  as  seen  in  our  engraving,  the  body  is  on  a  table  on  one 
side  of  this,  another  table  has  candles  and  incense,  and  some  large  paper 
placards  describe  or  depict  the  state  of  the  departed.  The  long  pole  is  pushed 
gently  by  the  eldest  son,  followed  by  the  married  daughter  covered  by  a 
veil,  and  the  rest  of  the  family  ;  so  the  bridge-ladder  is  slowly  pushed  round 
several  times,  while  the  priests  chant  a  liturgy  to  the' sound  of  cymbals, 
and  all  lament  and  weep  loudly.  This  is  done  in  daylight.  The  object  is  to 
assist  the  deceased  on  his  way  to  the  abode  of  the  dead,  the  pole  or  bridge  aid- 
ing him  to  cross  rivers,  the  tree-like  ladder  to  climb  steep  places.  After  this 
wine  and  food  are  offered  to  the  deceased  by  the  eldest  son ;  the  feelings  of 
the  dead  man  being  manifested  by  the  way  in  which  their  small  copper 
"  cash  "  behave  when  shaken  out  of  his  sleeve,  Very  many  other  cere- 
monies are  observed  by  the  truly  devout  before  the  body  is  consigned  to  the 
grave,  everything  being  designed  either  to  show  the  sorrow  of  the  living  or 
to  comfort  or  help  the  deceased.  Many  of  these  customs  are  observed  for 
months.     They  vary,  like  others  mentioned,  from  district  to  district. 

On  the  forty-second  day  after  death,  it  is  believed  that  the  spirit  arrives 
at  a  certain  place  in  the  other  world,  whence  he  looks  back  on  his  old  home 
and  becomes  for  the  first  time  aware  of  his  own  decease.  He  is  then  sup- 
posed to  lose  his  appetite  and  to  be  unable  to  partake  of  the  food  provided 
for  him,  afterwards  he  is  provided  with  one  large  last  meal,  signifying  that 
he  must  thenceforth  procure  and  cook  his  own  food,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  large  amount  of  mock  paper  money  is  provided  for  him  and  burnt. 

In  addition  to  works  already  quoted,  Mr.  H.  A.  Giles's  "Gems  of  Chinese  Literature,"  1884, 
aud  "  Chuang-tzu"  (or  Chwang-tzu),  lsS'J,  may  be  consulted  with  advantage.] 


JAPAN:    PRESENTING    NEW-BORN    BABE    IN    SHtN-TO    TEMPLE. 
(The  archway  in  front  is  the  general  symbol  of  Shinto.) 


CHAPTER   VI. 
£>I)in-'toi$m  (Japan) ♦ 

Japanese  less  religious  than  Chinese— The  way  of  the  gods— Resemblance  to  Taoism— Erection  of 
temples— Ancestral  worship —Shin-to  mythology— The  sacred  mirror— Modern  reformers  of 
Shin-toism— Results  of  the  late  revolution — Hirata's  views— The  old  liturgies  — Hirata's  ritual  — 
The  god  and  goddess  of  wind— Parted  spirits — The  rulers  of  the  Unseen  -The  spirits  of  the  dead 
— Classes  of  temples— The  uji-gami — Household  gods— Priesthood  and  services— Shin-to  temples 
—The  torii— The  temples  of  Ise— Ritual— Re-building  of  temples. 

JAPAN  is  by  no  means  so  interesting  in  a  religious  point  of  view  as 
China.  The  people  are  as  a  whole  less  concerned  about  religious 
matters,  and  less  under  the  influence  of  the  dread  of  unseen  powers.  As  in 
China,  religions  exist  side  by  side  without  inconsistency  or  clash-  Japaneseless 
ing  ;  in  fact,  the  vast  majority  of  the  people  may  be  described  as  religious  than 
Shin-toists  as  well  as  Buddhists,  and  few  profess  either  religion 
exclusively,  except  in  the  province  of  Satsuma,  from  which  the  Buddhist 
priests  have  long  been  excluded.  A  philosophical  system  known  as  Siza, 
having  some  resemblance  to  Confucianism,  is  professed  by  many  of  the 

1G7 


l6S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

upper  classes,  while  also   adhering  to  Shin-toism ;  it  is  essentially  a  system 
of  moral  truths  and  maxims. 

The  term  Shin-to  literally  means  the  way  of  the  gods  or  genii;  but 

tin-  Japanese  word   which  renders  the  two    Chinese   characters  Shin- to  is 

me  way  of  Kami-no-michi.     There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  it  is  properly 

the  gods,  described  as  animism,  and  is  largely  developed  from  ancestor- 
worship.  Thus  there  is  a  remarkable  resemblance  in  essence  to  Chinese 
Resemblance  Taoism  and  ancestor- worship,  though  the  exaggerated  features  of 

to  Taoism.  ^he  Chinese  types  are  absent.  The  Shin-to  cult  is  very  ancient, 
probably  dating  from  before  the  Japanese  immigration,  while  the  name 
Shin-to  only  came  into  use  after  the  introduction  of  Buddhism,  as  a  means 
of  distinguishing  between  the  two.  It  is  useless  to  speculate  which  origi- 
nated first,  the  worship  of  ancestors,  or  that  of  the  nature-deities.  From  time 
immemorial  offerings  have  been  presented  to  the  household  or  family  spirits 
or  deities,  consisting  of  swords,  food,  clothing,  horses,  etc,  all  of  which  are  of 
the  class  usually  offered  to  ancestral-spirits.  Very  early  no  doubt  the  spirit 
or  spirits  worshipped  by  the  ruler  acquired  pre-eminence.  When  the  wor- 
ship of  the  spirits  of  trees,  animals,  rivers,  rocks,  wind,  fire,  mountains,  and 
heavenly  bodies  arose,  we  cannot  tell,  but  it  could  scarcely  have  been  till  a 
subsequent  period  that  the  Mikado's  earliest  ancestor  was  identified  with 
Erection  of  the  sun,  for  which  a  separate  temple  was  erected  at  least  fifteen 

temples,  hundred  years  ago,  and  a  daughter  of  the  Mikado  was  appointed 
chief  priestess.  Then  the  erection  of  temples  to  ancestors  became  general, 
but  they  were  of  a  simple  character,  and  usually  contained  no  image  of  the 
god,  but  merely  a  mirror  as  an  emblem.  These  temples  had  priests  who 
were  either  direct  descendants  of  the  deified  ancestor  or  of  his  chief  attendant ; 
Ancestral   and  this  custom  largely  continues  to  the  present  day.    Thus  ances- 

worship.  |ra|  worship  is  a  very  essential  element  in  Japanese  religion  ; 
and,  as  Mr.  Satow  tells  us,  "  in  almost  every  Japanese  house,  by  the  side  of 
the  domestic  altar  to  the  Shin-to  gods  will  be  found  the  shrine  of  the 
favourite  Buddhist  deity,  and  the  memorial  tablets  of  dead  members 
of  the  family,  who  immediately  on  their  decease  become  '  Bucldhas  ' 
to  whom  prayers  may  be  offered  up."  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
most  popular  and  most  worshipped  gods  are  these  who  are  the  reputed 
ancestors  of  the  Mikado,  and  deified  heroes  even  of  modern  times.  So  much 
is  this  the  case  that  no  separation  or  distinction  is  made  by  the  Japanese 

shin-to     between  the  Shin-to  mythology  and  their  own  national  history. 

ethology.  National  egotism  makes  Japan  the  first  country  created,  and  does 
not  trouble  itself  about  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  oldest  cosmogony,  the 
Kojiki,  dating  from  the  eighth  century  a.d.,  recounts  that  at  the  beginning 
»t  the  world  three  gods  came  into  existence  in  succession,  named  the  Master 
of  the  Centre  of  Heaven,  the  August  High-August-Producing  Deity,  and  the 
Divine-Producing  Deity.  Then  followed  a  series  of  pairs  of  deities,  repre- 
senting the  stages  of  creation,  concluding  with  Isanagi  and  Isanami,  the 
two  parents  of  the  earth,  sun,  moon,  and  all  living  creatures.  A  most  fanci- 
ful origin  of  all  these  and  of  many  things  on  earth  from  these  two  parents 


SHIN-TOISM  {JAPAN).  169 


is  related.  Amaterasu,  the  sun-goddess,  was  tke  ancestor  of  the  first  Japanese 
sovereign.  Jimmu  Tenno,  descended  from  Ninigi-no-mikoto,  the  adopted 
grandson  of  the  sun-goddess,  is  the  early  ruler  from  whom  the  sovereign 
known  to  Europeans  as  the  Mikado  is  descended,  the  name  by  which  he  is 
known  to  the  Japanese  being  Teushi,  or  Son  of  Heaven.  When  the  sun- 
goddess  made  Ninigi  sovereign  of  Japan,  she  delivered  to  him  "  the  way  of  the 
gods,"  and  decreed  that  his  dynasty  should  be  immovable  as  long  as  the  sun 
and  moon  should  endure.  She  gave  to  him  three  sacred  emblems,  the 
mirror,  sword,  and  stone,  saying  as  to  the  first,  "  Look  upon  this  The  sacred 
mirror  as  my  spirit,  keep  it  in  the  same  house  and  on  the  same  mirror, 
floor  with  yourself,  and  worship  it  as  if  you  were  worshipping  my  actual 
presence."  The  story  is,  that  in  the  year  92  B.C.  the  reigning  Teushi 
removed  it  to  a  temple,  whence,  after  further  removals,  it  was  deposited  in 
b.c.  4,  in  the  Naiku  temple  or  palace  at  Yamada,  in  the  province  of  Ise. 
Most  extravagant  names  are  given  to  the  various  deities,  each  name  being 
preceded  by  "  Kami,"  which  is  applicable  to  a  god,  goddess,  or  spirit,  while 
the  Mikado's  ordinary  title  is  O-Kami.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
translation  god  for  this  term,  is  liable  to  be  misleading,  for  its  real  meaning 
is  simply  "  superior,"  and  very  varied  significations  may  be  given  to  it. 

A  remarkable  revival  of  pure  Shinto  took  place  in  the  last  and  present 
i  centuries,  endeavouring  to  discover  and  re-establish  the  ancient  religious 
belief  as  it  was  before  Buddhism  and  Confucianism  modified  it.  Modern 
It  has  produced  several  notable  scholars,  especially  Mabuchi  reformers  of 
(1697-17(39),  Motoori  (1730-1801)  and  Hirata  (1776-18-13).  The  SMn-toism- 
latter  published  something  like  a  hundred  separate  works.  From  the  ninth 
to  the  seventeenth  centuries  Buddhism  was  paramount  in  Japan,  including 
and  absorbing  most  of  the  old  Shin-toism.  But  the  revival  of  the  older 
views  by  these  scholars  caused  a  very  marked  reaction,  the  support  of  the 
Mikado  and  his  court  being  obtained  for  them  while  the  Shogun  and  his 
following  disliked  them.  The  new  school  hoped,  at  the  revolution  of  1868, 
to  get  Buddhism  suppressed,  and  Shin-to  made  the  one  national  religion  ; 
but  Western  ideas  and  a  certain  carelessness  about  religion  combined  to 

limit  the  reform  to  a  liberation  of  Shin-toism  from  the  fetters  of  „     u    r 
in  •  n  Results  of 

Buddhism,    and   the   separation   of    one   from  the    other.      The     the  late 

Buddhist  priests  were  expelled  from  the  Shin-to  temples,   and  revolutlon- 

the  excrescences  and  additions  which  they  had  imposed  upon  them  were 

taken     away,    including    many    treasures    and    architectural    ornaments. 

(Nevertheless  Buddhism  once  more  proved  its  power  of  overcoming  obstacles 

knd    opposition,    and   has   recently   been    regaining    much   of    its   former 

nfluence,    while    Shin-toism    has   again    declined.      Still   its    temples    are 

supported  by  the  Government  and  by  local  revenues,  and  certain  yearly 

estivals  at  court  are  attended  by  all  the  principal  officials.     Yet  on  the 

vhole  it  occupies  about  the  same  position  that  it  has  done  for  a  thousand 

rears  past. 

The  result  of  Hirata's  studies  is,  that  in  ancient  times  the  celebration  of 

he  worship  of  the  gods  was  the  chief  duty  of  the  Mikado.     When  the  first 


i7o  7  HE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Mikado  descended  from  heaven,  he  was  instructed  by  his  divine  ancestors 
mrata's    now  to  ri^e  tne  country.    They  taught  him  that  everything  in  this 
views,      world  depended  on  the  spirits  of  the  gods  of  heaven  and  earth, 
and  that  consequently  their  worship  was  of  primary  importance.     The  gods 
"i-  spirits)  who  worked  injuries  must  be  appeased,  so  that  they  might  not 
punish  those  who  had  offended  them;  and  all  the  gods  must  be  worshipped, 
so  that  they  might  be  induced  to  increase  their  favours.    The  art  of  govern- 
ment was  termed  "  worshipping,"  and  personal  worship  by  the  sovereign 
was  essential.     Consequently  the  early  Mikados  regularly  prayed,  that  the 
people  might  have  sufficient  food,  clothing,  and  protection  from  the  elements ; 
and  twice  a  year  they  celebrated  the  festival  of  general  purification,  by  which 
the  whole  nation  was  purged  of  calamities,  offences,  and  pollutions. 

However  firmly  Hirata  believed  that  he  was  relating  the  old  beliefs 
before  the  influence  of  Chinese  thought,  we  cannot  fail  to  see  here  a  similar 
The  0id  idea  to  that  of  the  Chinese  State  religion  ;  and  thus  we  may  date 
liturgies,  ^q^  back  to  a  period  in  the  dim  past  when  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese  stocks  had  not  yet  separated.  The  rites  of  Shin-to  for  many 
centuries  occupied  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  rules  and  ceremonies  of  the 
court,  ten  of  the  fifty  volumes  of  the  Yengi  Shiki  being  devoted  to  them, 
including  liturgies  for  the  general  festivals,  the  names  of  3,132  gods  in  2,861 
temples  at  which  the  Court  worshipped,  either  personally  or  by  envo3'S. 
Every  important  matter  was  preceded  by  worship  of  the  gods.  Hirata  says 
that,  as  it  is  the  duty  of  subjects  to  imitate  the  incarnate  god  who  is  their 
sovereign,  every  man  must  worship  his  ancestors  and  the  gods  from  whom 
they  spring ;  but  as  the  number  of  gods  possessing  different  functions  is  so 
mrata's  great,  it  is  convenient  to  worship  only  the  most  important  by 
ritual  name,  and  to  include  the  rest  in  a  general  petition.  Those  who 
cannot  go  through  the  whole  of  the  morning  prayers,  may  content  them- 
selves with  adoring  the  emperor's  palace,  the  domestic  spirits,  the  spirits  of 
their  ancestors,  their  local  patron  god,  and  the  deity  of  their  particular 
calling.  His  view  of  the  superiority  of  the  Mikado's  prayers  is  clearly 
shown  in  the  following  extract.  "  In  praying  to  the  gods,  the  blessings 
which  each  has  it  in  his  power  to  bestow  are  to  be  mentioned  in  a  few 
words,  and  they  are  not  to  be  annoyed  with  greedy  petitions,  for  the 
Mikado  in  his  palace  offers  up  petitions  daily  on  behalf  of  his  people,  which 
are  far  more  effectual  than  those  of  his  subjects.  Rising  early  in  the 
morning,  wash  your  face  and  hands,  rinse  out  the  mouth,  and  cleanse 
the  body.  Then  turn  towards  the  province  of  Yamato,  strike  the  palms 
together  twice,  and  worship,  bowing  the  head  to  the  ground.  The  proper 
posture  is  that  of  kneeling  on  the  heels,  which  is  ordinarily  assumed  in 
saluting  a  superior." 

Hirata  gives  the  following  explanation  of  the  names  of  the  god  and 

The  god  and  Sodcless  °f  wincl :  Their  first  names  mean  Pillar  of  Heaven  and 

goddess  of  Pillar  of  Earth,  and  they  are  given  because  the  wind  pervades 

the  space  between  Heaven  and  Earth  and  supports  the  former, 

as  a  pillar  supports  the  roof  of  a  house.     Part  of  the  prayer  to  these  deities 


SHIN-TO  ISM  {JAPAN).  171 

runs  thus  :  "  I  say  with  awe,  deign  to  bless  me  by  correcting  the  unwitting- 
faults  which,  seen  and  heard  by  you,  I  have  committed,  by  blowing  off  and 
clearing  away  the  calamities  which  evil  gods  might  inflict,  by  causing  me 
to  live  long  like  the  hard  and  lasting  rock,  and  by  repeating  to  the  gods  of 
heavenly  origin  and  the  gods  of  earthly  origin  the  petitions  which  I  present 
every  day,  along  with  your  breath,  that  they  may  hear  with  the  sharp- 
earedness  of  the  forth-galloping  colt."  Hirata  classifies  faults  into  those 
committed  consciously  and  unconsciously.  The  latter,  he  says,  are  com- 
mitted by  every  one  ;  and  if  we  pray  that  such  as  we  have  committed  may 
be  corrected,  the  gods  are  willing  to  pardon  them.  By  evil  gods  he  means 
bad  deities  and  demons  who  work  harm  to  society  and  individuals.  These 
spirits  originated,  he  states,  from  the  impurities  contracted  by  Izanagi 
during  his  visit  to  the  nether  world,  and  cast  off  by  him  during  the 
processes  of  purification.  They  subsequently  increased  in  number, 
especially  after  the  introduction  of  Buddhism.  The  two  deities  of  wind 
can,  he  says,  blow  away  anything  it  pleases  them  to  get  rid  of,  including 
the  calamities  which  evil  spirits  endeavour  to  inflict.  Men  are  dependent 
upon  them  for  the  breath  which  enables  them  to  live  ;  and  therefore  it  is 
right  to  pray  to  them  for  long  life,  and  to  carry  their  prayers  to  the  gods. 

Another  prayer  given  by  Hirata,  illustrates  a  curious  Shin-to  doctrine, 
according  to  which  a  god  throws  off  portions  by  fissure,  producing  what  are 
called  Parted  Spirits,  with  special  functions.  Thus  a  grand-  parted 
daughter  of  the  god  of  fire  and  the  goddess  of  soil  is  described  spirits, 
by  eight  different  names,  which  signify  that  she  is  goddess  of  all  kinds  of 
food.  Two  of  the  parted  spirits  thrown  off  by  her  are  named  producer  of 
all  trees  and  parent  of  all  grasses.  Strange  to  say,  we  hear  of  the  dead 
body  of  this  goddess  of  food,  from  which  dead  body  rice  and  other  seeds, 
cattle,  and  the  silkworm  were  produced.  Consequently  it  early  became  a 
custom  to  worship  this  goddess  on  moving  into  a  new  house,  built  as  it  was 
of  the  wood  and  thatched  with  the  grass  of  which  she  was  the  creator. 

The  paired  grouping  of  the  gods  is  very  noticeable  in  Japan.  One  ot 
the  most  noteworthy  parts  of  Hirata's  "  Tama-dasuki "  is  that  which  refers 
to  Oko-kuni-nushi,  who  rules  the  Unseen,  and  his  consort  Suseri-  The  Rulers  of 
bime.  The  term  Unseen,  he  says,  includes  "  peace  or  disturbance  the  Unseen- 
in  the  empire,  its  prosperity  and  adversity,  the  life  and  death,  good  and 
bad  fortune  of  human  beings,  in  fine,  every  supernatural  event  which 
cannot  be  ascribed  to  a  definite  author."  A  man's  secret  sins  draw  down 
upon  him  the  hatred  of  the  invisible  gods,  who  inflict  diseases,  misfortunes, 
short  life,  etc.  Conversely,  the  gods  bestow  happiness  and  blessings  on 
those  who  practise  good,  giving  them  exemption  from  disease,  good  luck, 
long  life,  and  prosperity  to  their  descendants.  Hirata's  teaching  here 
becomes  more  lofty,  and  worthy  of  all  commendation.  "  Never  mind  the 
praise  or  blame  of  fellow-men,"  he  says,  "  but  act  so  that  you  need  not  be 
jashamed  before  the  gods  of  the  Unseen.  If  you  desire  to  practise  true 
virtue,  learn  to  stand  in  awe  of  the  Unseen,  and  that  will  prevent  you  from 
doing  wrong.     Make  a  vow  to  the  god  who  rules  over  the  Unseen,  and 


I?2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


cultivate  the  conscience  implanted  in  you,  and  then  you  will  never  wander" 
from  the  way.  You  cannot  hope  to  live  more  than  a  hundred  years  under 
the  most  favourable  circumstances;  but  as  you  will  go  to  the  unseen  realm 
of  Oko-kuni-nushi  after  death,  and  be  subject  to  his  rule,  learn  betimes  to 
bow  down  before  him." 

We  are  told  by  Hirata  that  the  spirits  of  the  dead  continue  to  exist  in 
the  unseen  world,  which  is  everywhere  about  us,  and  that  they  all  become 
■me  spirits  of  gods  (kami)  of  varying  character  and  degrees  of  influence.    While 

the  dead.  some  reside  in  temples  built  in  their  honour,  others  hover  near 
their  tombs,  and  continue  to  render  services  to  their  prince,  parents,  wife, 
and  children  as  when  they  wrere  in  the  body. 

Just  as  in  China,  we  find  chief  provincial  temples,  city  temples,  and 

village  temples  ;   and  all  new-born  infants  have  to  be  presented  to  the  local 

classes  of   deity  to  be  put  under  his  protection.     The  local  deity  is  correctly 

temples.  ca}}et]  <<  gOC[  0f  the  native  earth  or  land."  There  are  other  local 
deities  (uji-gami)  which  really  signify  the  common  ancestor  of  a  number  of 
people  who  bear  the  same  name,  or  one  who  has  merited  equivalent  honours 
by  benefits.  The  local  differences  between  people,  animals,  and  plants,  are 
explained  as  being  due  to  the  different  character  of  the  patron  god.  All 
The       the  uji-gami  are  supposed  to  rule  the  fortunes  of  human  beings 

uji-gami.  |jefore  anc[  after  birth,  and  even  after  death.  In  some  pro- 
vinces it  is  customary  before  starting  on  a  journey  to  proceed  to  the  temple 
of  the  local  uji-gami  and  beg  for  his  protection.  The  priest  then  gives  him 
a  paper  charm  to  protect  him  from  harm  on  the  road ;  the  traveller  also- 
takes  a  little  sand  from  the  site  of  the  temple,  which  he  mixes  in  small 
quantities  with  water  and  drinks  on  the  journey  whenever  he  feels  uncom- 
fortable. The  remains  of  the  sand  must  be  duly  returned  when  he  gets 
back,  and  naturally  he  returns  thanks  for  the  protection  afforded.  It  is  a 
still  more  serious  event  when  a  person  removes  his  residence  to  another 
place.  The  uji-gami  of  his  old  home  has  to  make  arrangements  with  that; 
of  the  new  one,  else  all  will  not  be  right.  Consequently  the  man  must  take 
due  leave  of  his  old  uji-gami,  and  pay  a  visit  to  the  new  one  as  soon  as 
possible.  Whatever  may  be  the  apparent  reasons  which  a  man  may  think 
have  induced  him  to  change  his  residence,  it  is  said  that  there  can  be  only 
two ;  one  being  that  he  has  offended  the  uji-gami  of  his  old  home  and  is 
expelled,  the  other,  that  the  uji-gami  of  the  new  home  has  arranged  his 
removal. 

The  household  gods  of  the  Japanese  represent  the  most  universally 
practised  form  of  Japanese  worship.     Their  shrine  contains  tablets  covered 

Household  with  paper,  on  which  are  painted  the  titles  of  the  gods  of  Ise,  and 
of  other  gods  in  whom  the  householder  places  his  trust.  Before 
these  tablets  the  householder  offers  up  on  particular  days,  such  as  the  first 
day  of  the  year,  the  2nd,  15th  and  28th  of  the  month,  sake,  the  favourite 
Japanese  drink,  rice,  and  leafy  twigs  of  the  sacred  tree  (Cleyera  Japonica) 
belonging  to  the  camellia  and  tea  order.  Every  evening  a  saucer  of  oil  with 
a  lighted  wick  in  it  is  placed  before  the  domestic  shrine.     The  following  is 


SHIN- TO  ISM  (JAPAN).  173 

Hirata's  version  of  the  proper  prayer  to  be  made  before  it :  "  Reverently 
adoring  the  great  god  of  the  two  palaces  of  Ise  in  the  first  place,  the  eight 
hundred  myriads  of  celestial  gods,  the  eight  hundred  myriads  of  terrestrial 
gods,  all  the  fifteen  hundred  myriads  of  gods  to  whom  are  consecrated  the 
great  and  small  temples  in  all  provinces,  all  islands,  and  all  places  of  the 
Great  Land  of  Eight  Islands  (Japan),  the  fifteen  hundred  myriads  of  gods 
whom  they  cause  to  serve  them,  and  the  gods  of  branch  palaces  and  branch 
temples,  and  sohoclo-no-kami  (the  scare-crow,  reputed  to  know  everything  in 
the  empire),  whom  I  have  invited  to  the  shrine  set  up  on  this  divine  shelf, 
and  to  whom  I  offer  praises  day  by  day,  I  pray  with  awe  that  they  will  deign 
to  correct  the  unwitting  faults  which,  heard  and  seen  by  them,  I  have 
committed,  and  blessing  and  favouring  me  according  to  the  powers  which 
they  severally  wield,  cause  me  to  follow  the  divine  example,  and  to  perform 
good  works  in  the  Way." 

Shin-toism  is  remarkable  for  its  lack  of  public  services,  for  the  incon- 
spicuous part  played  by  its  priests,  and  for  the  simplicity  of  character  of  its 
temples.  The  priests  are  not  celibates,  and  may  take  up  any  other  Priesthood 
calling.  They  offer  morning  and  evening  sacrifices,  and  when  so and  serylces- 
engaged  wear  a  long  loose  gown  with  wide  sleeves  and  a  girdle,  and  on  the 
head  a  black  cap  bound  round  the  head  by  abroad  white  fillet.  The  priests 
recite  prayers  and  praises  of  which  we  have  given  some  types,  and  present 
offerings  of  rice,  fish,  fruits,  flesh,  sake,  etc.  A  general  purification  service 
is  held  twice  a  year  in  many  of  the  principal  Shin-to  temples,  to  wash  away 
the  sins  of  the  people  with  water.  Formerly  it  was  practised  also  in  indi- 
vidual cases  ;  and  sins  or  crimes  were  expiated  by  the  sacrifice  of  valuable 
gifts  in  proportion  to  the  fault  committed. 

Shin-to  temples  usually  have  a  chapel  of  two  chambers,  the  inner  con- 
taining the  emblem  of  the  god,  usually  a  mirror,  sometimes  a  sword,  or 
even  a  curious  stone,  which  the  priest  himself  may  only  see  shin-to 
rarely,  and  kept  in  a  box  within  other  boxes,  covered  with  many  temPles- 
wrappings  of  silk  and  brocade.  The  outer  hall  contains  an  upright  wand, 
from  which  hang  pieces  of  white  paper  cut  out  to  resemble  the  offerings  of 
cloth  anciently  made  at  festivals.  In  front  of  the  chapel,  and  connected 
with  it  by  an  ante-chamber,  may  usually  be  seen  an  oratory,  sometimes 
with  a  gong  over  its  entrance,  by  ringing  which  the  worshipper  calls  the 
attention  of  his  god  ;  sometimes  this  oratory  is  only  a  shed  on  four  uprights, 
before  which  the  worshipper  bows  and  clasps  his  hands  together,  but  utters 
no  audible  prayer ;  he  then  throws  a  few  copper  coins  on  the  floor  and 
departs.  The  priests  of  these  temples  eke  out  their  scanty  income  by  selling 
slips  of  paper  bearing  the  title  of  the  god  as  charms.  Near  the  main  build- 
ing there  may  often  be  additional  buildings  dedicated  to  various  Shin-to 
deities  ;  around  the  whole  is  a  grove  of  trees.  There  is  no  elaboration  of 
architecture  or  design  or  colouring  in  these  temples,  the  type  of  which  is 
said  to  be  the  primeval  hut,  many  having  thatched  roofs,  though  some  are 
tiled  or  have  coppered  roofs.  Normally,  they  are  made  entirely  of  wood, 
of  the  finest  quality ;   the  flooring  is  wooden,  raised  some  feet  above  the 


I74  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


ground,  allowing  of  a  balcony  all  round  outside,  approached  by  a  flight  of 

steps. 

Another  distinctive  feature  of  a  Shin-to  temple  is  the  torn,  literally 

"  bird-perch,"  an  arch  of  very  plain  form  at  the  entrance  to  the  grounds, 

and  often  repeated  at  intervals  up  to  the  temple.     It  is  never 

•me  torii.    ( jecorateci  with  carving,  but  is  sometimes  made  of  stone  or  bronze, 

or  painted  bright  red  and  inscribed  with  the  names  of  the  gods  to  whom 

the  temple  is  dedicated. 

There  were  formerly  many  highly  decorated  temples,  but  this  was  the 
work  of  the  Buddhists  when  they  got  control  of  them.  In  the  precincts  of 
many  temples  they  erected  pagodas,  chapels  to  their  deities,  bell  and  drum 
towers,  etc.  All  the  distinctively  Buddhist  buildings  in  Shin-to  grounds 
were  however,  destroyed  after  1808  ;  but  the  chapels  which  they  had  built 
to  Shin-to  gods  were  left  untouched,  so  that  many  of  these  remain,  highly 
decorated  with  carvings,  gilt  fastenings,  and  bright  colouring. 

The  famous  temples  of  Ise  at  Yamato,  the  Naiku  and  the  Geku,  show 
the  pure  Shin-to  simplicity,  and  are  among  the  most  ancient  shrines  of  the 
The  temples  religion.  They  are  annually  visited  by  great  numbers  of  pil- 
ofise.  grims.  At  these  temples,  says  a  recent  visitor,  are  to  be  seen 
"  no  grandeur  of  form  or  cunning  workmanship,  no  sacrifices,  hardly  any 
symbols.  Except  that  the  main  posts  are  supported  on  hewn-stone  blocks 
instead  of  entering  the  ground,  that  the  floors  are  raised,  and  that  wooden 
walls  have  taken  the  place  of  mats,  the  buildings  approximate  in  form  and 
structure  to  the  primeval  Japanese  hut.  Wood  and  thatch  form  the 
materials ;  brass,  bronze,  and  iron,  scantily  used,  the  sole  adornments ;  plain 
fences  of  posts,  rails,  and  palisades  the  outer  and  inner  cathedral  enclosures. 
There  is  no  patch  of  paint  or  scrap  of  carving — no  colour  but  the  browns 
and  drabs  of  thatch  and  weather-worn  woodwork.  For  gateways  there  are 
merely  open  torii,  constmcted  of  bare  round  logs,  in  the  form  with  which 
the  world  is  now  familiar ;  for  gates  nought  but  hanging  screens  of  thin 
white  silk ;  for  sacrifices,  daily  offerings  of  water,  rice,  fish,  salt,  and  other 
simple  products  of  the  land  and  sea.  The  very  lamps  for  the  service  of  the 
temple  are  of  coarse  white  paper,  decorated  only  in  black,  with  the  chry- 
santhemum flower,  which  is  the  crest  of  the  Son  of  Heaven.  As  for 
emblems,  they  too  are  of  the  same  simple  and  unaffected  type.  Rice-straw 
ropes  and  wisps,  sprigs  and  wands  of  the  rare  and  sacred  sakaki  tree  (C ley  era 
Japonica),  hanging  slips  of  notched  white  paper — each  symbolical  of  some 
incident  in  the  well-known  legend  of  the  Sun-goddess's  enticement  out  of 
the  cave  to  which  she  had  retired,  in  wrath  and  pain,  from  the  Moon-god's 
violence — that  is  all.  Though  the  sacred  mirror  and  its  copies  are  there 
too,  they  are  never  now  seen  by  human  eyes.  For  each  there  is  a  spruce- 
wood  box,  shrouded  in  a  wrapper  of  plain  white  silk  and  covered  by  a 
wooden  cage,  which  again  is  completely  hidden  under  a  voluminous  silken 
mantle.  Ay  ithin  the  box  reposes  the  mirror,  in  a  sack  of  brocade,  or  rather 
in  a  succession  of  sacks,  for,  as  soon  as  one  begins  to  perish  from  age,  a  new 
one  is  added  without  removing  it. 


SHIN-TO  ISM  {JAPAN).  175 


"  Of  public  ritual  at  these  shrines  there  is  virtually  none,  except  on 
occasional  feast-days ;  and  even  then  it  is  of  the  most  unpretending  kind. 
Two  or  three  plain-robed  priests,  calling  the  deity's  attention  by 
strokes  upon  a  gong,  recite  short  prayers  and  formulas  for  a  few 
minutes,  worship,  bow  the  head,  and  retire.  Now  and  then  the  Tcagura — a 
maiden  dance  of  great  antiquity,  and  said  to  be  emblematic  of  the  goddess 
Uzume's  choragic  feats  before  the  cave  of  Amaterasu — is  performed  in  a 
building  outside  of  the  temple ;  but  it  is  not  a  feature  of  the  ritual  proper. 
And  the  lay- worshippers  ;  what  of  them  ?  Again  the  same  tale  of  pro- 
found simplicity.  First,  purified  by  washing  their  hands  in  the  neighbour- 
ing river,  they  advance  to  the  silk  screen  at  the  fourth  torii,  cast  a  few 
coppers  into  the  receptacle  for  tribute,  clap  their  hands  twice  together,  and 
then,  with  bowed  heads  and  bended  knees,  or  in  a  kneeling  posture,  remain 
for  a  minute  or  so  in  silent  or  muttered  prayer.  Petitions  for  prosperity 
and  long  life,  for  correction  of  faults,  and  exemption  from  evil,  sin,  calamity, 
and  pestilence — these,  with  humble  expressions  of  worship,  all  in  the  fewest 
possible  words,  form  the  Shin-to  believer's  prayer." 

These  temples  are  allowed  to  decay  by  natural  processes,  although 
every  part  of  the  grounds  is  kept  scrupulously  neat  and  clean.  But  the 
buildings  are  renewed  every  twenty  years,  not  by  pulling  down  Rebmiding 
one  set  and  building  another  in  its  place,  but  by  using  a  precisely  of  temples. 
I  similar  site  near  by,  and  building  the  new  temple  on  it,  reproducing  the 
old  one  most  exactly  in  every  detail.  Thus  two  sites  are  alternately  occu- 
pied.    The  trees  in  the  surrounding  groves  are  the  finest  in  Japan. 

Such  is  the  Shin-to  system  of  Japan,  which,  evidently  akin  to  the 
State  and  ancestral  worship  of  China,  falls  short  of  it  in  the  slightness  of 
its  associated  moral  teaching.  Perhaps  this  is  the  reason  why  it  appears  to 
have  on  the  whole  but  a  moderate  hold  on  the  Japanese,  and  why  they 
have  shown  so  much  readiness  on  the  one  hand  to  accept  the  more  definite 
moral  teaching  and  the  more  astounding  marvels  of  Buddhism,  and  on  the 
other  to  throw  aside  ancestral  beliefs,  and  seek  a  new  philosophy  and 
religion  from  Europe. 

["Introduction  to  Murray's  Handbook  for  Japan:  Religious,"  by  E.  M.  Satow.     "  The  Revival 
of  Pure  Shin-to,"  and  other  papers  in  "  Transactions  of  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan."] 


VABONA   (FKOM   A   NATIVE    PICTURE). 

BOOK  III. 


BEAHMANI8M. 


CHAPTER  I. 


Analogies  to  Greek  and  Roman  Religion— Date  of  the  Rig-- Veda,  anterior  to  writing— Language  of 
Rig- Veda  —  Religious  basis— The  earliest  hymns— Worship  of  powers  of  Nature  personified— 
Dyaus  and  Prithivi  (heaven  and  earth)— The  origin  of  things— Mitra  and  Varuna— Indra,  the  god 
of  the  clear  blue  sky— The  Maruts,  or  storm-gods— The  sun-gods,  Surya  and  Savltri— Pushan — 
Soma,  the  Indian  Bacchus  or  Dionysus— Ushas,  the  dawn  goddess— Agni,  the  god  of  fire— 
Tvashtri— The  Asvins— Brahmanaspati  —  Vishnu— Yama,  and  a  future  life— Virtues  rewarded  by 
heaven -Future  punishment— Transition  to  monotheism  and  pantheism— Visvakarman— Absence 
of  later  Hindu  doctrines— Organisation  of  early  Hindus— Morals— The  other  Vedas— The  Brah- 
manas  -Human  sacrifice- Animal  sacrifice— Tradition  of  a  flood— Immortality— Idea  of  the  sun's 
course— Origin  of  caste  —  Self-assertion  of  Brahmans— Nature  of  the  Brahmanas— Household 
sacrifices— Purification— Fasting- Establishment  of  sacrificial  fires— The  Upanishads— The  syl- 
lable Om— The  origin  of  the  world  in  ether— The  Atman,  or  self-existent— The  Svetas-vatara— 
Transmigration  of  souls  —Purpose  of  the  Upanishads. 

Analogies  to  "VTTHATEVER  may  have  been  the  history  of  the  Aryans,  by 
Roman1  »  *  whom  the  Vedas1  were  produced,  previous  to  their  enter- 
reiigion.    mg  India,  it  is  certain  that  when  they  did  so,  long  before  Budd- 

1  See  Muir,  "  Original  Sanskrit  Texts"  (M.) ;  Max  Muller,  "History  of  Ancient  Sanskrit  Litera- 
ture,    "Lectures  on  the  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion,''  "  Sacred  Books  of  the  East  "  (M.  M.) ; 
Bir_Moniet  Williams,  "Indian  Wisdom,"   "Hinduism"  (M.  W.) ;   Sir  W.  W.  Hunter,  "India"; 
Wilson's  works. 

176 


H.  II. 


THE  EARLY   VEDIC  RELIGION.  177 

hism  took  its  rise,  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  they  had  developed  religious 
ideas  and  conceptions  which  present  singular  analogies  and  similarities  to 
those  which  appear  to  be  most  primitive  among  the  Greeks;  and  which 
suggest,  if  they  do  not  prove,  that  the  European  and  Hindu  Aryans  sprang 
from  a  common  stock.     When  we  find  their  divinities  termed  "  devas,"  or 

the  shining  ones,"  and  recognise  the  same  word  in  the  Latin  Deus, 
divinity  ;  when  we  compare  the  Dyaush-pitar  (Heaven-Father)  of  San- 
skrit, with  Jupiter  or  Dies-piter  of  Rome,  and  the  Zeus  of  Greece  ;  Varuna, 
the  encompassing  sky  in  Sanskrit,  with  Ouranos  Uranus  in  Greek ;  and 
many  other  like  words,  we  cannot  help  realising  that,  strange  as  it  might 
iseem  at  first,  Brahmanism  and  Greek  and  Latin  religion  sprang  from 
similar  source.  And  it  is  not  very  important  which  is  the  older.  We 
know  that  the  Hindu  sacred  books,  the  Vedas, — at  any  rate  some  of  them, 
— are  among  the  oldest  of  extant  human  compositions,  and  exhibit  to  us 
some  of  the  earliest  human  ideas  that  were  handed  down  by  writing. 

The  best  opinions  place  the  date  of  the  Rig- Veda  somewhere  between 
J800  and  1200  b.c.  The  collection  consists  of  ten  books,  containing  altogether 
p.,017  hymns  ;  eight  out  of  ten  books  begin  with  hymns  addressed  Date  of  the 
to  Agni,  and  others  addressed  to  Indra  follow.  It  appears  pro-  Ri£-Veda- 
table  that  at  least  two  distinct  generations  or  series  of  authors  composed 
them,  the  later  being  more  imitative  and  reflective  ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
some  of  the  hymns  date  from  a  period  earlier  even  than  1200  b.c.  In  the 
whole  series  there  is  no  reference  to  anything  connected  with  writing,  and 
this  suggests  that  they  are  relatively  anterior  to  the  Book  of  Exodus,  where 

books  "  and  writing  are  distinctly  mentioned.  Even  long  after  the  period 
rf  the  Rig- Veda,  writing  is  never  mentioned.  Thus  we  must  ascribe  £he 
3reservation  of  these  wonderful  collections  entirely  to  memory,  Anterior  to 
which  is,  no  doubt,  equal  to  the  task.  Many  years,  we  know,  writing, 
ire  still  regularly  spent  by  Brahmans  in  the  slow,  methodical  learning  and 
repetition  of  their  sacred  literature  ;  and  there  is  every  sign  of  this  habit 
raving  been  handed  down  from  a  period  when  no  other  means  of  preservirg 
bhe  Vedas  existed.  In  ancient  compositions,  later  than  the  Rig- Veda,  we 
ire  told  in  detail  every  event  in  the  life  of  a  Brahman,  but  there  is  no 
nention  of  his  learning  to  write.  It  is  not  till  we  come  to  the  Laws  of 
Vtanu  that  writing  is  spoken  of. 

The  very  language  of  the  Rig- Veda  is  a  further  confirmation  of  its 
mtiquity.  The  words  are  so  difficult  of  explanation  as  to  have  given  rise  to 
extensive  commentaries  ever  since.  When  the  words  are  known,  Language  of 
yreat  differences  of  opinion  arise  as  to  how  they  are  to  be  con-  Ri&-Veda- 
lected  together,  or  what  idea  they  represent.  Often  the  most  puerile  or 
rrelevant  things  (to  us)  are  interspersed  among  the  loftiest  sentiments,  and 
jjreat  verbosity  alternates  with  the  most  terse  and  pregnant  aphorisms. 
This  precludes  the  idea  of  single  authorship  of  any  considerable  portions. 
!n  fact,  early  Hindu  literature  was  not  concerned  about  authorship  in  the 
nodern  sense.  The  word  Veda,  meaning  "  knowledge,"  clearly  refers  to 
divine  knowledge,  imagined  as  proceeding  like  breath  from  the  self-existent 

N 


i78  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Spirit,  and  inspiring  a  class  of  sages  called  Rishis ;  and  thus  it  is  held  to  this 
day  to  be  absolutely  infallible. 

The  general  form  of  the  Veclas  is  that  of  the  simplest  lyrical  poetry, 
with  a  not  very  regular  metrical  flow  ;  and  the  matter  is  almost  exclusively 
Religious  religious.  This  fact  is  regarded  as  due  largely  to  the  character 
basis.  0f  tne  people.  "  No  great  people,  surely,"  said  Prof.  Whitney, 
; '  ever  presented  the  spectacle  of  a  development  more  predominantly  reli- 
gious ;  none  ever  grounded  its  whole  fabric  of  social  and  political  life  more 
absolutely  on  a  religious  basis  ;  none  ever  meditated  more  deeply  and  ex- 
clusively on  things  supernatural ;  none  ever  rose,  on  the  one  hand,  higher 
into  the  airy  regions  of  a  purely  speculative  creed,  or  sank,  on  the  other, 
deeper  into  degrading  superstitions — the  two  extremes  to  which  such  a 
tendency  naturally  leads." 

Although  the   earliest  Vedic   hymns  are  so  ancient,  they  must  have 

been  preceded  by  an  indefinitely  long  period  of  growth  and  development 

■me  earliest  °f  the  race,  for  the  language  is  fixed,  complex,  full-grown  ;  the 

hymns.     j(|ea  0f  g0cjs  was  fully  developed,  indeed  their  number  seems  to   I 
have  been  fixed  as  thirty-three,  who  are  described  as  all  great  and  old,  and 
are  besought  not  to  lead  their  votaries  far  from  the  paths  of  their  fathers. 
It  may  be  said  generally  that  in  the  earliest  hymns  each  god  that  is  mani- 
fested is  for  the  time  being  contemplated  as  supreme  and  absolute,  and 
not  limited  by  the  powers  of  the  rest.     Max  Muller  says,  "  Each  god  is  to 
the  mind  of  the  suppliant  as  good  as  all  the  gods.     He  is  felt  at  the  time 
as  a  real  divinity,  as  supreme  and  absolute,  in  spite  of  the  necessary  limita- 
tions which,  to  our  mind,  a  plurality  of  gods  must  entail  on  every  single 
god."     In  fact  the  early  Hindu  of  the  Vedas  was  a  worshipper  of  the  powers 
worship  of  of  Nature  personified,  and  capable  of  being   influenced  by   his 
PNature°    Praises,  prayers,  and  actions.     Their  qualities  are  not  precisely  ] 
personified,  limited  or  distinguished  from  one  another.     While  the  gods  are 
termed  immortal,  they  are  mostly  not  regarded  as  uncreated  or  self-existent, 
1  iut  are  often  described  as  the  offspring  of  heaven  and  earth.     There  is  no 
uniformity,  however,  on  this  point.    But  there  are  numerous  passages  recon- 
cilable  with   the  view  that   some   of  these   gods  represent  deified  ances- 
tors, as  where  they  are  said  to  have  acquired  immortality  by  their  acts,  or 
their  virtues,  or  by  gift  of  Agni ;  and  it  is  even  implied  that  the  gods  named 
were  the  successors  of  others  previously  existing.     Thus  we  find  Indra  thus 
invoked,  "  Who  made  thy  mother  a  widow  ?     What  god  was  present  in  the 
fray,  when  thou  didst  slay  thy  father,  seizing  him  by  the  foot?"  and  there 
is  no  doubt  that  at  times  the  gods  are  represented  as  being  at  war  with 
one  another.     As  to  the  powers  and  prerogatives  of  the  gods,  they  are  above 
all  mortals,  who  can  by  no  means  frustrate  their  decrees,  they  will  reward 
dutiful  worshippers,  and  punish  the  negligent. 

Heaven  and  Earth,  the   progenitors   of  the  gods,  are  represented  by 

Dyaus  and  Dyaus  and  Prithivi.     Hymns  addressed  to  them  include  the  fol- 

(Heaven    lowing,  "At  the  festivals  (I  worship)  with  offerings,  and  celebrate 

and  earth),  the  praises  of  Heaven  and  Earth,  the  promoters  of  righteousness, 


THE   EARLY   VEDIC  RELIGION.  179 

the  great,  the  wise,  the  energetic,  who,  having  gods  for  their  offspring,  thus 
lavish,  with  the  gods,  the  choicest  blessings,  in  consequence  of  our  hymn. 
With  my  invocations  I  adore  the  thought  of  the  beneficent  Father,  and  that 
mighty  inherent  power  of  the  Mother.  The  prolific  Parents  have  made  all 
creatures,  and  through  their  favours  (have  conferred)  wide  immortality  on 
their  offspring."  ...  So  closely  did  the  old  Hindus  approach  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  in  their  conceptions  of  Mother  Earth  and  Father  Heaven.  In 
various  passages,  however,  they  are  themselves  spoken  of  as  created, 
especially  by  Indra,  who  formed  them  out  of  his  own  body,  and  to 
whom  they  do  homage.  How  then  was  the  origin  of  things  The  origin 
imagined?  The  following  extract  is  from  Sir  Monier  Williams's  oft11111^8- 
metrical  rendering  of  one  of  the  most  remarkable  Vedic  hymns. 

"In  the  beginning  there  was  neither  nought  nor  aught, 
Then  there  was  neither  sky  nor  atmosphere  above. 
What  then  enshrouded  all  this  teeming  universe  ? 
In  the  receptacle  of  what  was  it  contained  ? 
Was  it  enveloped  in  the  gulf  profound  of  water  ? 
Then  there  was  neither  death  nor  immortality, 
Then  there  was  neither  day  nor  night,  nor  light  nor  darkness, 
Only  the  Existent  One  breathed  calmly,  self-contained. 
Then  first  came  darkness  hid  in  darkness,  gloom  in  gloom. 
Next  all  was  water,  all  a  chaos  indiscrete 
In  which  the  One  lay  void,  shrouded  in  nothingness." 

But  Dr.  Muir's  literal  translation  gives  a  better  notion  of  the  original : 
"  There  was  then  neither  nonentity  nor  entity  ;  there  was  no  atmosphere  nor 
sky  above.  What  enveloped  (all)  ?  Where,  in  the  receptacle  of  what  (was 
it  contained)  ?  Was  it  water,  the  profound  abyss  ?  Death  was  not  then,  nor 
immortality  ;  there  was  no  distinction  of  day  or  night.  That  One  breathed 
calmly,  self-supported ;  there  was  nothing  different  from,  or  above  it.  In 
the  beginning  darkness  existed,  enveloped  in  Darkness.  All  this  was  un- 
distinguishable  water.  That  One  which  lay  void,  and  wrapped  in  nothing- 
ness, was  developed  by  the  power  of  fervour.  .  .  .  Who  knows,  who 
here  can  declare,  whence  has  sprung,  whence,  this  creation  ?  The  gods  are 
subsequent  to  the  development  of  this  (universe) ;  who  then  knows  whence 
it  arose  ?  From  what  this  creation  arose,  and  whether  (any  one)  made  it  or 
not, — he  who  in  the  highest  heaven  is  its  ruler,  he  verily  knows,  or  (even)  he 
does  not  know."  From  this  we  see  that  man  in  the  ancient  Vedic  times  had 
progressed  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  far  in  speculation  as  to  the  origin  of  things 
as  the  latest  and  mostjadvanced  of  men,  and  with  as  little  definite  result. 

Leaving  aside  Aditi,  apparently  a  personification  of  universal  Nature 
or  Being,  the  mother  of  the  gods  (Adityas),  and  capable  of  setting  people 
free  from  sin,  but  confessedly  a  difficult  personification  to  explain,  Mitra  and 
we  pass  to  consider  the  characters  of  Mitra  and  Varuna,  sons  var1"^- 
of  Aditi,  frequently  associated,  and  often  interpretable  as  day  and  night. 
Varuna  is  sometimes  represented  as  visible  ;  and  the  two  deities  are  said  to 
mount  on  a  car  drawn  by  horses,  and  soar  to  the  highest  empyrean,  and 
behold  all  things  in  heaven  and  earth.     Sometimes  the  sun  is  called  fcbfl 


iSo 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


eye  of  Mitra  and  Vanma  ;  and  both  jointly  and  separately  they  are  termed 
king  of  all  and  universal  monarch.  Yaruna  has  attributes  like  those  of  the 
Greek  Ouranos,  Latinised  as  Uranus.  He  made  the  sun  to  shine  ;  the  wind 
is  his  breath  ;  river  courses  are  hollowed  out  by  his  command,  and  the 
rivers  pour  their  water  into  the  one  ocean  but  never  fill  it.  He  knows  the 
flight  of  birds  in  the  sky,  the  path  of  ships  on  the  ocean,  the  course  of  the 
far-travelling  wind,  and  beholds  all  the  sacred  things  that  have  been  or 
shall  be  done.  He  beholds  as  if  he  were  close  at  hand.  Whatever  two 
persons  sitting  together,  devise,  "Varuna  the  king  knows  it,  as  a  third.  He 
has  unlimited  control  of  men,  and  is  said  to  have  a  thousand  remedies; 
hence  he  is  besought  to  show  his  deep  and  wide  benevolence,  and  drive 
away  evil  and  sin.     Muir's  verse  translation,  almost  literal,  is  so  attractive 

that  it  demands  quotation. 

"  The  mighty  Lord  on  high,  our  deeds  as  if  at 
hand,  espies ; 
The  gods  know  all  men  do,  though  men  would 

fain  their  deeds  disguise. 
Whoever    stands,   whoever  moves,   or    steals 

from  place  to  place, 
Or  hides  him  in  his  secret  cell — the  gods  his 

movements  trace. 
Wherever  two  together  plot,  and  deem  they 

are  alone, 
King  Varuna  is  there,  a  third,  and  all  their 

schemes  are  known. 
This  earth  is  his,  to  him  belong  those  vast 

and  boundless  skies  ; 
Both  seas  within  him  rest,  and  yet  in  that 

small  pool  he  lies. 
Whoever  far  beyond  the  sky  should  think  his 

way  to  wing, 
He  could  not  there  elude  the  grasp  of  Varuna 

the  King. 
His  spies  descending  from  the  skies  glide  all 

the  world  around, 
Their   thousand   eyes    all-scanning   sweep   to 
earth's  remotest  bound. 
Whate'er  exists  in  heaven  and  earth,  whate'er  beyond  the  skies, 
Before  the  eyes  of  Varuna,  the  King,  unfolded  lies. 
The  ceaseless  winkings  all  he  counts  of  every  mortal's  eyes ; 
He  wields  this  universal  frame,  as  gamester  throws  his  dice. 
Those  knotted  nooses  which  thou  fling'st,  0  God,  the  bad  to  snare 
All  liars  Let  them  overtake,  but  all  the  truthful  spare." 

In  this  and  in  many  other  passages  Varuna  appears  as  a  moral  Being 
of  high  elevation.  His  forgiveness  is  implored  by  the  Rishi  or  sacred  bard; 
and  it  is  urged  that  wine,  anger,  dice,  or  thoughtlessness  have  led  him 
astray.  Very  much  the  same  attributes  are  ascribed  to  Mitra  and  Varuna 
together  as  to  the  latter  alone.  It  will  be  seen  later  how  closely  the 
Zoroastrian  Mithra  resembles  the  Indian  Mitra  ;  and  there  cannot  be  much 


INDBA    (FKOSI   A    NATIVE    PICTURE 


THE   EARLY   VED1C  RELIGION. 


1S1 


doubt  that  this  conception  of  the  Deity  existed  previous  to  the  separation 
of  the  Indian  from  the  Iranian  (Persian)  branch.  Later,  Varuna  became 
specially  associated  with  the  rule  over  water,  and  was  solicited  to  send  flood 
and  rain  from  the  slry. 

Indra  and  Agni,  at  first  less  important  than  the  foregoing,  later  grow 
in   importance  :    they  were   born    of  parents,   and   have  various    striking 
qualities,  and   there  are  many  features  of   personal  description 
given.    Indra,  god  of  the  clear  sky,  is  handsome,  ruddy  or  golden-  g0d  of  the 
haired,  with  long   arms,  but  has   endless   forms   which   he   can   clej£ylue 
assume  at  will.     He  rides  on  a  shining  golden  car  drawn  by  two 
golden  horses,  which  move  more  swiftly  than  thought ;  he  has  a  thunderbolt 
and  other  weapons,  and  is  exhilarated  by  the  libations  of  soma  offered  by  his 
worshippers.     In  many 
passages  the  known  ef- 
fects  of  this   favourite 
intoxicant     were     sup- 
posed to  be  felt  by  the 
gods.      One    of  Indra's 
especial  functions  is  to 
encounter  and  vanquish 
the   hostile    demons   of 
drought.    As  Muir  says, 
the    growth    of    these 
ideas     is     perfectly 
natural  and  intelligible 
to  those  who  have  wit- 
nessed   the  phenomena 
of  the  seasons  in  India. 
I  Indra  is  thus  at  once 
a  terrible   warrior  and 
a  gracious  friend,  a  god 
whose   shafts    deal    de- 
struction to  nis  enemies  AGNI  (FB0M  MOor's  '"hindu  panthbon"). 
while    they    bring    de- 
liverance and  prosperity  to  his  worshippers.     The  phenomena  of  thunder 
and   lightning   almost  inevitably  suggest  the  idea  of  a  conflict  between 
opposing  forces  ;  even  we  ourselves  often  speak  of  the  war  or  strife  of  the 
elements.      The  worshipper  would    at   one   time   transform   the   fantastic 
shapes  of  the  clouds  into  the  chariots  and  horses  of  his  god,  and  at  another 
time  would  seem  to  perceive  in  their  piled-up  masses  the  cities  and  castles 
which  he  was  advancing  to  overthrow."     Frequently  Indra  is  saluted  as 
the  god  most  powerful  over  the  external  world,  "  the  most  adorable  of  the 
adorable,  the  caster  down  of  the  unshaken,  the  most  distinguished  of  living 
things."     His  worshippers  are  enjoined  to  have  faith  in  him,  and  Ins  power 
is  asserted  against  denials  of  scepticism.      He  has  a  love  for  mortals,  and 
is  the  helper  of  all  men,  a  wall  of  defence  and  a  deliverer,  hearing  and 


,82  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


answering  prayers.  He  is  supposed  to  be  capable  of  bestowing  all  kinds 
of  temporal  benefits,  and  in  fact  arbitrarily  to  control  the  destinies  of 
men.  Yet  the  simplicity  of  the  worshipper  is  sometimes  shown  by  prayers 
that  the  god  will  prove  his  prowess,  and  statements  that  "little  has  been 
beard  of  as  done  upon  earth  by  one  such  as  thou  art."  Indra  is  especially 
the  champion  and  guardian  of  the  Aryan  Hindus  against  the  darker  races 
whom  they  subjected.  It  appears  almost  as  if  the  conception  of  Indra 
expanded  with  the  advance  of  the  Aryans  over  India,  while  that  of  Varuna 
declined,  who  is  more  directly  related  to  the  early  common  Aryan  belief 
before  India  was  reached,  and  which  appears  also  in  the  Zoroastrian 
Ormuzd  and  the  Greek  Ouranos.  Another  view  regards  Dyaus  as  the 
god  whom  Indra  threw  into  the  shade ;  answering  to  the  difference  between 
the  time  when  in  the  more  elevated  and  mountainous  regions  of  Central 
Asia,  the  brilliant  radiance  of  heaven  was  the  holiest  and  most  desirable 
thing,  and  the  later  time,  in  India,  when  the  rainy  sky  was  most  longed  for, 
ami  its  representation  as  Indra  became  most  popular. 

Passing  by  Parjanya,  the  thundering  rain  god,  and  Vayu,  the  wind, 
as  less  important  deities,  we  find  the  Maruts,  Rudras,  or  storm  gods,  many 
The  Maruts  *n  numDei\  often  associated  with  Indra  and  with  Agni.     Some 

or  storm-  extracts  from  one  of  the  hymns  addressed  to  them  will  give  a 
better  idea  of  the  conceptions  attached  to  them  than  a  description. 
"  They  shake  with  their  strength  all  beings,  even  the  strongest,  on  earth 
and  in  heaven.  .  .  .  They  who  confer  power,  the  roarers,  the  devourers 
of  foes,  they  made  winds  and  lightnings  by  their  powers.  The  shakers 
milk  the  heavenly  udders  (clouds),  roaming  around  they  fill  the  earth  with 
milk  (rain).  .  .  .  Mighty  you  are,  powerful,  of  wonderful  splendour, 
firmly  rooted  like  mountains,  (yet)  lightly  gliding  along  ; — you  chew  up 
forests  like  elephants.  .  .  .  Give,  0  Maruts,  to  the  worshippers 
strength  glorious,  invincible  in  battle,  brilliant,  wealth-conferring,  praise- 
worthy, known  to  all  men.  Let  us  foster  our  kith  and  kin  during  a 
Imndred  winters."     (M.  M.) 

The  gods  personifying  the  Sun,  under  different  phases,  are  Surya  and 
Savilri,  who  are  praised  and  described  in  the  Veda  with  appropriate  epithets; 

The  sun-    ^ey  are  drawn  m  cars  by  numerous  horses,  preserve  all  things, 

gods  surya  liable  men  to  perform  their  work,  and  see  all  things,  both  the 
and  Savitri.  ,         ,     ,      1    r.  '  &  ' 

good  and  the  bad  deeds  of  mortals.    Surya  is  sometimes  said  to  be 

dependent  on  Indra,  who  causes  him  to  shine  and  prepares  his  path.    Pushan 

Pushan     18  anotner  so^ar  deity,  a  guide  on  roads  and  journeys,  a  protector 

and  multiplier  of  cattle  and  of  human  possessions  generally.     A 

hymn  addressed  to  him  runs  thus:  "Conduct  us,  Pushan,  over  our  road; 

remove  distross,  son  of  the  deliverer ;  go  on  before  us.     Smite  away  from 

our  path  the  destructive  and  injurious  wolf  which  seeks  after  us.     Drive 

away  from  our  path  the  waylayer,  the  thief,  the  robber.     .     .     .    0  god 

who  liringest  all  blessings  and  art  distinguished  by  thy  golden  spear,  make 

weaU  1 1  easy  of  acquisition.     Convey  us  past  our  opponents  ;  make  our  paths 

easy  to  traverse;  gain  strength  for  us  here."     Another  hymn  more   em- 


THE  EARLY    VEDIC  RELIGION.  183 

phatically  prays  the  god  for  personal  favours  :  "  Bring  to  us  wealth  suitable 
for  men,  and  a  manly  suitable  householder  who  shall  bestow  on  us  gifts. 
Impel  to  liberality,  0  glowing  Pushan,  even  the  man  who  would  fain 
bestow  nothing;  soften  the  soul  even  of  the  niggard.  Open  up  paths  by 
which  we  may  obtain  food ;  slay  our  enemies ;  let  our  designs  succeed,  U 
glorious  god."  With  him  is  sometimes  associated  Soma,  and  the  two  are 
celebrated  together  as  the  generators  of  wealth  and  preservers  of  the  world. 

Soma,  the  god   animating  the  exhilarating  juice  of   the  soma  plant, 
probably  a  species  of  Asclepias,  seems  to  represent  Dionysus  or  Bacchus 
among  the  early  Indian  gods.     The  whole  of  the  hymns,  114  in 
number,  of  the  ninth  book  of  the  K,ig-Veda  are  dedicated  to  him.      Indian 
Prof.  "Whitney  says  of  him :  "  The  simple-minded  Aryan  people  ^jJJJJ^J' 
had  no  sooner  perceived  that  under  the  influence  of  this  liquid 
the  individual  was  prompted   to  and  capable  of  deeds  beyond  his  natural 
powers,  than  they  found  in  it  something  divine  ;   the  plant  which  afforded 
it  became  to  them  the  king  of  plants ;  the  process  of  preparing  it  was  a  holy 
sacrifice ;  the  instruments  used  therefore  were  sacred."      The  worship  of 
Soma  was  very  ancient,  as  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Zend-avesta.     To  Soma  are 
attributed  almost  all  divine  power  and  honours,  especially  in  reference  to  his 
influence  on  the  other  gods  and  on  his  human  votaries ;   but  his  worship 
declined  and  almost  wholly  passed  away  with  the  early  Vedic  worship. 

Ushas,  the  goddess  of  dawn,  has  many  of  the  most  beautiful  hymns 
addressed  to  her.     She  is  described  as  restoring  consciousness,  smiling  like  a 
flatterer,  awakening  all   creatures  to    cheerfulness,  rousing  into  Usliag  tne 
motion  every  living  thing,  born  again  and  again,  revealing  the      dawn 
ends  of  the  sky.     "  Blessed  Ushas,"  says  the  worshipper,  "  thou 
who,    animated  by  strength,  shinest  forth  with   wonderful  riches,  may  I 
obtain    that    renowned   and   solid    wealth   which    consists   in    stout   sons, 
numerous  slaves,  and  horses."     (M.)     Ushas   is  most   usually  described   as 
the  daughter  of  the  sky,  and  is  said  to  have  the  sun  for  her  lover.     The 
name  Ushas  (Ushasa)  is  identical  with  the  Greek  'Hoo9  (-Eo?)  and  the  Latin 
Aurora  ( =  Ausosa). 

Agni,  the  god  of  fire  (the  Roman  Ignis,  the  Slavonian  Ogni),  is  a  most 
prominent  deity,  being  only  paralleled,  in  the  number  of  hymns  addressei  1 
to  him,  by  Indra.  His  characteristics  aptly  portray  the  wonder  A&nl(  tne 
with  which  our  forefathers  viewed  fire.  Agni  is  an  immortal  £°d  of  fire- 
and  messenger  from  and  to  the  gods,  who  has  taken  up  his  abode  with  man. 
He  is  both  sage  and  sacrificer,  supreme  director  of  religious  ceremonies  and 
duties.  "  0  Agni,  thou  from  whom,  as  a  newborn  male,  undying  flames 
proceed,  the  brilliant  smoke  goes  towards  the  sky,  for  as  messenger  thou  art 
sent  to  the  gods  :  thou  whose  power  spreads  over  the  earth  in  a  moment, 
when  thou  hast  grasped  food  with  thy  jaws, — like  a  dashing  army  thy  blast 
goes  forth ;  with  thy  lambent  flame  thou  seemest  to  tear  up  the  grass. 
Him  alone,  the  ever  youthful  Agni,  men  groom  like  a  horse  in  the  evening 
and  at  dawn ;  they  bed  him  as  a  stranger  in  his  couch."  (M.  M.)  The  world 
and  the  heavens  are  made  manifest  at  his  appearance,  after  having  been 


iS4 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


swallowed  up  in  darkness.  He  is  all-devouring,  has  a  burning  head,  is 
thousand-eyed  and  thousand-horned  ;  his  flames  roar  like  the  waves  of  the 
89a  he  sounds  like  thunder,  and  roars  like  the  wind.  He  is  described  as 
having  the  highest  divine  functions  of  all  kinds,  and  his  votaries  prosper 
and  live  Long.  He  protects  and  blesses  the  worshipper  who  sweats  to  bring 
him  fuel,  or  wearies  his  head  to  serve  him.  Prayers  were  made  to  him  for 
all  kinds  of  blessings,  and  for  forgiveness  for  any  sin  committed  through 
folly.  The  same  simple  familiarity  in  speaking  to  the  gods  which  we  have 
noticed  before  is  seen  in  such  an  address  as  this :  "If,  Agni,  thou  wert  a 
mortal,  and  I  were  an  immortal,  I  would  not  abandon  thee  to  wrong  or  to 
penury.  My  worshipper  should  not  be  poor,  nor  distressed,  nor  miserable." 
That  there  was  also  an  association  of  Agni  with  a  future  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  paraphrase.     (M.  W.) 

"  Deliver,  mighty  lord,  thy  worshippers, 
Purge  us  from  taint  of  sin,  and  when  we  die, 
Deal  mercifully  with  us  on  the  pyre, 
Burning  our  bodies  with  their  load  of  guilt, 
But  hearing  our  eternal  part  on  high 
To  luminous  abodes  and  realms  of  bliss, 
For  ever  there  to  dwell  with  righteous  men." 

Tvashtar  is  the  artisan  and  skilful  con- 
triver, and  in  many  ways  answers  to  He- 
phaistos  and  Vulcan.    He  sharpens 
the    iron    axe    of    Brahmanaspati 
and  forges  the  thunderbolts  of  Indra.      All 
kinds    of   created   powers   are  attributed  to 
him.     The  Asvins  are  the  earliest  bringers 
of  light  in  the  morning  sky,  be- 
fore the  dawn,  and  are  often  con- 
nected withSurya;  they  were  enthusiastically 
worshipped    and    praised,    being    hailed    as 
chasers  away  of  darkness,  and  described  as 
the   guardians   of   the   slow   and   hindmost, 
as  physicians  restoring  the  lame,  blind,  and 
sick,  as  placing  the  productive  germ  in  all 
creatures,  and  as  capable  of  renewing  the  youth  of  all.     Consequently  they 
were  supplicated  for  varied  blessings,  and  were  begged  to  overwhelm  and 
destroy  the  niggard  who  offered  no  oblations.     It  is  thought  by  good  author- 
it  us  thai   these  gods  represent  deified  mortals  who  were  at  the  same  time 
swift  in  their  movements  and  appeared  to  possess  remarkable  healing  powers. 
A  somewhat  later  god  than  these  is  variously  known  as  Brihaspati  and 
Brahmanaspati,  and  personifies  the  worshipper,  represented  by  the  priest 
Brahmanas-  and  sacrificer  interceding  with  the  gods,  thus  showing  a  distinct 
patL       advance  in  moral  ideas.     The  word  Brahman  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  in  all  Sanskrit,  having  been  very  diversely  derived  and  explained ; 
but  while  in  its  highest  use  it  came  to  denote  the  objective  Self  or  Cause 


Tvashtar. 


The  Asvins. 


BRAHMA    (FROM   A    NATIVE    PICTURE). 


THE  EARLY   VEDIC  RELIGION. 


,85 


Vishnu. 


of  the  universe,  it  may  have  originally  represented  the  impulse  and  striving 
towards  the  gods,  then  every  sacred  word,  formula,  ceremony,  or  act,  and 
finally  the  priest.  Brahmanaspati  is  represented  as  the  god  of  prayer, 
aiding  Indra  in  conquering  the  cloud  demon,  and  in  some  instances  appear- 
ing to  be  identified  with  Agni.  He  is  the  offspring  of  the  two  worlds 
(Heaven  and  Earth),  and  is  the  inspirer  of  praj^er,  and  by  prayer  ac- 
complishes his  designs  ;  he  mounts  the  chariot  of  the  ceremonial  and 
proceeds  to  conquer  the  enemies  of  prayer  and  of  the  gods.  He  is  the 
guide  and  protector  of  the  pious,  whom  he  saves  from  calamities  and  blesses 
with  wealth. 

Vishnu  is  a  god  comparatively  little  mentioned  in  the  Rig-Veda,  but 
attaining  great  importance  later.  He  is  most  characterised  of 
old  by  the  three  steps  by  which  he  strode  over  the  world  ;  by 
his  threefold  existence  as  fire  on  earth,  as  lightning  in  the  atmosphere,  and 
as  the  sun  in  the  sky  ;  or  as  the  sun  in 
his  three  positions  of  rising,  culmination, 
and  setting.  Triple  power  and  functions 
are  variously  asserted  of  him,  and  he  is 
said  to  assist  other  gods.  Only  sometimes 
is  he  adored  independently,  as  thus :  "  Our 
hymns  and  praises  have  proceeded  to 
Vishnu,  the  worker  of  many  wonders  :  he 
is  the  wide-stepping,  the  exalted,  whose 
primeval,  creative  wives  are  indefatig- 
able." Often  he  is  closely  associated  with 
Indra.  How  different  a  position  he  after- 
wards assumes  we  shall  see  later  on. 
Most  of  the  goddesses  mentioned  in  the 
Veda  we  must  omit  reference  to,  as  they 
are  of  less  importance. 

It  is  in  the  later  portions,  the  ninth 
and  tenth  books,  of  the  Rig-Veda,  that  ™^  (™0M  A  NATIVE  "cxorb). 

we  find  a  marked  reference  to  the  ideas  of  immortality  and  a  future  life, 
although  they  are  hot  entirely  wanting  previously,  as  in  passages  Yama  and  a 
where  mortals  are  said  to  have  attained  immortality,  or  to  have  future  life, 
gone  to  the  go  Is,  who  prolong  their  lives.  Sometimes,  too,  the  souls  of 
ancestors,  the  fathers  existing  with  the  gods,  are  invoked.  These  ideas 
are  in  the  later  books  especially  connected  with  Yama,  the  divine  ruler  of 
the  spirits  of  the  dead,  by  some  supposed  to  represent  the  first  man,  and 
having  a  twin  sister,  Yami  (Max  Midler  dissents  from  this  view).  Sir 
Monier  Williams  thus  represents  Yama  in  verse  : — 

"  To  Yama,  mighty  king,  be  gifts  and  homage  paid. 
He  was  the  first  of  men  that  died,  the  first  to  brave 
Death's  rapid  rushing  stream,  the  first  to  point  the  road 
To  heaven,  and  welcome  others  to  that  bright  abode. 
Tso  power  can  rob  us  of  the  home  thus  won  by  thee. 


yu 1 

AX 

ft 

P**  °   "i^WlK    'TO 

6                                   / 

a           5 

!S6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


<  >  king,  we  come  ;  the  born  must  die,  must  tread  the  path 
That  thou  hast  trod — the  path  by  which  each  race  of  men, 
In  long  succession,  and  our  fathers,  too,  have  passed. 
Soul  of  the  dead  !  depart ;  fear  not  to  take  the  road — 
The  ancient  road — by  which  thy  ancestors  have  gone  ; 
Ascend  to  meet  the  god — to  meet  thy  happy  fathers, 
AYho  dwell  in  bliss  with  him.     Fear  not  to  pass  the  guards — 
The  four-eyed  brindled  dogs — that  watch  for  the  departed. 
Return  unto  thy  home,  O  soul !     Thy  sin  and  shame 
Leave  thou  behind  on  earth ;  assume  a  shining  form — 
Thy  ancient  shape — refined  and  from  all  taint  set  free." 

The  two  four-eyed  dogs  are  of  interest  in  comparison  with  Cerberus,  the 
dog  of  Tartarus.  Yama  is  not  represented  in  the  Rig-Veda,  though  he  is  in 
the  later  mythology,  as  having  anything  to  do  with  the  future  punishment 
of  the  wicked.  His  dogs  are  said  to  wander  about  among  men  as  his 
messengers,  and  to  guard  the  road  to  his  abode ;  the  dead  are  advised  to 
hurry  past  them  with  all  speed.  "When  the  remains  of  the  dead  one  have 
been  placed  upon  the  funeral  pile,  Agni,  the  god  of  fire,  is  besought  not  to 
scorch  or  consume  him,  but  to  convey  him  to  the  fathers  as  an  offering. 
"  Let  his  eye  go  to  the  sun,  his  breath  to  the  wind.  Go  to  the  sky  and  to 
earth,  according  to  nature  ;  or  go  to  the  waters,  if  that  is  suitable  for  thee. 
As  for  his  unborn  part),  do  thou  (Agni)  kindle  it  with  thy  heat ;  with  those 
forms  of  thine  which  are  auspicious  convey  it  to  the  world  of  the  righteous." 
The  spirit  is  then  imagined  to  enter  upon  a  more  perfect  life  in  which  all 
desires  are  fulfilled ;  occupation  will  also  be  found  in  fulfilling  the  pleasure 
of  the  gods.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  in  a  time  when  even  the  gods 
are  represented  as  marrying  and  indulging  in  soma,  the  heaven  of  the 
departed  would  be  idealised. 

The  following  passage  will   give  an   idea   of   the  virtues   for   which 

heaven   was  given :    "  Let    him   depart    to    those    who    through    rigorous 

„  abstraction  are  invincible.     Let  him  depart  to  the  combatants 

Virtues      ...  ... 

rewarded  by  m  battles,  to  the  heroes  who  have  there  sacrificed  their  lives, 
or  to  those  who  have  bestowed  thousands  of  largesses.  Let 
him  depart,  Yama,  to  those  austere  ancient  fathers  who  have  preached  and 
promoted  sacred  rites."  These  fathers  are  in  some  hymns  held  up  as  objects 
of  admiration  to  their  descendants  ;  their  descendants  supplicate  their  good 
will,  deprecate  their  wrath,  and  pray  for  their  protection.  They  are  asked 
to  give  them  wealth,  long  life,  and  offspring.  The}'  are  supposed  to  rejoice 
in  libations  and  sacrificial  food,  and  to  come  in  thousands  to  the  sacrifices. 

As  to  future  punishment,  Indra  is  in  the  tenth  book  of  the  Eig-Veda 
prayed  to  consign  to  the  lower  darkness  the  man  who  injures  his  worshipper ; 
Future  but  it  is  not  always  certain  that  this  lower  darkness  signifies  a 
punishment.  ]j]ace  0f  punishment.  In  the  ninth  book  Soma  is  said  to  hurl  the 
hated  and  irreligious  into  the  abyss ;  but  references  to  future  punishment 
are  confessedly  vague  and  indistinct  in  the  Rig-Veda. 

I  Mie  of  the  finest  of  the  hymns  of  the  Rig-Veda  is  the  121st  in  the  tenth 
1 k,  thus  translated  by  Max  Midler  :— 


THE   EARLY   VEDIC  RELIGION.  1S7 


"In  the  beginning  there  arose  the  Source  of  golden  light — He  was 
the  only  born  Lord  of  all  that  is.  He  established  the  earth,  and  the  sky  ;  — 
Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  ?  (This  last  clause  is 
repeated  after  each  verse.) 

"He  who  gives  life,  He  who  gives  strength;  whose  blessing  all  the 
bright  gods  desire ;  whose  shadow  is  immortality  ;  whose  shadow  is  death. 

"He  who  through  His  power  is  the  only  King  of  the  breathing  ami 
awakening  world  ;  He  who  governs  all,  man  and  beast. 

"  He  whose  power  these  snowy  mountains,  whose  power  the  sea  pro- 
claims, with  the  distant  river — He  whose  these  regions  are  as  it  were  His 
two  arms. 

"  He  through  whom  the  sky  is  bright  and  the  earth  firm,  He  through 
whom  the  heaven  was  established,  nay  the  highest  heaven,  He  who 
measured  out  the  light  in  the  air. 

"He  to  whom  heaven  and  earth,  standing  firm  by  His  will,  look  up, 
trembling  inwardly  ;  He  over  whom  the  rising  sun  shines  forth. 

"  Wherever  the  mighty  water-clouds  went,  where  they  placed  the  seed 
and  lit  the  fire,  thence  arose  He  who  is  the  only  life  of  the  bright  gods. 

"  He  who  by  His  might  looked  even  over  the  water-clouds,  the  clouds 
which  gave  strength  and  lit  the  sacrifice,  He  who  is  God  above  all  gods. 

"  May  He  not  destroy  us,  He  the  creator  of  the  earth  ;  or  He  the 
righteous  who  created  the  heaven  ;  He  who  also  created  the  bright  and 
mighty  waters  !  " 

Thus  we  have  contemplated  in  the  earliest  Vedic  hymns  a  series  of 
conceptions  of  distinct  deities  associated  with  the  powers  of  Nature,  and 
correspondingly  named.  It  is  only  later  that  the  idea  seems  to  Transition  to 
arise  that  these  were  all  representations  of  different  aspects  of  and 
one  power,  and  sometimes  this  appears  to  proceed  from  a  desire  to  pantheism, 
magnify  the  j>articular  god  whose  praises  are  being  specially  celebrated ; 
later,  new  names  were  used  to  signify  these  more  enlarged  conceptions,  such 
as  Visvakarman  and  Prajapati,  not  limited  to  any  particular  department, 
but  believed  to  be  the  divine  powers  governing  the  earth.  Another  kind 
of  expression  shows  an  early  form  of  pantheism,  identifying  the  godhead 
with  Nature  :  Thus  "  Aditi  is  the  sky,  Aditi  is  the  air,  Aditi  is  the  mother 
and  father  and  son.  Aditi  is  all  the  gods  and  the  five  classes  of  men. 
Aditi  is  whatever  has  been  born.     Aditi  is  whatever  shall  be  born."  (M. 

Visvakarman  (at  first  a  name  of  Inclra),  the  great  architect  of  the 
universe,  is  in  the  tenth  book  of  the  Eig-Veda  represented  as  the  all-seeing 
god,  who  has  on  every  side  eyes,  faces,  arms,  and  feet,  the  father  visva- 
generator,  who  knows  all  worlds,  and  gives  the  gods  their  names.  karman- 
Similar  attributes  are  in  other  hymns  ascribed  to  other  divine  beings, 
such  as  Brahman,  Prajapati,  etc.  ;  these  being  probably  by  different  authors. 
We  see  here  the  product  of  the  most  advanced  thought  among  these  early 
Aryans,  including  a  singular  variety  of  attempts  to  express  the  thoughts  to 
which  the  great  phenomena  of  the  universe  gave  rise  in  their  minds.  That 
these  conceptions  should  be  vague  and  often  discordant  and  confused,  and 


iSS  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


should  include  much  that  is  puerile,  is  to  be  expected,  when  we  remember 

that  the  sum  of  human  thought  up  to  the  present  day  is  "  man  cannot  by 

searching  find  out  God." 

Sir  Monier  "Williams  thus  expresses  his  mature  conclusions  on  some 

important  points  :  "  The  Vedic  hymns  contain  no  allusion  to  the  doctrine  of 

.  transmigration  of  souls,  which  is  a  conspicuous  characteristic  of 
Absence  of  .  °  '  r 

later  Hindu  the  Hindu  creed  in  the  later  system.     Nor  do  they  afford  any 

sanction  to  the  prohibition  of  widow  marriages,  the  encouragement 
of  child-marriages,  the  iron  rules  of  caste,  and  the  interdiction  of  foreign 
travel.  Nor  is  there  in  them  any  evidence  that  the  personifications  of  the 
forces  of  nature  were  represented  by  images  or  symbols  carved  out  of  wood 
or  stone."  Animals  were  killed  for  sacrifices  as  well  as  for  food,  and  we 
find  no  trace  of  the  objection  to  eat  the  flesh  of  cows,  which  became  so  strong 
at  a  later  period. 

The  people  of  the  Vedas  appear  to  have  inhabited  the  Punjab,  and  to 
have  only  gradually  extended  their  power  into  the  tracts  watered  by  the 
.  Jumna  and  Ganges.  Every  father  of  a  family  at  first  was  entitled 
of  early  to  act  as  priest  in  his  own  family,  every  chief  in  his  own  tribe  ; 
but  as  the  hymns  or  prayers  or  offerings  began  to  grow  elaborate, 
there  was  a  tendency  to  restrict  worship,  especially  on  important  occasions, 
to  special  priests,  who  knew  the  approved  hymns  or  the  prayers  which  had 
been  believed  to  be  successful.  In  time  it  became  a  part  of  the  chief's  credit 
to  retain  about  him  favourite  or  noted  priests,  and  their  offices,  like  those  of 
the  chiefs,  tended  to  become  hereditary.  Great  gifts  were  lavished  upon  the 
priests  by  the  kings,  and  many  of  the  Vedic  hymns  commend  this  practice. 
Some  of  the  hymns  themselves  were  composed  by  kings ;  and  the  Bishis 
gradually  asserted  themselves  so  far  as  to  claim  superior  rank  to  the  temporal 
rulers,  and  erect  themselves  into  a  distinct  caste  of  Brahmans  ;  this  position 
was  not,  however,  acquired  without  a  struggle.  Special  families  were  dis- 
tinguished by  symbols,  such  as  the  number  and  arrangement  of  their  locks 
of  hair,  or  their  being  shaven  in  peculiar  ways. 

As  to  morals  under  this  regime,  it  appears  that  one  wife  was  the  rule, 
while  a  plurality  was  tolerated ;  women  might  marry  a  second  time,  and 
Morals  aPPear  to  have  had  some  freedom  of  choice.  Immorality  was  by  no 
means  unknown,  and  Indra  is  said  to  have  declared  that  "  the  mind 
of  a  woman  was  ungovernable,  and  her  temper  fickle."  Untruth  was  con- 
demned, and  the  gods  were  said  to  punish  lying ;  thieves  and  robbers  are 
mentioned  as  infesting  the  highways  or  stealing  secretly.  Liberality  and 
fidelity  were  held  in  high  esteem. 

How  forcible  is  the  contrast  between  the  beneficence  and  the  bright- 
ness, the  helpfulness  and  the  kindliness  of  the  gods,  as  imagined  by  the 
earlier  Aryans,  and  the  severity,  the  ruthlessness,  the  cruelty,  afterwards 
iated  with  Hindu  gods.  Direct  access  to  the  gods,  direct  benefits  in 
return  for  prayer  and  offerings;  intensity  of  prayer  and  meditation,  fervency 
oi  petition,  inevitably  securing  blessing,  these  are  cardinal  features  of  the 
early  Hindu  religion. 


THE   EARLY   VEDIC  RELIGION.  189 


The  Sama-Veda,  and  the  Yajur-Veda  are  smaller  collections  formed 
mainly  out  of  the  Rig- Veda,  but  considerably  modified;  the  former  in  verse, 
relating  to  the  Soma  offering,  the  latter  in  prose,  relating  to  the  The  other 
other  sacrifices.  The  Yajur-Veda  belongs  to  a  period  when  the  vedas. 
Aryans  had  progressed  into  Eastern  India,  and  when  the  Brahmans  had 
acquired  supremacy.  The  fourth  great  Vedic  collection,  the  Atharva-Veda, 
belongs  to  a  still  later  period,  probably  that  of  the  Brahmanas,  and  contains 
the  hymns  and  services  then  in  use,  modified  or  developed  from  the  Vedic 
time.  They  exhibit  a  growth  of  belief  in  evil  powers,  and  contain  a  series 
of  formulas  designed  to  protect  against  these,  and  against  diseases  and 
noxious  animals  and  plants,  together  with  cursings  of  enemies,  and  magic 
verses  about  all  kinds  of  daily  events,  designed  to  counteract  unfavourable 
events.     This  Veda  contains  a  great  number  of  words  used  by  the  people. 

Not  yet  within  the  region  of  dates  and  relation  to  known  persons,  we 
come  to  the  next  great  division  of  ancient  Hindu  literature,  the  Brahmanas, 
which  exhibit  to  us  a  fully  developed  sacrificial  system,  and  are        The 
intended  for  the  use  of  the  priests  or  Brahmans.     We  find  here  a  Brahmanas. 
series  of  prose  compositions  describing  the  connection  of  the  sacred  songs 
and  words  with  the  sacrificial  rites.     They  may  date  from  the  seventh  or 
eighth  centuries  b.c.    We  see  in  them,  as  in  the  case  of  so  many  priesthoods, 
the  tendency  to  elaborate,  to  develop  a  ritual  which  could  only  be  carried 
out  by  an  hereditary  caste,  and  which  furnished  a  means  of  demanding  large 
contributions  from  the  votaries.     The  length  of  the  Brahmanas  themselves 
is  wearisome,  and  is  matched  by  their  dogmatic  assertion  and  their  complex 
symbolism.    Each  of  the  collections  of  Vedic  hymns  has  its  proper  Brahmanas, 
there  being  no  fewer  than  eight  Brahmanas  to  the  Sama-Veda.     Besides 
ceremonial  directions,  these   Brahmanas  contain   numerous   materials   for 
tracing  the  growth  of  Hindu  religious  ideas.     In  one  story  of  a     Human 
king   who  had  no  son,    after  extolling  the  benefits  that  a  son    sacrifice- 
brings,  the  king  offers,  if  a  son  be  born  to  him,  to  sacrifice  him  to  Varuna. 
When  the  son  was  born  and  was  told  of  his  destiny,  he  refused,  and  left  his 
father's  home.     Disappointed  of  his  victim,  Varuna  afflicted  the  father  with 
dropsy.     The  son  wandering  for  years  in  the  forest,  at  last  found  a  Brahman 
hermit  in  distress,  whose  second  son  voluntarily  offered  to  be  sold  in  order 
that  he  might  be  sacrificed  instead  of  the  king's  son.    Finally  the  substitute, 
by  the  virtue  of  Vedic  prayers,  was  released  from  sacrifice.     Another  narra- 
tive describes  how  the  gods  killed  a  man  for  their  victim,  and  the     Animal 
part  of  him  fit  for  sacrifice  entered  successively  into  a  horse,  an    sacnflce- 
ox,  a  sheep,  and  a  goat,  which  were  all  sacrificed  in  turn.     The  sacrificial 
element  remained  longest  in  the  goat,  which  thus  became  specially  fit  for 
sacrifice.     Here  we  may  see  how  an  introduced  human  sacrifice  may  have 
been  replaced  by  animal  sacrifice. 

In  the  Satapatha-Brahmana,  perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  all  these 
books,  there  is  found  an  early  tradition  of  a  flood.     Manu,  a  holy  Tradition  of 
man,  was  warned  by  a  fish  that  a  flood  would  sweep  away  all  crea-     a  fl00d- 
tures,  but  he  would  rescue  him.     He  was  directed  to  build  a  ship  and  enter 


I90  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


it  when  the  flood  rose  ;  he  did  so,  and  fastened  the  fish  to  the  ship,  and  was 
drawn  by  it  beyond  the  northern  mountains.  When  the  flood  subsided 
Mann  was  the  only  man  left ;  a  daughter  was  mysteriously  born  to  him  by 
virtue  of  religious  rites,  and  ultimately  the  world  was  peopled  with  the  sons 
of  Mann.  In  later  times  it  was  said  that  the  fish  was  an  incarnation  of 
Brahma,  who  assumed  that  form  in  order  to  preserve  Mann. 

The  doctrine  of  immortality  is  more  definitely  presented  in  the  same 

Brahmana  than  in  the  Vedic  hymns.     The  gods  had  by  toilsome  religious 

rites  become  immortal.     Death  complained  to  the  gods  that  men 

immortality.  w^1(1  follow  tlieir  example.     The  gods  enacted  that  no  being 

should  thenceforward  become  immortal  in  his  own  body,  but  should  first 
present  his  body  to  Death. 

A  remarkable  passage  shows  that  the  ancient  Brahmans  had  a  very 
advanced  conception  about  the  sun  :  "  The  sun  never  sets  nor  rises.  When 
idea  of  the  people  think  to  themselves  the  sun  is  setting,  he  only  changes 
sun's  course.  abovit  after  reaching  the  end  of  the  day,  and  makes  night  below 
and  day  to  what  is  on  the  other  side.  Then  when  people  think  he  rises  in 
the.  morning,  he  only  shifts  himself  about  after  reaching  the  end  of  the 
night,  and  makes  day  below,  and  night  to  what  is  on  the  other  side.  In  fact 
he  never  does  set  at  all." 

There  seems  little  doubt  that  the  origin  and  establishment  of  the  caste 
system  was  largely  due  to  the  successful  assertion  by  the  Brahmans  of  their 
/  origin  of  superior  rank,  combined  with  the  growth  of  a  class  of  cultivators 
caste.  distinct  from  the  warriors  who  at  first  were  the  great  majority  of 
the  people.  By  this  time  the  conquering  Aryans  had  spread  themselves 
over  the  basin  of  the  Jumna  and  Ganges,  and  the  Brahmans  found  it 
necessary  and  advantageous  to  show  that  they  had  a  more  noble,  powerful, 
and  important  religion  than  the  aborigines  whom  they  conquered.  Con- 
seif-assertionse(luently  we  meet  with  such  assertions  as  the  following  :  "  Verily 
of  Brahmans..^  g0(Js  do  not  eat  the  food  offered  by  the  king  who  is  without  a 
purohita  (family  priest)."  In  the  Atharva-Veda,  "  May  perfect,  unceasing 
and  victorious  power  accrue  to  those  whose  purohita  I  am.  I  perfect  their 
kingdom,  their  might,  their  vigour,  their  strength.  With  this  oblation  I 
cut  off  the  arms  of  their  enemies."  This  development  was  accompanied 
with  the  development  of  ceremonial  to  such  an  extent  that  several  classes 
of  priests  were  required. 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult,  without  entering  into  great  detail,  to  give  an 
idea  of  the  contents  of  the  Brahmanas.  Assuming  the  older  ceremonials  to 
Nature  of  the  t>e  known,  they  comment  upon  every  detail  supposed  to  require 
Brahmanas.  explanation,  discuss  the  meaning  of  particular  verses  or  even  of 
the  metres  used,  and  furnish  explanations  of  the  origin  of  the  sacrifices, 
frequently  consisting  of  legends  and  myths,  often  told  very  diffusely.  A 
few  extracts,  somewhat  abbreviated,  from  Mr.  Eggeling's  translation  of 
parts  of  the  Satapatha-Brahmana  may  give  some  notion  of  their  contents. 

Every  Brahmanical  householder,  from  the  period  of  setting  up  a  house- 
hold fire  of  his  own,  was  enjoined  to  perform  two  monthly  sacrifices,  one  at 


THE  EARLY   VEDIC  RELIGION.  191 


new  the  other  at  full  moon,  each  lasting  two  days.    The  first  was  a  fast  day, 
in  which  the  fire-places  were  swept  and  trimmed,  and  the  fires  Household 
lighted,  and  the  Brahman  and  his  wife  took  the  vow  to  abstain    sacrifices, 
from  meat  and  some  other  foods,  to  cut  off  the  beard  and  hair,  except  the 
crest-lock  ;  to  sleep   on  the    ground   in   one   of  the  chief  fire-houses  ;  and 
to    observe  silence.       "  He   who   is   about   to   enter   on   the    vow   touches 
water,  while  standing  between  the  (sacrificial)  fires,  with  his  face  turned 
towards  the  east.     The  reason  why  he  touches  water  is,  that  man 
is  (sacrificially)  impure  on  account  of  his  speaking  untruth, —  and 
because  by  that  act  an  internal  purification  is  effected,  for  water  is  indeed 
(sacrificially)  pure.     .     .     .     Looking  towards  the  fire,  he  enters  on  the  vow, 
with  the  text,  '0  Agni,  Lord  of  Vows!     I  will  keep  the  vow!     May  I  be 
equal  to  it,  may  I  succeed  in  it ! '     For  Agni  is  Lord  of  Vows  to  the  gods, 
and  it  is  to  him  therefore  that  he  addresses  these  words."    As  to  the  fasting, 
it  is  contended  that  the  essence  of  the  vow  consists  in  fasting;  for  the  gods 
see  through  the  mind  of  man,  and  when  he  takes  the  vow  they 
know   that   he   means   to  sacrifice  to  them  next  morning,  and 
betake  themselves  to  his  house.     It  would  then  be  unbecoming  in  him  to 
take  food  before  they  have  eaten,  and  he  may  only  eat  what  is  not  offered 
in  sacrifice,  which  must  be  only  what  grows  in  the  forest. 

Every  night  and  morning  a  burnt-offering  of  fresh  milk  had  to  be  made 
to  Agni,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  sacrificial  day,  the  householder  chose 
his  Brahman  or  superintending  priest,  an  official  who  now  becomes  pro- 
minent— this  class  having  indeed  been  no  doubt  the  originator  of  the 
modern  Brahmans.  Then  follows  a  most  complex  series  of  directions  and 
explanations  as  to  the  various  offerings. 

Equally  elaborate  are  the  directions  given  for  the  ceremony  of  establish- 
ing sacrificial  fires  by  a  young  householder.  Four  officiators  were  required 
besides  the  sacrificer ;  they  erected  two  sheds  or  fire-houses  by  Estabiish- 
strict  rules,  and  the  fire  was  to  be  produced  afresh  by  friction,  ^cer^Ci^i 
or  from  certain  definite  sources,  and  placed  upon  the  carefully  fires, 
purified  fire-place.  Towards  sunset  the  sacrificer  invoked  the  gods  and 
ancestors  thus  :  "  Gods,  fathers,  fathers,  gods  !  I  sacrifice,  being  whom  I 
am  ;  neither  will  I  exclude  him  whose  I  am  ;  mine  own  shall  be  the  offering, 
mine  own  the  toiling,  mine  own  the  sacrifice  !  "  He  and  his  wife  then 
entered  the  respective  houses,  and  received  with  various  ceremonies  two  pieces 
of  wood  specially  prepared  for  reproducing  the  sacred  fire  the  next  morning. 
The  offerings  which  followed  were  chiefly  of  rice  and  clarified  butter.  Later 
the  sacrificer,  having  honoured  the  priests  by  washing  their  feet  and  giving 
them  perfumes,  etc.,  and  given  to  each  his  share,  invited  them  to  eat.  The 
Soma  ceremony,  according  to  the  Brahmanas,  is  still  more  developed ;  but 
it  is  quite  impossible  to  compress  an  account  of  it  into  a  short  sr  ace. 

The  Vedas  and  the  Brahmanas  in  time  proved  insufficient  for  securing 
the  hold  of   the  priestly  class  on  the  people.     The  next   great        x^e 
group  of  compositions  were  the  Upanishads  or  mystical  doctrine,  upamshads. 
Some  of  these  are  contained  in  a  class  of  writings  supplementary  to  the 


192 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Brahmanas,  known  as  the  Aranyakas,  or  forest-books,  intended  for  those 
Brahmans  who,  after  having  performed  all  the  duties  of  a  student  and  a 
householder,  retired  to  the  forest  to  spend  their  remaining  days  in  con- 
templation. The  word  Upanishad  is  said  by  native  authorities  to  mean  "  to 
set  ignorance  at  rest  by  revealing  the  knowledge  of  the  supreme  spirit "  ; 
its  real  etymological  meaning  is  a  session,  especially  of  pupils  round  a 
teacher.  These  books  consequently  became  the  most  important  Vedic 
treatises  for  learned  Hindus.  Max  Miiller  considers  that  although  the 
Upanishads  are  later  than  the  Brahmanas,  their  germs  already  existed  in 


BBAHIIA,    VISHNU,    AND    SIVA,    FROM    THE    ELLORA    CAVES. 

the  Rig- Veda ;  and  the  earliest  of  them,  he  says,  will  always  maintain  a 
place  in  the  literature  of  the  world  among  the  most  astounding  pro- 
ductions of  the  human  mind  in  any  age  and  in  any  country. 

The  Khandogya  Upanishad,  which  continues  the  succession  of  the 
Sama-Veda,  is  one  of  the  most  important  Hindu  philosophical  books.  It 
The  synabie  begins  by  the  astonishing  advice  (to  the  Western  mind),  "  Let  a 
0m-  man  meditate,"  or  as  some  translate  it,  "  Let  a  man  '  worship ' 
the  syllable  Om."  The  real  meaning  is,  first,  that  by  prolonged  repetition 
of  the  syllable,  the  thoughts  should  be  drawn  away  from  all  other  subjects 
and  concentrated  on  the  subjects  of  which  that  syllable  was  the  symbol. 


THE   EARLY   VEDIC  RELIGION. 


*93 


It  was  the  beginning  of  the  Veda,  and  the  essence  of  it,  the  symbol  of  all 
speech  and  all  life.  Om  therefore  represented  man's  physical  and  mental 
powers,  and  especially  the  spirit  or  living  principle,  and  this  is  identified 
later  with  the  spirit  in  the  sun  or  in  nature  ;  and  the  beginning  of  this 
Upanishad  teaches  that  no  sacrifices,  however  perfectly  performed,  can 
|  secure  salvation,  while  meditation  on  Om  alone,  or  what  is  meant  by  it, 
will  secure  salvation  or  immortality.  Finally  the  discussion  reaches  the 
highest  philosophical  subjects.  The  declaration  that  the  origin  of  the 
world  is  ether,  "  for  all  beings  take  their  The  origln  of 
rise  from  the  ether,  and  return  into  the  the  worm  in 
ether  ;  ether  is  older  than  these,  ether  is 
their  rest,"  has  a  striking  significance  when  com- 
pared with  the  sentiments  and  speculations  of 
philosophers  at  the  British  Association  in  1888. 
But  there  is  a  further  elevation  of  the  ether,  which 
includes  more  than  the  physical,  for  after  defining 
Brahman  as  the  immortal  with  three  feet  in  heaven, 
the  Upanishad  says :  "  The  Brahman  is  the  same 
as  the  ether  which  is  around  us  ;  and  the  ether 
which  is  around  us  is  the  same  as  the  ether  which 
is  within  us.  And  the  ether  which  is  within,  that 
is  the  ether  within  the  heart.  That  ether  in  the 
heart  is  omnipresent  and  unchanging.  He  who 
knows  this  obtains  omnipresent  and  unchangeable 
happiness."  (M.  M.) 

The  highest  doctrine  of  the  Upanishad,  accord- 
ing to  Max  Midler,  is  that  the  human  Brahman 
recognised  his  own  Self  or  "Atman"  as  The  Atman 
a  mere  limited  reflection  of  the  Highest  or  seif- 
Self,  and  aimed  at  knowing  his  own  Self 
in  the  Highest  Self,  which  may  be  identified  with 
the  Divine  Being,  the  Absolute,  of  "Western  philo- 
sophers. Through  that  knowledge  he  was  to  re- 
turn to  the  Highest  One  and  to  regain  his  identity 
with  it.  "  Here  to  know  was  to  be,  to  know  the 
Atman  was  to  be  the  Atman,  and  the  reward  of  that 
highest  knowledge  after  death  was  freedom  from 
new  births,  or  immortality."  This  Atman  was  also 
the  source  of  all  visible  existence,  identical  with  the  Brahman  and  the  Sal, 
the  true  and  real,  which  exists  in  the  beginning  and  for  ever,  and  gives  rise 
to  every  kind  of  existence.  Although  there  is  much  associated  with  tins 
philosophy  that  seems  trivial  or  fanciful,  it  contains  the  essence  of  pan- 
theism ;  modern  philosophers  find  it  hard  to  advance  really  further  than  the 
ancient  Hindus.  There  are  many  references  to  the  sacrifices  and  to  par- 
ticular gods,  and  it  is  said  that  he  who  knows  or  meditates  on  the  sacrifices 
as  enjoined,  has  his  reward  in  different  worlds  with  the  gods  for  certain J 


FIGURE    OF    IIINJ'0    PBAYING. 
(From  Temple  at  Madura.) 


1 94  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

periods  of  time,  till  at  last  he  reaches  the  true  Brahman.  In  this  state  he 
neither  rises  nor  sets,  he  is  alone,  standing  in  the  centre  ;  to  him  who  thus 
knows  this  doctrine  "  the  sun  does  not  rise  and  does  not  set.  For  him  there 
is  day,  once  and  for  all." 

The  meditation  on  the  five  senses  is  one  of  the  most  striking  ;  but  the 
one  which  follows  must  be  quoted  as  expressing  one  of  the  essential  exposi- 
tions of  Brahman  philosophy. 

"All  this  is  Brahman.  Let  a  man  meditate  on  that  (visible  world)  as 
beginning,  ending,  and  breathing  in  it  (the  Brahman). 

"  Now  man  is  a  creature  of  will.  According  to  what  his  will  is  in  this 
world,  so  will  he  be  when  he  has  departed  this  life.  Let  him  therefore 
have  this  will  and  belief. 

"  The  intelligent,  whose  body  is  spirit,  whose  form  is  light,  whose  thoughts 
are  true,  whose  nature  is  like  ether  (omnipresent  and  invisible),  from  whom 
all  works,  all  desires,  all  sweet  odours  and  tastes  proceed  ;  he  who  embraces 
all  this,  who  never  speaks,  and  is  never  surprised, — 

"  He  is  my  self  within  the  heart,  smaller  than  a  corn  of  rice,  smaller  than 
a  corn  of  barley,  smaller  than  a  mustard  seed,  smaller  than  a  canary  seed, 
or  the  kernel  of  a  canary  seed.  He  also  is  my  self  within  the  heart,  greater 
than  heaven,  greater  than  all  these  worlds. 

"  He  from  whom  all  works,  all  desires,  all  sweet  odours  and  tastes  pro- 
ceed, who  embraces  all  this,  who  never  speaks  and  who  is  never  surprised, 
he,  my  self  within  the  heart,  is  that  Brahman.  When  I  shall  have  departed 
from  hence,  I  shall  obtain  him  (that  Self)."     (M.  M.) 

In  the  Talavakara  Upanishad  occurs  the  following  notable  passage  : 
;'  That  which  is  not  expressed  by  speech  and  by  which  speech  is  expressed, 
that  alone  know  as  Brahman,  not  that  which  people  here  adore:  That 
which  does  not  think  by  mind,  and  by  which,  they  say,  mind  is  thought : 
That  which  does  not  see  by  the  eye,  and  by  which  one  sees  the  eyes  :  That 
which  does  not  hear  by  the  ear,  and  by  which  the  ear  is  heard :  That  which 
does  not  breathe  by  breath,  and  by  which  breath  is  drawn,  that  alone 
know  as  Brahman,  not  that  which  people  here  adore."  (M.  M.)  This 
Upanishad  is  asserted  to  rest  on  penance,  restraint,  and  sacrifice  ;  "  the  Vedas 
are  its  limbs,  the  True  is  its  abode.  He  who  knows  this  Upanishad,  and 
has  shaken  off  all  evil,  stands  in  the  endless  unconquerable  world  of 
heaven." 

The  Svetasvatara  contains  a  more  fully  developed  doctrine,  although 
it  at  times  identifies  the  Brahman  or  highest  self  with  several  of  the  lower 
■me  svetas-  divinities.  It  teaches  the  unity  of  souls  in  the  one  and  only 
lra-  self;  the  unreality  of  the  world  as  a  series  of  figments  of  the 
mind,  as  phenomenal  only.  There  is  no  evolution  of  the  Brahman  ;  he  is 
absolute  and  does  not  directly  create.  He  deputes  that  office  to  Isvara  or 
Deva,  the  Lord,  Brahman  under  the  semblance  of  a  personal  creating  and 
governing  god. 

It   is  interesting  to  compare  the  pantheism  of  this  Upanishad  with 
previous  expressions.     Thus  "  I  know  that  great  Person  of  sunlike  lustre 


THE  EARLY    VEDIC  RELIGION.  195 

beyond  the  darkness.  A  man  who  knows  him  truly,  passes  over  death ; 
there  is  no  other  path  to  go.  This  whole  universe  is  filled  by  this  Person, 
to  whom  there  is  nothing  superior,  from  whom  there  is  nothing  different, 
than  whom  there  is  nothing  smaller  or  larger,  who  stands  alone,  fixed  like 
a  tree  in  the  sk}\  That  which  is  bejrond  this  world  is  without  form  and 
without  suffering.  They  who  know  it,  become  immortal,  but  others  suffer 
pain  indeed.  ...  Its  hands  and  feet  are  everywhere,  its  eyes  and  head 
are  everywhere,  its  ears  are  everywhere,  it  stands  encompassing  all  in  the 
world.  Separate  from  all  the  senses,  yet  reflecting  the  qualities  of  all  the 
senses,  and  it  is  the  lord  and  ruler  of  all,  it  is  the  great  refuge  of  all."  (M.M.) 

Certain  of  the  narratives  incidentally  introduced  into  the  Upanishads 
show  a  still  further  development  of  what  is  dimly  visible  in  the  Rig- Veda, 
and  still  more  clearly  expressed  in  the  Brahmanas,  namely,  a  struggle 
between  the  good  or  bright  gods  (devas)  and  the  evil  spirits.  In  one  of 
these  Indra,  as  chief  of  the  devas,  and  Virokana,  chief  of  the  evil  spirits, 
are  represented  as  seeking  instruction  of  Prajapati,  as  a  supreme  god. 
Prajapati  said,  "  The  self  whrch  is  free  from  sin,  free  from  old  age,  from 
death  and  grief,  from  hunger  and  thirst,  which  desires  nothing  but  what 
it  ought  to  desire,  and  imagines  nothing  but  what  it  ought  to  imagine,  that 
it  is  which  we  must  search  out,  that  it  is  which  we  must  try  to  understand." 
(M.  M.)  The  two  seekers  desire  to  realise  that  self,  and  are  led  on  by 
successive  stages  of  illusion,  Virokana  being  easily  satisfied  with  the  idea 
that  the  body  is  the  self ;  but  Indra  persists  in  inquiries,  and  finally  learns 
that  the  real  self  is  the  knower  or  seer  as  distinct  from  the  mind  or  the  eye 
as  instruments. 

Another  Upanishad  introduces  in  full  expression  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
migration. The  immortality  of  the  Self  is  taught,  and  that  after  death 
some  are  born  again  as  living  beings,  some  enter  into  stocks  and  Transmigra- 
stones.  "  He,  the  highest  Person,  who  wakes  in  us  while  we  aretion  of  souls- 
asleep,  shaping  one  lovely  sight  after  another,  he  indeed  is  called  the  Bright, 
he  is  called  Brahman.  .  .  .  There  is  one  eternal  thinker,  thinking  non- 
eternal  thoughts  ;  he,  though  one,  fulfils  the  desires  of  many.  The  wise 
who  perceive  him  within  their  Self,  to  them  belongs  eternal  peace.  .  .  . 
He,  the  Brahman,  cannot  be  reached  by  speech,  by  mind,  or  by  the  eye. 
He  cannot  be  apprehended,  except  by  him  who  says  :  He  is.  "When  all 
desires  that  dwell  in  the  heart  cease,  then  the  mortal  becomes  Immortal, 
and  obtains  Brahman." 

Max  Miiller  sums  up  the  purpose  of  the  Upanishads  as  being  "  to  show 
the  utter  uselessness,  nay  the  mischievousness  of  all  ritual  performances  ; 
to  condemn  every  sacrificial  act  which  has  for  its  motive  a  desire  Purpose  of 
or  hope  of  reward ;  to  deny,  if  not  the  existence,   at  least  the        t^e 
exceptional  and  exalted  character  of  the  devas,  and  to  teach  that 
there  is  no  hope  of  salvation  and  deliverance,  except  by  the  individual  self 
recognising  the  true  and  universal  Self,  and  finding  rest  there,  where  alone 
rest  can  be  found." 


WORSHIPPING    THE    GANGES. 

CHAPTER   II. 
CI)e  Sra&inanfcm  of  ti)e  Cofcrs. 

The  Sutras— Rationalist  philosophers— The  six  Shastras— Common  tenets— How  to  attain  emancipa- 
tion—The banefulness  of  activity— The  Sankhya  philosophy — The  Yoga  philosophy— Early  rituals 
— Gautama's  institutes— Rites  of  purification— The  four  orders  of  Brahmans —The  ascetic — The 
hermit— The  householder's  duties— Kings— When  the  Veda  is  not  to  be  recited— Various  restric- 
tions—The duty  of  women— Outcasts— Penances  and  penalties-  The  laws  of  Manu— Date— Alleged 
origin— Self-repression  inculcated— Study  of  the  Veda  a  privilege— The  gods  in  Manu— New 
births  and  hells— Duties  of  the  four  castes— Lofty  claims  of  the  Brahmans— The  four  periods  of 
life— The  student— Some  liberal  sentiments— The  householder — The  chief  daily  rites— Sacrifices 
for  the  dead— Position  of  women— Gifts— Spiritual  merit— The  hermit  in  the  forest— The  mendi- 
cant ascetic— The  duties  of  a  king— The  Brahman's  superiority— Crimes— Punishments  and  pen- 
ances—Falsehood excused— Caste— Growth  of  mixed  castes— Transmigration  of  souls— Efficacy 
of  the  code— Code  of  Yajnavalkya. 

THE  very  mass  of  the  Vedic  sacred  literature  became  its  bane.  No  one 
could  learn  it  all  and  understand  it  all.  There  arose  a  need  for  con- 
densed statements  of  the  revealed  truth  and  the  laws  of  ceremonial,  and 
The  Sutras  we  nave  these  in  the  form  of  Sutras,  or  collections  of  aphorisms 
tersely  giving  the  most  needful  information ;  and  these  were  com- 
posed by  different  authors  for  different  Brahmanical  families,  and  are  exceed- 
ingly numerous.  They  are  based  upon  the  Vedas  and  the  subsequent 
Brahmanas,  and  exhibit  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Vedic  language. 
They  give  us  for  the  first  time  a  full  account  of  the  castes,  composed  at  a 
time  contemporaneous  with  the  rise  and  spread  of  Buddhism. 

During  the  same  period,  probably  about  500  B.C.,  there  arose,  contem- 

i% 


THE   BRAHMANISM   OF  THE    CODES.  197 


porary  with  Buddha,  a  number  of  rationalist  philosophers,  who,  while  accept- 
ing the  authority  of  the  Vedas  and  the  supremacy  of  the  Brah-  Rationalist 
mans,  speculated  freely  on  questions  of  philosophy  and  the  moral  philosophers, 
government  of  the  universe.      Finally  these  were  arranged   in  six  main 
systems  of  teaching,  sometimes  called  the  six  Shastras.     Which     t^  six 
of  these  is  the  earlier  cannot  yet  be  considered  settled.     But  a   Shastras. 
great  deal  is  common  to  most  of  the  systems,  and  is  still  held  by  the  majority 
of  educated  Hindus.     Such  articles  of  common  belief  are  :  the    common 
eternity  of  the  soul,  both  the  supreme  soul  or  Brahman  and  the     tenets, 
individual  soul  or  Atman  ;   the  eternity  of  matter,  or  that  substance  out  of 
which  the  universe  is  evolved  ;  that  the  soul  can  only  exercise  thought  and 
will  when  invested  with  some  bodily  form  and  joined  to  mind,  and  has  in 
successive  ages  become  manifest  as  Brahma,  Vishnu,  Siva,  etc.,  and  in  the 
form  of  men  ;  that  the  union  of  the  soul  with  the  body  is  a  bondage,  and  in 
the  case  of  men  produces  misery ;  that  consequences  inevitably  follow  acts, 
whether  good  or  bad,  and  these  are  partly  suffered  in  heaven  or  hell,  and 
partly  have  to  be  worked  out  through  continual  transmigrations  of  the  soul 
in  varied  animal,  material,  or  higher  forms  ;   that  this  transmigration  is  the 
explanation  of  all  evil,  but  the  soul  bears  the  consequences  of  its  own  acts 
only,  though  these  may  have  taken  place  in  an  inconceivable  number  of 
past  existences,  not  recollected  ;  and  finally,  that  the  great  aim  of  philosophy 
is  to  produce  indifference  in  thought,  feeling  and  action,  and  to  enable  the 
individual  to  return  to  the  condition  of  simple  soul. 

The  terseness  of  these  Sutra  philosophies  may  be  illustrated,  from  the 
Nyaya  of  Gautama  (a  philosopher  distinct  from  the  great  Buddha).     Deliver- 
ance from  the  misery  of  repeated  births  is  to  be  thus  attained :      Hqw 
"  Misery,  birth,  activity,  fault,  false  notions  ;  on  the  removal  of  attain  eman- 
these  in  turn  (beginning  with  the  last),  there  is  the  removal  also    cip 
of  that  which  precedes  it ;  then  ensues  final  emancipation  "  (M.W.).    A  Hindu 
comment  on  this  is  as  follows  :   "  From  false  notions  proceed  partiality  and 
prejudice  ;  thence  come  the  faults  of  detraction,  envy,  delusion,  intoxication, 
pride,  avarice.     Acting  with  a  body,  a  person  commits  injury,  theft,  and 
unlawful  sensualities — becomes  false,  harsh,  and  slanderous.     This  vicious 
activity  produces  demerit.     But  to  do  acts  of  charity,  benevolence,  and  ser- 
vice with  the  body ;  to  be  truthful,  useful,  agreeable  in  speech,  or  given  to. 
repetition  of  the  Veda  ;  to  be  kind,  disinterested,  and  reverential — these  pro- 
duce merit.     Hence  merit  and  demerit  are  fostered  by  activitj^.  Banefuiness 
This  activity  is  the  cause  of  vile  as  well  as  honourable  births.  of  actlvlty- 
Attendant  on  birth  is  pain.     That  comprises  the  feeling  of  distress,  trouble, 
disease  and  sorrow.     Emancipation  is  the  cessation  of  all  these.     What  in- 
telligent person  will  not  desire  emancipation  from  all  pain  ?  " 

This  system,  with  its  supplement,  the  Vaiseshika,  teaches  the  eternity 
of  material  atoms,  and  also  of  the  supreme  Soul  and  of  individual  souls.    The 
Sankhya  philosophy  is  still  more  positive  on  these  points,  and  Tne  sanknya 
says  :   "  There  cannot  be  the  production  of  something  out  of  no-  pnuosophy. 
thing  ;  that  which  is  not  cannot  be  developed  into  that  which  is."    It  recog- 


I93  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


nises  that  there  is  a  being  or  essence  which  evolves  or  produces  everything 
else  together  with  Souls  which  neither  produce  nor  are  produced,  but  become 
united  with  the  world-evolver  in  varied  degrees.  The  development  of  these 
ideas  in  later  Hindu  theology  and  philosophy  will  be  referred  to  hereafter. 

The  Yoga  philosophy  is  the  foundation  of  much  of  the  asceticism  of  the 
Hindu.  It  directly  acknowledges  the  supreme  Being,  and  aims  at  teaching 
The  Yoga  the  human  soul  to  attain  perfect  union  with  the  supreme  Soul, 
philosophy.  j_n  it  we  have  the  fuller  development  of  the  benefits  of  contem- 
plating the  syllable  0>n,  the  symbol  of  the  deity.  Mental  concentration  is 
facilitated  by  bodily  restraint  and  postures,  religious  observances,  suppres- 
sion of  the  breath,  restraint  of  the  senses,  etc.,  and  by  these  in  their  varied 
forms,  the  devotee  is  supposed  to  attain  union  with  the  supreme  Being,  even 
in  the  present  life. 

The  remaining  chief  systems  of  philosophy,  the  Jaimini  and  the 
Vedanta,  are  mainly  concerned  with  ritual.  The  former  may  be  said  to 
have  made  a  god  of  ritual,  and  appealed  to  the  Veda  as  infallible.  The 
Vedanta  professes  to  be  based  upon  the  TJpanishads  and  their  pantheism. 

Much  of  the  ceremonial  of  the  Hindus  was  also  very  early  condensed  in 
Sutra  form,  and  every  school  had  its  own  form.     Several  of  these,  preceding 
the  celebrated  laws  of  Manu,  have  come  down  to  us.     They  are  a 
ar  y  n  u  s.  j_.^  ^  maimai  composed  by  the  Vedic  teachers  for  use  in  their 
respective,  schools,  and  only  later  put  forward  as  binding  on  Aryans  gener- 
Gautama's   a-lty-     The  "Institutes  of  the  Sacred  Law,"  ascribed  to  Gautama, 
institutes,   begins  by  acknowledging  the  Veda  as  the  source  of  the  sacred 
law,  and  proceeds  to  fix  the  period  and  mode  of  initiation  of  a  Brahman, 
and  the  rites  of  purification  after  touching  impure  things.     Here  is  a  speci- 
men of  these  rites. 

"  Turning  his  face  to  the  east  or  to  the  north,  he  shall  purify  himself 
from  personal  defilement.  Seated  in  a  pure  place,  placing  his  right  arm 
Rites  of  between  his  knees,  arranging  his  dress  (or  his  sacrificial  cord)  in 
purification,  the  manner  required  for  a  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  he  shall,  after 
washing  his  hands  up  to  the  wrist  three  or  four  times,  silently,  sip  water 
that  reaches  his  heart,  twice  wipe  his  lips,  sprinkle  his  feet  and  his  head, 
touch  the  cavity  in  the  head  with  his  right  hand,  and  place  it  on  the  crown 
of  his  head  and  on  his  navel." 

Students  of  the  Vedas  had  to  study  each  for  twelve  years,  but  might 

restrict  their  study  to  one  Veda  only.     After  the  Veda  had  been  studied,  he 

The  four    m^Snt  choose  which  order  of  Brahmans  he  would  enter ;  that  of 

orders  of    the  student,  the  householder,  the  ascetic,  or  the  hermit  in  the 

woods.     The  ascetic  was  required  to  live  by  alms,  to  restrain  every 

desire,  and  maintain  an  attitude  of  indifference  towards  all  creatures,  whether 

The  ascetic  ^ey  did   ^im  an  injury  or  kindness.     The  hermit  was  to  live  in 

'  the  forest,  and  subsist  on  roots  and  fruits,  practising  austerities. 

He  wag  to  worship  gods,  manes  (ancestor  worship),  men,  goblins,  and  Eishis 

The  hermit  (S1"68,4  Vedic  teachers).     He  must  not  enter  a  village,  nor  step  on 

ploughed  land  ;  his  dress  must  be  made  of  bark  and  skins. 


THE  BRAHMANISM  OF  THE    CODES.  199 


For  the  householder,  marriage   and  its  rites  are  of   the  utmost    im- 
portance, and  full  directions  are  given  as  to  the  choice  of  a  wife  and  the 
ceremonies  attending  marriage,  which  vary  according  to  the  kind         noUse- 
of  marriage.     The  offspring  of  marriages  with  other  castes  give     holder's 
rise  in  each  case  to  a  distinct  caste.     Complex  domestic  cere- 
monies are  prescribed,  with  offerings  to  the  deities  presiding  over  the  eight 
points  of  the  horizon,  at  the  doors  of  the  house  to  the  Maruts,  to  the  deities  of 
the  dwelling  inside  the  house,  to  Brahman  in  the  centre  of  the  house,  to  the 
Waters  near  the  water  pot,  to  the  Ether  in  the  air,  and  in  the  evening  to  the 
beings  walking  about  at  night.    A  kindly  courtesy  is  shown  in  the  direction 
that  a  householder  before  he  eats  shall  feed  his  guests,  infants,  sick  people 
and  women,  aged  men,  and  those  of  low  condition.     A  Brahman  is  allowed 
to  earn  his  living  by  varied  occupations  in  times  of  distress  ;  but  he  is 
forbidden  to  sell  a  great  many  specified  kinds  of  goods. 

The  authority  of  kings  is  upheld  in  Gautama's  Institutes,  but  at  the 
same  time  high  privileges  are  demanded  for  Brahmans,  who,  if 
of  high  rank   and   religious   character,   must  not  be  corporally 
punished,  imprisoned,  fined,  exiled,  or   reviled.      Truth-speaking  and  the 
ascertainment  of  truth  are  strongly  inculcated. 

One  of  the  most  curious  chapters  in  these  Institutes  details  a  multitude 
of  circumstances  in  which  the  Veda  is  not  to  be  recited  ;  as  for  instance,  if 
the  wind  whirls  up  the  dust  in  the  daytime,  or  if  it  is  audible  at  When  th& 
night,  if  the  barking  of  many  clogs  and  jackals  or  the  braying  of  vedaisnotto 
many  donkeys  is  heard,  when  the  reciter  is  riding  in  a  carriage 
or  on  beasts  of  burden,  in  a  burial  ground,  in  the  extremity  of  a  village, 
when  it  thunders  and  rains,  etc.,  etc.  Equally  curious  are  the  particulars 
of  the  gifts  which  may  be  accepted  from  twice-born  persons  (i.e.,  pure 
Aryans).  If  the  means  of  subsistence  cannot  be  otherwise  various 
obtained,  it  may  be  accepted  from  a  Sudra  (one  of  the  slave  or  restrictions, 
subject  races).  A  householder  may  not  eat  food  into  which  a  hair  or  an 
insect  has  fallen,  nor  what  has  been  smelt  at  by  a  cow,  nor  what  has  been 
cooked  twice,  nor  what  has  been  given  by  various  people  of  bad  character 
performing  low  offices.  The  classes  of  animals  that  may  not  be  eaten  re- 
mind one  of  the  ceremonial  restrictions  of  Leviticus ;  but  in  fact  the  principle 
of  tabooing  certain  things  to  those  who  belong  to  a  higher  or  select  order 
is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  The  milk  of  sheep,  camels,  and 
entire-hoofed  animals  was  forbidden  to  the  Brahmans.  Five- toed  animals 
were  not  to  be  eaten,  except  the  porcupine,  the  hare,  the  boar,  the  iguana, 
the  rhinoceros,  and  the  tortoise  ;  nor  animals  with  a  double  row  of  teeth, 
those  covered  with  an  excess  of  hair,  those  with  no  hair,  entire-hoofed 
animals,  and  indeed  whole  groups  of  creatures. 

Women  were  enjoined  to  fulfil  their  duty  to  their  husbands  strictly, 
and  restrain  their  tongues,  eyes,  and  actions ;    yet  much  that  Christians 
would  revolt  against  is  declared  lawful  and  right  for  her  to  do.  -me  duty  of 
Early  betrothals  are  enjoined.     The  crimes  for  which  a  man  be-     women. 
comes  an   outcast   are   very   varied,    including  murder  and  many  crimes 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


against  Brahmans,  and  association  with  outcasts;  thus  boycotting  is  almost 

as  old  as  Brahmanism,  if  not  older.     "To  be  an  outcast,"  says 

sts'    Gautama,  "means  to  be  deprived  of  the  right  to  follow  the  lawful 

occupations  of  twice-born   men,    and   to   be   deprived  after    death  of  the 

rewards  of  meritorious  deeds." 

Numerous  and  severe  penances  for  various  offences  are  enjoined.  He 
who  has  killed  a  Brahman  must  emaciate  himself  and  thrice  throw  himself 
Penances  and mto  a  fire,  or  remaining  chaste  he  may,  during  twelve  years, 
penalties,  enter  the  village  only  for  the  purpose  of  begging,  carrying  the 
foot  of  a  bedstead  and  a  skull  in  his  hand,  and  proclaiming  his  deed ;  thus 
standing  by  day,  sitting  at  night,  and  bathing  thrice  a  day,  he  may  be 
purified  in  twelve  years,  or  by  saving  the  life  of  a  Brahman.  It  is  most 
striking  how  vigorously  the  Brahman  literature  maintains  the  sanctity  and 
inviolability  of  its  priests,  and  claims  to  exert  throughout  the  life  of  the 
Aryans  a  minute  authority  scarcely  paralleled  by  the  Church  of  Rome.  Some 
of  the  severest  penalties  are  those  inflicted  for  touching  spirituous  liquor. 
Thus  "  they  shall  pour  hot  spirituous  liquor  into  the  mouth  of  a  Brahman 
who  has  drunk  such  liquor  ;  he  will  be  purified  after  death."  Severe  secret 
penances  are  enjoined  on  those  whose  sins  are  not  publicly  known.  It  is 
not  to  be  supposed  that  the  worship  of  the  gods  is  intentionally  lowered  by 
these  regulations ;  but  the  very  great  importance  assumed  by  ceremonial 
observances  and  penances  naturally  tended  to  lower  the  dignity  of  the  gods 
and  raise  that  of  the  Brahmans.  It  is  not  wonderful,  therefore,  that  Budd- 
hism should  have  arisen. 

THE  LAWS  OF  MANU. 

We  have  not  space  to  compare  this  lawbook  with  later  ones  which  bear 
the  names  of  Vasishtha,  Baudhayana,  and  Apastamba,  or  to  give  an  account 
of  the  Grihya  Sutras  or  books  specially  on  domestic  ceremonies  ; 
but  must  pass  on  to  the  celebrated  Laws  of  Manu,  a  metrical 
version  of  the  whole  Brahmanical  scheme,  dating,  according  to  some 
authorities,  from  the  fifth  century  b.c.  ;  but  Prof.  Btihler  does  not  consider 
it  certain  that  it  existed  in  its  present  form  earlier  than  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century  a.d.,  though  undoubtedly  it  is  derived  from  earlier 
versions  containing  substantially  the  same  matter.  It  results,  in  fact,  from 
the  gradual  transformation  of  the  teaching  of  a  school  into  a  general  law- 
book. But  in  process  of  time  this  book  became  surrounded  by  a  multitude 
of  fictitious  legends  designed  to  support  its  divine  authority  and  secure  the 
obedience  of  ali  Aryans.  The  first  chapter  of  Manu  is  an  apt  illustration 
of  this,  and  we  therefore  quote  a  portion  from  Biihler's  translation. 

"  The  great  sages  approached  Manu,  who  was  seated  with  a  collected 
mind,  and  having  duly  worshipped  him,  spoke  as  follows  :— 

Alleged  '  Deign,  divine  one,  to  declare  to  us  precisely  and  in  due 

'*&*•     order  the  sacred  laws  of  each  of  the  four  chief  castes  and  of  the 
intermediate  ones. 

'For  thou,  0  Lord,  alone  knowest  the  purport  {i.e.)  the  rites,  and  the 


THE  BRAHMANISM  OF  THE    CODES. 


201 


knowledge  of  the  soul,  taught  in  this  whole  ordinance  of  the  Self-Existent, 
which  is  unknowable  and  unfathomable  ! 

" '  He  who  can  be  perceived  by  the  internal  organ  alone,  who  is  subtile, 


llINDou    KJiLIUIoUa    UBNDICAMT. 


indiscernible,  and  eternal,  who  contains  all  created  beings  and  is   incon- 
ceivable, shone  forth  of  his  own  will. 

"  '  He,  desiring  to  produce  beings  of  many  kinds  from  his  own  body, 
first  with  a  thought  created  the  waters,  and  placed  his  seed  in  them. 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


"  '  That  seed  became  a  golden  egg,  in  brilliancy  equal  to  the  sun  ;  in  that 
(egg)  he  himself  was  born  as  Brahman,  the  progenitor  of  the  whole  world.'  " 

After  a  very  fanciful  account  of  the  derivation  of  all  creation  and  of  the 
relations  of  the  creator  to  the  creatures,  it  is  stated  that  the  creator  himself 
composed  those  Institutes  and  taught  them  to  the  author,  Manu,  who  deputes 
Bhrigu  his  pupil  to  recite  them. 

It  appears  that  the  introduction  of  the  Laws  of  Manu  as  a  general 
authority  was  due  to  the  great  accumulation  of  older  works,  having  but  a 
local  and  limited  authoritiy,  and  to  the  gradual  extension  of  the  influence  of 
a  particular  school  of  general  religious  and  legal  instruction.  No  doubt  one 
factor  which  contributed  to  its  wide  reception  was  the  extended  description 
of  the  duties  and  powers  of  the  king  and  of  the  administration  of  justice,  and 
another  was  its  general  relation  and  suitability  to  all  Aryans,  whatever  their 
caste.  Their  authority  Avas  clenched  and  upheld  by  their  being  given  out 
as  the  work  of  Manu,  the  typical  man,  the  offspring  of  the  self-existent 
Brahman,  and  consequently  of  double  nature,  divine  and  human.  Hence  he 
was  invoked  as  Lord  of  created  beings,  and  even  as  identical  with  Brahman, 
the  supreme  Soul.  In  the  Rig- Veda  he  is  frequently  termed  Father  Manu, 
and  it  is  stated  that  "the  five  tribes"  or  "  the  races  of  men  "  are  his  off- 
spring. We  have  already  referred  to  the  legend  in  the  Satapatha-brahmana 
in  which  Manu  is  said  to  have  been  saved  from  a  great  flood  which  de- 
stroyed all  other  creatures.  He  thus  naturally  represents  social  and  moral 
order,  and  is  the  type  of  the  temporal  ruler,  the  inspired  teacher  and  the 
priest  combined.  In  many  passages  of  the  Rig- Veda  his  sacrifices  are  men- 
tioned, and  the  gods  are  begged  to  accept  the  offerings  of  the  priests  as  they 
accepted  those  of  Manu. 

That  writing  was  known  and  in  considerable  use  when  the  Laws  of 
Manu  were  compiled,  is  evident  from  several  passages,  and  also  from  the  com- 
plex translations  which  are  mentioned,  which  would  have  been  impossible 
without  writing.  The  number  of  archaic  phrases  and  the  primitive  customs 
described  show  that  it  is  based  on  earlier  works  ;  and  by  careful  study  a 
very  good  idea  of  its  development  may  be  formed. 

In  giving  some  account  of  the  Laws  of  Manu  an  endeavour  will  be  made 
to  dwell  principally  upon  their  religious  aspect ;  but  it  is  difficult  for  the 

Hi  Western  mind  to  realise  the  extent  to  which  every  detail  of  a 

religious    Hindu's  life  and  conduct  is  connected  with  and  supported  by 

his  religious  belief.     In  fact  the  Christian  ideal,  that  the  whole 

life  should  be  religious,  has  long  been  practised  by  a  vast  number  of  Hindus, 

although  the  form,  basis,  and  nature  of  the  religions  differ  so  widely. 

The  assent  of  the  heart  is  the  inner  sanction  of  the  Hindu  law,  sup- 
ported by  the  authority  of  Manu,  the  Veda,  the  Veclic  teachers,  and  the 
seif-repres-  clls^oms  °f  holy  men.     The  desire  of  rewards  is  declared  to  be 

sion  incui.  not  laudable  in  itself,  but  it  is  recognised  and  utilised  ;  and  the 
cated  . 

man  who  discharges  his  prescribed  duties  is  promised  the  attain- 
ment of  the  deathless  state,  and  even  in  this  life  the  realisation  of  all  his 
desires.     How  completely  the  system  was  directed  to  self-repression  and  the 


THE   BRAHMANISM  OF  THE    CODES.  203 

production  of  passivity  in  this  life  may  be  seen  by  this  verse  :  "  That  man 
may  be  considered  to  have  really  subdued  his  organs,  who,  on  hearing  and 
touching  and  seeing,  or  tasting  and  smelling  anything,  neither  rejoices  nor 
repines."  The  privilege  of  being  instructed  in  the  Veda  is  strictly 
fenced  in,  but  the  limitations  may  be  relaxed  by  presents  of  the  Veda 
money.  Even  in  times  of  dire  distress,  however,  a  Vedic  teacher  a  p  ege' 
was  rather  to  die  with  his  knowledge  than  sow  it  in  barren  soil.  The  Brahman 
unlearned  in  the  Veda  is  stigmatised  as  useless,  like  a  wooden  elephant, 
having  nothing  but  the  name  in  common  with  his  kind.  The  Veda  is, 
indeed,  extolled  to  a  position  which  is  only  rivalled  by  those  whom  some 
have  called  Bibliolaters.  Thus  we  read  that  the  Veda  is  the  eternal 
eye  of  the  manes,  gods  and  men,  and  beyond  human  comprehension. 
Everything  not  founded  on  it  is  founded  on  darkness,  and  produces  no 
reward  after  death  ;  the  eternal  lore  of  the  Veda  upholds  all  created  beings. 
He  only  who  knows  the  Veda  deserves  royal  authority,  the  office  of  a  judge, 
the  command  of  armies.  By  knowledge  of  the  Veda  the  taint  arising  from 
evil  acts  is  burnt  out  of  the  soul.  A  Brahman  who  retains  the  Rig-Veda  in 
his  memory  is  not  stained  by  guilt,  though  he  may  have  destroyed  the 
three  worlds.  Study  of  the  Upanishads  is  mentioned  as  necessary  to  the 
attainment  of  union  with  the  supreme  Soul. 

.  As  to  the  gods  other  than  this  universal  Spirit  or  Soul,  they  scarcely  go 
beyond  the  lists  already  given  in  the  Vedic  period,  such  as  Indra,  Surya, 
the  Maruts,  Yama,  Varuna,  Agni,  etc.,  whose  energetic  action  the  The  gods  in 
king  is  to  emulate ;  but  they  appear  to  occupy  a  very  moderate      Manu- 
place  in  the  scheme,  the  Supreme  Spirit  and  the  Brahmanic  rites  being  chief. 
Indeed,  there  is  a  manifest  leaning  towards  pantheism,  it  being  frequently 
declared  that  everything  proceeds  from  Brahma  the  universal  Soul,  and  will 
ultimately  be  absorbed  once  more  in  the  same.     The  whole  philosophy  is 
affected  by  the  doctrine  of  transmigration  of  souls,  new  births  in  New  births 
the  same  or  a  lower  order  of  creation  or  in  hells  being  the  result    and  heUs- 
of  evil  conduct,  and  absorption  in  the  Supreme  Soul  being  the  grand  result 
of  the  greatest  merit.     The  hells  described,  though  terrible,  are  consequently 
only  temporary.     Among  the  torments    are  "  being   devoured  by  ravens 
and  owls,  the  heat  of  scorching  sand,  being  boiled  in  jars,"  etc.     Altogether, 
theology  is  largely  absent  from  Manu.     But  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  constant  study  of  the  Veda  is  everywhere  inculcated.     There  is  scarcely 
any  reference  to  public  worship  or  to  temples ;  and  from  its  whole  tone  we 
see  how  the  family  was  the  keystone  of  the  Brahmanic  religion.      The 
influence  of  the  Brahmans  over  the  domestic  life  of  the  people  was  pro- 
found and  sufficient  at  the  time  when  the  code  of  Manu  was  composed. 

The  original  castes  are  stated  to  be  four,  the  Brahman,  the  Kshatriya 
or  warrior,  the  Vaisya  (cultivator),  and  the  Sudra  or  servant ;  and  (as  in  the 
tenth  book  of  the  Rig- Veda)  they  originated  respectively  from  Duties  of  the 
the  mouth,  arms,  thighs,  and  feet  of  Brahma,  who  assigned  them  four  castes- 
their  separate  duties.  To  Brahmans  he  assigned  teaching  and  studying 
the  Veda,  sacrificing  for  their  own  benefit  and  for  others,  and  giving  and 


204  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


accepting  of  alms;  to  Ksliatriyas  the  protection  of  the  people,  the  bestowal 

of  gifts,  the  ottering  of  sacrifices,  the  study  of  the  Veda,  and  abstinence  from 

sensual  pleasures ;  to  the  Vaisyas  tending  cattle,  the  bestowal  of  gifts,  the 

offering  of  sacrifices,  the  study  of  the  Veda,  trading,  lending  money,  and 

the  cultivation  of  land  ;  to  the  Sudras  simply  to  serve  the  other  three. 

The  Brahman  caste  is  exalted  far  above  the  others,  having  sprung  from 

the  mouth  of  Brahma,  being  the  first-born,  the  preserver  of  the  Veda,  and 

having  the  right  of  expounding  it.     "  What  created  being  can 
Lofty  claims  &  &  *  in  i  ,  •         n 

of  the      surpass  him,  through  whose  mouth  the  gods  continually  consume 

Brahmans.  ^  sacrificial  viands  and  the  offerings  to  the  dead  ?  "  The  most 
distinguished  Brahman  is  he  who  fully  performs  his  duty  and  knows  the 
Brahman  ;  he  in  fact  becomes  one  with  Brahma  the  creator.  The  most  ex- 
travagant claims  of  lordship  over  all  creatures,  of  possession  of  everything, 
are  made  on  his  behalf.  In  fact,  not  only  is  everything  bestowed  upon  him, 
his  own  already,  but  other  mortals  are  stated  to  owe  their  subsistence  to  the 
benevolence  of  the  Brahmans.  In  some  passages  of  Manu  a  Brahman  is  even 
lifted  to  the  rank  of  a  divinity,  whether  he  were  ignorant  or  learned,  and 
even  if  he  were  occupied  in  a  mean  occupation.  A  Brahman  who  studies 
Manu  and  faithfully  performs  his  duties  is  said  to  be  never  tainted  by  sins 
of  thought,  word,  or  deed,  and  to  sanctify  any  company  he  may  enter, 
together  with  seven  ancestors  and  seven  descendants.  Surely  more  arrogant 
self-assertion  was  never  advanced  and  admitted  than  by  these  Brahmans. 
The  king  is  warned  not  to  provoke  them  to  anger,  for  it  is  asserted  that 
they  could  instantly  destroy  him  and  his  army,  by  their  power  over  all 
creation,  and  by  the  utterance  of  magic  texts.  Yet  inconsistently  enough, 
it  is  allowed  that  just  as  Ksliatriyas  cannot  prosper  without  Brahmans, 
so  Brahmans  cannot  prosper  without  Kshatriyas.  Their  persons  are  de- 
clared inviolable,  and  the  crime  of  threatening  a  Brahman  with  a  stick  will 
be  punished  in  hell  for  a  hundred  j^ears,  while  the  actual  striker  of  a 
Brahman  will  remain  in  hell  a  thousand  years.  Still"  more  extravagant  is 
this  further  threat :  "  As  many  particles  of  dust  as  the  blood  of  a  Brahman 
causes  to  coagulate,  for  so  many  thousand  years  shall  the  shedder  of  that 
blood  remain  in  hell."  This  system  could  of  course  only  be  maintained  by 
the  receipt  of  heavy  fees.  The  repetitions  of  the  Veda,  and  the  perform- 
ance of  the  sacrifices  were  made  to  depend  upon  the  gifts  to  the  officiating 
Brahmans.  No  taxes  were  to  be  paid  by  them ;  and  any  king  who  suffered 
a  learned  Brahman  to  die  of  hunger  would  have  his  kingdom  afflicted 
by  famine,  while  the  meritorious  acts  of  any  Brahman  whom  he  protected 
would  increase  the  king's  wealth,  length  of  life,  and  kingdom.  Yet,  if 
after  all  these  injunctions,  a  Brahman  failed  to  receive  proper  patronage 
and  support,  he  might  become  a  soldier,  a  cultivator,  or  a  trader. 

We  must  give  some  further  detail  of  the  Brahman's  life  and  course  of 

study ;  for  although  it  only  partially  applies  to  the  other  classes  of  Hindus, 

'.The  four     *■*  represents  that  ideal  which  they  continually  looked  up  to  and 

rae°8dtudente'  revered>  anc*  ^s  as  characteristic  of  Hindu  religious  life  as  that  of 
the  clergyman  of  the  present  day  is  of  our  own.     We  cannot 


THE   BRAHMANISM   OF  THE    CODES 


205 


fail  to  be  astonished  at  the  lengthy  student  period  which  the  Brahman 
must  go  through.  Studentship  might  last  for  nine,  eighteen,  or  thirty-six 
years,  or  even  for  the  whole  of  life,  The  most  important  of  the  numerous 
preliminary  rites  was  the  investiture  with  the  sacred  cord  or  sacrificial  string, 
which  must  be  of  three  threads  of  cotton,  twisted  to  the  right,  and  worn 
over  the  left  shoulder  and  across  the  body  to  the  right  hip.     The  ceremony 


HINDU    SUTTEE    (SATl),    OB    THE    SELF-IMMOLATION    OF    A    WIDOW. 


commenced  with  taking  a  stafi  as  tall  as  the  pupil,  and  worshipping  the  sun 
while  standing  and  walking  round  the  sacred  fire,  after  which  he  begged 
alms  and  food  in  succession  of  each  person  present  according  to  a  fixed  order. 
After  having  eaten,  and  purified  himself  with  water,  a  series  of  formalities 
is  required  before  the  teacher  begins  to  instruct  his  pupil  in  the  Veda,  the 
i  (syllable  Om  being  always  pronounced  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  lesson. 


206  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Once  initiated,  regular  bathing,  with  libations  of  water  to  the  gods,  the 
inspired  Eishis,  and  deceased  ancestors,  is  required  of  the  Brahman  student, 
and  lie  must  reverence  the  deities  (explained  later  to  mean,  "  worship  the 
images  of  the  gods  "),  and  place  fuel  on  the  sacred  fire.  He  must  live  a  chaste 
lit'.',  refrain  from  meat  and  all  sensuality,  from  dancing,  singing,  and  playing 
musical  instruments,  must  never  injure  any  living  creature,  must  not  wear 
shoes  or  use  an  umbrella,  and  must  refrain  from  anger,  covetousness,  idle 
disputes,  and  gambling.  The  regulations  for  securing  reverent  behaviour 
towards  the  teacher  are  very  elaborate ;  and  parents  and  elders  generally 
are  to  be  highly  regarded.  It  is  declared  that  the  trouble  and  pain  which 
parents  undergo  on  the  birth  of  their  children  cannot  be  compensated  even 
in  a  hundred  years,  and  obedience  to  them  and  to  the  teacher  are  the  best 
forms  of  austerity ;  the  son  must  rejoice  to  do  what  is  agreeable  and  bene- 
ficial to  them  ;  by  honouring  them  the  three  worlds  are  gained  ;  for  him  who 
honours  them  not,  all  rites  are  fruitless. 

Somewhat  surprisingly,  in  the  midst  of  these  stringent  regulations  we 
come  upon  the  following  liberal  sentiments  :     "  He  who  possesses  faith  may 
some  liberal  receive  pure  learning  even  from  a  man  of  lower  caste,  and  an 
sentiments.  excenent  wife  even  from  a  base  family." 

"  Even  from  poison  nectar  may  be  taken,  even  from  a  child  good  advice, 
even  from  a  foe  a  lesson  in  good  conduct,  and  even  from  an  impure  sub- 
stance gold. 

"  Excellent  wives,  learning,  the  knowledge  of  the  law,  the  rules  of  purity, 
good  advice,  and  various  arts  maybe  acquired  from  anybody." 

Finally,  the  Brahman  who  has  not  broken  his  vow  during  his  student 
stage  is  promised  after  death  the  highest  abode,  and  that  he  will  not  be 
born  again  in  this  world. 

The  stage  of  a  householder  being  at  length  reached,  the  Brahman 
must  marry  a  wife  of  equal  caste,  free  from  bodily  defects  and  having  vari- 
xke  ous  good  qualities;  but  polygamy  is  allowed  though  not  recom- 
nousenoider.  mended,  and  when  the  first  wife  is  one  of  equal  caste,  another 
wife  may  be  taken  from  each  of  the  inferior  castes.  Eight  different 
forms  of  marriage,  four  laudable  and  four  blamable,  the  chief  differences 
being  in  the  matter  of  dowry  and  attendant  circumstances,  the  highest 
rank  being  accorded  to  a  marriage  where  the  parent  of  the  bride  offers  her 
with  costly  garments  and  jewels  to  a  learned  Brahman ;  the  son  of  such  a 
wife  is  said  to  liberate  from  sin  ten  ancestors  and  ten  descendants  if  he 
does  meritorious  works. 

The  Brahman  householder  had  to  perform  daily  five  chief  rites  ;  (1) 
muttering  the  Veda ;  (2)  offering  water  and  food  to  ancestors ;  (3)  a  burnt 
The  chief    offering  to  the  gods  ;  (4)  an  offering  to  all  creatures,  including  aged 
daily  rites.  parentSj  g00ci  anci  evii  Spirits,  consisting  of  the  scattering  of  rice- 
grains  on  the  housetop  or  outside  the  door;  (5)  an  offering  to  men,  consisting  of 
sacrifices  for  hospitable  reception  of  (Brahman)  guests.    This  last  was  naturally 
ea(L    considered  of  great  importance,  as  it  afforded  the  chief  means  of 
support  to  the  students,  ascetics,  and  hermits.     Sacrifices  for  the  dead  were 


THE  BRAHMANISM  OF  THE    CODES.  207 

required  to  be  performed  every  new  moon,  and  at  these  times  learned  Brah- 
mans  were  specially  entertained.  A  long  list  of  those  who  must  not  be 
invited  or  who  must  be  shunned  on  these  occasions  is  given,  including 
physicians,  temple-priests  (implying  that  these  were  rising  in  importance 
and  were  considered  to  have  interests  opposed  to  those  of  the  domestic  Brah- 
mans),  sellers  of  meal,  actors  or  singers,  one-eyed  men,  incendiaries,  drunkards, 
gamblers,  those  who  had  forsaken  parents.  The  great  importance  assign*1' I 
to  these  celebrations  for  deceased  ancestors, — being  declared  much  more  im- 
portant than  the  rites  in  honour  of  the  gods, — seems  to  indicate  that  ancestor 
worship  among  the  Aryans  was  later  than  nature  worship.  The  funeral 
sacrifices  further  acquired  importance  to  the  Hindus  as  affording  the  basis 
of  their  law  of  inheritance.  All  who  offered  the  funeral  cake  and  water 
together  were  bound  in  one  family,  represented  by  the  eldest  male,  although 
the  living  family  had  a  joint  interest  in  the  family  property.  This  part  of 
the  subject  we  cannot  here  detail,  although  intimately  connected  with  and 
enforced  by  the  religious  sanction. 

An  astonishing  number  of  daily  rites  and  of  things  to  be  avoided  is 
laid  down  for  good  Brahmans,  and  this  can  only  be  matched  by  the  extreme 
of  early  Pharisaic  restriction  ;  but  although  the  eating  of  meat  is  forbidden 
in  general,  it  is  expressly  enjoined  on  certain  occasions. 

As  regards  the  position  of  women  in  Manu,  it  is  one  of  complete  sub- 
jection ;  the  husband  was  not  to  eat  with  his  wife,  nor  look  at  her  when  she 
ate ;  women  were  forbidden  to  repeat  the  Veda,  or  to  perform  position  of 
any  religious  rite  separately ;  they  must  continually  feel  their  women, 
dependence  on  their  husbands.  The  wife  must  worship  her  husband  as  a 
god.  "Women  were  credited  with  many  inbred  evils.  When  unfaithful  to 
her  husband  she  is  born  of  a  jackal  in  the  next  life,  and  tormented  with 
diseases.  No  repudiation  or  divorce  of  a  wife  was  (originally)  recognised, 
and  if  sold  or  repudiated  she  could  not  be  the  legitimate  wife  of  another. 
There  is  no  ground  for  the  long-current  statement  that  Manu  or  the  Vedas 
supported  or  enjoined  the  burning  of  widows  (Sati1).  The  re-marriage  of 
widows  is  mentioned,  but  with  censure,  and  a  widow  who  remains  chaste  is 
rewarded  with  heaven.  Very  early  marriage  of  girls  was  permitted  if  a 
suitor  was  distinguished  and  handsome. 

Householders  are  enjoined  to  be  liberal  in  gifts.     "  If  he  is  asked,  let 
him  always  give  something,  be  it  ever  so  little,  without  grudging  ;  "  the 
giver  receives  corresponding  rewards,  either  in  worldly  prosperity 
or  in  future  existences.     Truthfulness  is  highly  recommended  : 
"he  who  is  dishonest  in  speech  is  dishonest  in  everything."    Giving  no  pain 
to  any  creature,  the  householder  is  to  slowly  accumulate  spiritual  merit, 
•the  only  lasting  companion.     "  Single  is  each  being  born  ;  single    spiritual 
jit  dies  ;  single  it  enjoys  the  reward  of  its  virtue  ;  single  it  suffers      ment- 
jthe  punishment  of  its  sin.    .    .    He  who  is  persevering,  gentle,  and  patient, 
jshuns  the  company  of  men  of  cruel  conduct,  and  does  no  injury  to  living 
creatures,  gains,  if  he  constantly  lives  in  that  manner,  heavenly  bliss." 
\  Sati  means,  "she  who  is  faithful,"  and  is  a  feminine  form  of  the  root  seen  in  "sooth"  — truth. 


203  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  hermit  and  ascetic  periods  of  life  were  held  up  to  Brahmans  as  the 
culmination  of  their  existence.  We  do  not  know  how  many  Brahmans 
The  hermit  went  through  this  discipline  ;  but  it  is  recommended  to  the  house- 
in  the  forest.  holder,  that  when  his  skin  becomes  wrinkled  and  his  hair  grey, 
and  he  has  grandchildren,  he  should  go  and  live  in  the  forest,  taking 
with  him  the  sacred  fire  and  implements  for  the  domestic  sacrifices  which 
he  is  still  to  perform,  and  there  live  in  control  of  his  senses,  wearing  his 
hair  in  braids,  and  the  beard  and  nails  undipped.  He  was  still  to  recite  the 
Veda,  and  to  be  patient  of  hardships,  friendly  towards  all,  of  collected  mind, 
compassionate  to  all  living  creatures.  He  must  feed  only  on  special  kinds 
of  vegetables.  A  considerable  number  of  austerities  are  enjoined  on  him, 
including  exposure  to  fires  in  summer,  living  under  the  open  sky  and 
clothed  in  wet  garments  in  winter,  with  other  performances  conducive  to 
short  life,  much  study  not  being  forgotten.  Finally  he  may,  subsisting  only 
on  water  and  air,  walk  straight  on  "  until  Ins  body  sinks  to  rest "  ;  then, 
having  got  rid  of  his  body,  he  is  exalted  in  the  world  of  Brahma,  free  from 
sorrow  and  fear. 

The  forest  dweller  who  has  not  found  liberation  may  become  a  mendi- 
cant ascetic,  absolutely  silent,  caring  for  no  enjoyment,  indifferent  to  every- 
The  mendi-  thing,  but  concentrating  his  mind  on  Brahma.  "  Let  him  not 
cant  ascetic.  desire  to  live,  let  him  not  desire  to  die  ;  let  him  wait  for  his 
appointed  time  as  a  servant  waits  for  the  payment  of  his  wages."  "  Let 
him  patiently  bear  hard  words,  let  him  not  insult  anybody,  and  let  him 
not  become  anybody's  enemy.  .  .  .  Against  an  angry  man  let  him  not  in 
return  show  anger,  let  him  bless  where  he  is  cursed."  These  are  only  a 
few  of  the  numerous  precepts  for  promoting  the  high  spiritual  life  of  the 
ascetic.  Meditation,  self-repression,  equability,  contentment,  forgiveness, 
honesty,  truthfulness,  abstention  from  anger,  purification,  etc. — these  may 
be  said  to  sum  up  the  moral  law  for  all  Brahmans. 

AVe  can  only  lightly  dwell  on  the  duties  of  a  king  and  of  government 

as  described  in  Manu.     The  king  represents  Agni  and  Indra,  the  Maruts, 

The  duties  Varuna,  Yama  and  other  gods,  out  of  all  of  whom  he  is  supposed 

of  a  Mng.    to  be  framed  ;  thus  he  is  "  a  great  deity  in  human  form."    He  hasj 

divine  authority,  is  to  protect  all  creatures,  and  be  an  incarnation  of  the 

law.     He  must  have  seven  or  eight  ministers,  the  chief  of  whom  must  be  a 

Brahman.     Punishment  is  his  chief  instrument,  indeed  the  only  maintainer 

The       of  the  law.     He  is,  however,  to  be  obedient  to  the  Brahmans, 

Brahman's  and    be  determined  not  to  retreat   in   battle.      The   Brahmans 

'  are  to  be  the  judges,  either  by  themselves,  or  as  assistants  to  the 

king.    The  criminal  code  is  marked  by  much  severity,  and  not  a  little  incon- 

3istency.     Offences  by  the  low-born  against  the  higher  classes  were  very 

severely  punished,  often  with  great  cruelty ;  while  Brahmans  were   very 

leniently  treated.     A  Brahman's  life  was  not  to  be  taken,  however  grave 

crimes     or  numerous  ^lis  crimes.     Among  "  mortal  sins  "  are :  killing  a 

Brahman,  drinking   spirituous   liquor,   stealing    the    gold    of   a 

Brahman,  adultery  with  a  Guru's  (spiritual  teacher's)  wife,  associating  with 


THE  BRAHMANISM  OF  THE    CODES. 


209 


those  who  did  those  things,  falsely  attributing  to  oneself  high  birth,  falsely 
accusing  one's  teacher,  forgetting  or  reviling  the  Yedas,  slaying  a  friend, 
giving  false  evidence,  stealing  a  deposit,  incest  and  fornication  ;  but  the 


YOGIS    (HIXUU    KELUilOlS    FANATICS). 

[^classification  and   punishments  show  a  very  crude  estimate  of  punishment 
I  ,their  relative  importance.     Many  punishments  are  designed  as  a!ld  Penances- 
penances,  to  remove  the  guilt  of  the  offender.     Various  ordeals  are  pre- 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


scribed  to  ascertain  if  a  witness  speaks  the  truth,  such  as  fire  and  water. 
Altogether,  the  rules  of  evidence  do  not  inspire  us  with  the  idea  that  the 
early  Brahmans  had  invented  very  excellent  machinery  for  discovering 
Falsehood  truth  ;  and  such  statements  as  the  following  are  not  calculated  to 
excused.  snow  them  in  a  favourable  light.  In  some  cases  a  man  who, 
though  knowing  the  facts  to  be  different,  gives  false  evidence  from  a  pious 
motive,  does  not  lose  heaven.  Whenever  the  death  of  a  Sudra,  a  Vaisya,  a 
Kshatriya,  or  of  a  Brahman  would  be  caused  by  the  declaration  of  the 
truth,  a  falsehood  may  be  spoken.  In  cases  of  violence,  of  theft  and 
adultery,  of  defamation  and  assault,  the  judge  must  not  examine  witnesses 
too  strictly.  But  he  is  to  exhort  all  witnesses  to  speak  the  truth,  pro- 
mising them  bliss  after  death  and  fame  here  below,  while  false  witnesses 
are  firmly  bound  by  Varuna  and  are  helpless  during  one  hundred  exist- 
ences. 

Reverting  once  more  to  the  question  of  castes,  we  may  note  that  the 

Brahman  was  supposed  to  have  three  births  ;  the  first  his  natural  birth,  the 

second  his  investiture  with  the  girdle  of  Munga  grass,  the  third 

CcLStS 

his  initiation  to  perform  the  greater  sacrifices ;  the  Kshatriyas  or 
warriors,  and  the  Vaisyas  or  cultivators,  were  only  twice  born,  the  second 
birth  happening  on  their  investiture  with  the  sacred  thread.  "We  may 
recall  here  that  the  term  caste  is  not  an  original  Hindu  or  even  an  ancient 
word.  It  is  believed  to  be  an  adaptation  of  a  Portuguese  word,  casta,  race 
or  family,  from  the  Latin  castus,  pure.  The  word  used  in  Manu  is  varna, 
or  colour,  while  in  later  Hindu  phrase  caste  is  denoted  by  jail  or  jat, 
meaning  birth. 

The  code  of  Manu  was  forced  to  recognise  that  wide  departures  took 
place  from  the  original  purity  of  caste,  although  maintaining  'that  only 
Growth  of  those  born  of  wedded  wives  of  equal  castes  were  to  be  considered 
mixed  castes.  as  belonging  to  the  same  caste  as  their  fathers.  Hence  distinct 
names  were  given  to  the  offspring  between  the  different  castes  ;  some  of 
these  are  declared  to  be  ferocious  in  manners  and  delighting  in  cruelty.  These 
had  already  been  assigned  to  distinct  occupations,  which  increased  as  the 
II in' lu  life  grew  more  settled  and  diversified.  Some  of  them  are  said  to  be 
inherently  fit  only  for  low  and  degrading  offices,  and  unworthy  to  receive 
the  sacramental  rites.  The  modern  development  of  the  caste  system  must 
be  dealt  with  later. 

Finally,  as  to  the  important  belief  in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  which 
in  the  Hindu  system  plays  so  large  a  part,  it  appears  to  have  been  wielded 
Transmigra-  by  the  Brah mans  very  much  as  a  mode  of  influencing  actions  on 
tion  of  souls.  earth.  Evil  actions  done  with  the  body  were  to  be  punished  by 
being  born  next  in  something  inanimate,  those  done  by  speech  were  followed 
by  birth  as  a  bird  or  a  beast,  while  sins  of  the  mind,  such  as  covetousness, 
evil  thoughts,  and  adherence  to  false  doctrines,  led  to  re-birth  in  a  low  caste. 
Self-control  in  all  these  respects  led  to  emancipation  from  all  births  and 
final  blessedness.  This  scheme  is  elaborated  in  great  detail,  many  grada- 
tions  being  fixed  in  descending  order,  each  the  just  recompense  for  some 


THE    BRAHMANISM  OF  THE    CODES. 


fault.  The  specific  reason  for  many  of  these  cannot  be  imagined,  although 
some  are  intelligible  enough, such  as  these:  "men  who  delight  in  doing  injury 
become  carnivorous  animals  ;  thieves,  creatures  consuming  their  own  kind  ; 
for  stealing  grain  a  man  becomes  a  rat,  for  stealing  meat,  a  vulture,"  etc. 
Sensual  men  are  said  to  suffer  in  a  succession  of  dreadful  hells  and  agonizing 
births,  slaveiy,  imprisonment  in  fetters.  The  last  pages  of  Manu  are  devoted 
to  further  glorification  of  Brahmans  who  do  their  duty,  and  to  the  extolling 
of  the  Self  or  Soul  in  all  things  ;  "  for  he  who  recognises  the  universe  in  the 


SCCLriUHED    FICiUKES    IN    THE    CAVE    AT    ELEPHANIA. 


Self,  does  not  give  his  heart  to  unrighteousness.  ...  He  who  thus  recog- 
nises the  Self  through  the  Self  in  all  created  beings,  becomes  equal-minded 
towards  all,  and  enters  the  highest  state,  Brahman.  A  twice-born  man, 
who  recites  these  Institutes,  revealed  by  Manu,  will  be  always  virtuous  in 
conduct,  and  will  reach  whatever  condition  he  desires." 

It  must  be  owned  that  the  system  thus  developed  in  Manu  does  not  fail 
for  lack  of  penalties  or  of  precise  directions.  Its  efficacy  is  to  be  sought 
in  its  gradual  growth,  its  accordance  with  the  ideas  of  creation,  Efficacy  of 
supreme  power,  and  morality  which  had  long  been  current,  and  the  code- 
its  promulgation  by  those  who  had  most  intellectual  power  and  most  capa- 
bility of  swaying  the  conduct  of  men.  Thus  we  may  imagine  the  extra- 
ordinary influence  which  the  sacred  class  of  Brahmans  attained  in  early 
Indian  history,  an  influence  which  has  been  sufficient  to  perpetuate  itself 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


to  our  own  times,  which  remains  very  great,  and  which  more  than  two 
thousand  years  ago  was  sufficient  to  produce  by  exaggeration  and  reaction 
the  remarkable  religion  of  Buddhism.  But  looking  on  it  calmly,  while 
admitting  the  loftiness  of  many  of  its  precepts  and  imaginings,  it  cannot  be 
said  that  its  general  moral  elevation  was  great.  The  scheme  was  powerful 
enough  to  bind  together  society  for  centuries,  but  not  powerful  enough  to 
diffuse  itself  widely  among  other  races,  or  to  become  more  than  a  Hindu 
religion. 

There  is  one  other  code  to  which  we  must  refer,  besides  that  of  Maim, 
namely  the  Darma  Shastra  of  Yajnavalkya,  possibly  dating  from  the  first 
code  of  century  a.d.  It  is  still  the  chief  authority  in  the  school  of 
Yajnavalkya.  Benares.  It  is  much  shorter  than  that  of  Manu,  is  more  syste- 
matic, and  represents  a  later  stage  of  development.  It  adds  to  the  sources  of 
authority  the  Puranas  and  various  traditional  and  scholastic  authorities. 
To  some  extent  caste  is  carried  farther,  and  a  Brahman  is  forbidden  to  have 
a  Sudra  as  a  fourth  wife.  We  have  reached  a  period  when  writing  is  in 
regular  use,  and  written  documents  are  appealed  to  as  legal  evidence;  coined 
money  is  in  use.  It  is  evident  that  Buddhism  has  arisen,  and  that  the 
shaven  heads  and  yellow  garments  of  its  votaries  are  well  known  ;  the  king 
is  also  recommended  to  found  monasteries  for  Brahmans,  an  evident  imi- 
tation of  Buddhists. 

Compare  the  following  philosophy  with  that  of  Manu.  "  The  success  of 
every  action  depends  on  destiny  and  on  a  man's  own  effort ;  but  destiny  is 
evidently  nothing  but  the  result  of  a  man's  act  in  a  former  state  of  existence. 
Some  expect  the  whole  result  from  destiny  or  from  the  inherent  nature  ; 
some  expect  it  from  the  lapse  of  time  ;  and  some  from  a  man's  own  effort ; 
other  persons  of  wiser  judgment  expect  it  from  a  combination  of  all  these." 
M.  W.)  But  there  is  no  sufficient  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  precepts 
to  make  it  necessary  to  quote  further. 

"We  may  here  refer  briefly  to  the  celebrated  rock-temples  of  India, 
excavated  in  solid  rock  many  centuries  ago,  but  by  no  means  confined  to 
Hinduism,  having  often  been  excavated  by  Buddhists  and  Jains.  Some  of 
them  display  surprising  skill  in  construction  as  well  as  in  sculpture.  Many 
are  ornamented  with  figures  of  the  gods  or  scenes  from  their  supposed 
adventures.  The  majority  of  the  Brahmanic  temples  are  dedicated  to  Siva. 
The  most  famous  are  those  of  Elephanta,  an  island  in  Bombay  harbour ; 
one  of  them  contains  a  colossal  trimurti,  or  three-faced  bust,  representing 
Siva  in  his  threefold  character  of  creator,  preserver,  and  destroyer.  Many 
other  caves,  scarcely  less  famous,  are  at  Ellora  in  the  Nizam's  dominions. 


LAKSHMI.  DUKG.1. 

(From  a  native  picture.) 


KAI'.TIKEY.V. 


CHAPTER   III. 
ittofomt  tniiTnusm  I. 

Reaction  from  Brahmanism— Triumph  of  Buddhism— Downfall  of  Indian  Buddhism— The  caste  system 
—The  Mahabharata— The  Bhagavad-gita— Krishna— Incarnations  of  the  Deity— Immortality 
taught— The  Ramayana— Partial  incarnations— Conquests  of  Rama— Resistance  of  Brahmanism 
— Kumarila  Bhatta— Sankara— Worship  of  the  supreme  Brahman— The  Smartas— Vishnu  worship 
—The  Puranas— The  Vishnu  Purana— Description  of  the  Supreme  Being— Great  Vishnuite 
preachers— Ramanand— Kabir— Chaitanya— Influence  of  Buddhism— The  linga  and  the  salagram 
—Brahma— Vishnu  the  preserver— Incarnations  of  Vishnu— Rama— Krishna— Buddha— Jagan- 
nath— Lakshmi—  Siva  the  destroyer— Ascetic  Sivaites— Durga— Kali— Ganesa— Gangsa— Local 
deities  and  demons— Worship  of  animals  and  trees— Deification  of  heroes  and  saints. 

IN  our  chapter  on  Buddhism,  it  will  be  shown  that  the  new  religion 
which  deposed  Brahmanism  from  supremacy  in  India,  and    Reaction 
greatly  depressed  it  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  was  partly      ^manism 
a  natural  reaction   from   the    haughty  sway  of   the  Brahmans, 
and  their  reliance  on  ritual  and  sacrifice,  and  partly  the  development  of 


2I4  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


a  movement  which  had  already  risen  within  the  older  system.  The  edu- 
cated Brahmans  came  to  see  that  the  Vedic  gods  were  poetic  imaginations 
which  could  not  all  be  true,  and  that  whereas  various  gods— the  Sun,  the 
11  passing  Sky,  the  Dawn,  etc.— were  represented  as  independent  and 
supreme,  they  must  be  emanations  of  one  supreme  Cause.  While  they 
continued  to  uphold  the  popular  ideas  about  the  gods,  and  to  conduct  the 
customary  sacrifices,  they  began  to  develop  a  theological  literature,  of  part 
of  which  we  have  already  given  an  account,  the  TJpanishads  and  the 
Puranas,  teaching  the  unity  of  God  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  still 
mingled  with  many  myths  and  superstitions.  Their  new  system  involved 
the  brotherhood  of  man  ;  but  it  was  reserved  for  Gautama  to  break  through 
all  the  old  conventions,  and  to  found  the  great  system  of  Buddhism.  All 
Triumph  of  classes  found  in  it  something  that  was  lacking  in  Brahmanism, 
Buddhism.  anj  rejoiced  in  the  upsetting  of  many  things  that  had  been  irk- 
some. From  the  third  century  B.C.  to  the  fourth  century  a.d.,  Buddhism  in- 
creasingly triumphed,  until  it  was  professed  by  the  majority  of  the  Indian 
people.  But  in  the  fifth  century  the  Buddhists  were  persecuted  by  the 
adherents  of  the  old  religion.  By  the  end  of  that  century  the  Buddhist 
leaders  had  taken  refuge  in  China,  and  many  of  its  priests  had  carried  the 
faith  to  new  lands.  As  late  as  the  twelfth  century  a  few  remained  in  India, 
but  now  they  are  non-existent,  unless  Jainism  be  regarded  as  representing 
the  old  Buddhism.  But  the  influence  of  Buddhism  upon  Brahmanism  had 
been  profound,  and  modern  Hinduism  is  a  very  different  thing  from  the 
religion  of  the  Vedas  and  Brahmanas.  Indeed,  Sir  W.  W.  Hunter  terms 
modern  Hinduism  the  joint  product  of  Buddhism  and  Brahmanism.  The 
latter  was  active  and  slowly  changing  during  all  the  time  of  the  predomin- 
ance of  the  former,  and  we  have  the  testimony  of  Greeks  in  Alexander's 
time  and  later,  and  of  Buddhist  priests  from  China  who  visited  India  in  the 
fifth  and  seventh  centuries,  that  Brahman  priests  were  equally  honoured 
with  Buddhist  monks,  and  temples  of  the  Hiudu  gods  adjoined  the  Buddhist 
religious  houses. 

The  Hindus  date  the  final  triumph  over  Buddhism  from  the  j3reaching 

of  Kumarila,  a   Bengal   Brahman,  who   powerfully    advanced   the   Vedic 

Downfan  of  teacnmg  of  a  personal  Creator  and  supreme  Being,  against  the 

Indian      impersonal  negations  of  Buddhism ;  but  he  also  shone  as  a  per- 

Buddhism.  0.      "  _    _TT    T  r 

secutor.     bir    W.  W.  Hunter,  however,  traces  the  change  which 

followed  to  deeper-seated  causes— such  that  the  rise  of  Hinduism   was  a 

natural  development  of  racial  characters  and  systems.     According  to  him  it 

upon  the  caste  system  and  represents  the  coalition  of  the  old  Vedic 

faith   with   Buddhism,  as  well   as  with   the  rude  rites   of  pre-Aryan  and 

Mongolian  races.     We  cannot  here  give  an  account  of  the  caste  system. 

The  immense  subdivision  of  castes  is  the  result  partly  of  intermarriages, 

partly  of  varied  occupations,  partly  of  locality,  partly  of  the  introduction  of 

The  caste    outside  tribes  to  Hinduism.     Religious  exclusiveness  and  trades 

£m-     unionism,  once  grasped,  made  easy  progress,  and  converted  India 

i  vast  grouping  of  separate  classes.     Caste  is  a  powerful  instrument 


MODERN  HINDUISM.  215 

for  personal  discipline  and  the  maintenance  of  convention  and  custom,  but 
it  is  a  weakener  of  united  popular  action  and  national  unity.  Its  great 
force  is  in  its  hereditary  instincts  and  in  social  and  religious  excommuni- 
cation. The  offender  against  caste  laws  may  be  fined  by  his  fellow-mem- 
bers, may  be  forbidden  to  eat  or  intermarry  with  them,  and  may  be  boy- 
cotted by  the  community. 

We  cannot  understand  the  growth  of  modern  Hinduism  without  refer- 
ence to  the  two  great  Indian  epic  poems,  the  Mahabharata  and  the  Rama- 
yana.  The  former  is  a  vast  aggregation  of  poems  and  episodes,  The 
arranged  into  a  continuous  whole,  and  is  the  longest  poem  in  the  Mahabharata. 
world,  being  fourteen  times  as  long  as  the  Iliad.  It  includes  many 
portions  dating  back  to  Vedic  times,  with  others  of  later  date  up  to 
a  comparatively  modern  time.  It  includes  the  whole  cycle  of  Hindu 
mythology  since  the  Vedas,  and  practically  represents  a  deification  of 
human  heroes,  side  by  side  with  views  of  Divine  incarnation.  Its  central 
story  relates  a  prehistoric  struggle  between  two  families  descended  from  the 
Moon  god  for  a  tract  of  country  around  Delhi.  It  is  believed  to  have 
existed  in  a  considerably  developed  form  five  or  six  centuries  before  Christ, 
but  it  has  been  greatly  modified  by  subsequent  Brahmanic  additions, 
especially  didactic  and  religious  in  their  nature,  teaching  the  submission  of 
the  military  to  the  Brahman  power. 

The  Bhagavad-gita,  or  song  of  Bhagavat,  is  the  most  important  episode 
of  this  great  epic,  Bhagavat  being  a  term  applied  to  Krishna,  one  of  the 
incarnations  of  Vishnu,  the  Pervader  and  Preserver.  Krishna  TheBha- 
makes  a  revelation  to  the  hero  Arjuna,  just  before  a  great  battle,  savad-gita. 
in  order  to  remove  his  scruples  about  destroying  human  life.  This  revela- 
tion in  effect  teaches  the  supremacy  of  the  soul  over  the  body,  and  in  fact 
its  eternity  of  existence  in  the  supreme  Being,  so  that  death  cannot  harm 
it.  Duty  to  caste  and  its  obligations  is  highly  extolled ;  but  the  poem  is 
most  remarkable  to  us  for  its  exposition  in  poetry  of  the  Vedantist  phil- 
osophy of  Pantheism,  which  teaches  that  all  the  universe  is  indeed  Brahma, 
from  whom  all  proceeds  and  to  whom  all  returns.  Krishna  in  giving  an 
account  of  himself  to  Arjuna,  says  (we  quote  from  Sir  Monier- Williams's 
"  Indian  Wisdom  ") : — 

"I  am  the  ancient  sage,  without  beginning, 
I  am  the  ruler  and  the  all-sustainer, 
I  am  incomprehensible  in  form. 
More  subtle  and  minute  than  subtlest  atoms  ; 
I  am  the  cause  of  the  whole  universe ; 
Through  me  it  is  created  and  dissolved, 
1  dwell  as  wisdom,  in  the  heart  of  all. 
I  am  the  goodness  of  the  good,  I  am 
Beginning,  middle,  end,  eternal  time, 
The  birth,  the  death  of  all.     I  have  created  all 
Out  of  one  portion  of  myself.     Think  thou  on  me, 
Have  faith  in  me,  adore  and  worship  me, 
And  join  thyself  in  meditation  to  me. 
Thus  shalt  thou  come  to  me,  O  Arjuna  ; 


2l6 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Thus  shalt  thou  rise  to  1113-  supreme  abode, 
AVhere  neither  sun  nor  moon  have  need  to  shine, 
For  know  that  all  the  lustre  they  possess  is'mine." 

Among  other  revelations  of  Krishna,  he  states  that  he  is  born  on  earth 
from  time  to  time  for  the  establishment  of  righteousness.  In 
landing  work,  Krishna  says  : — 

I:  Know  that  work 
Proceeds  from  the  supreme.    I  am  the  pattern 
For  man  to  follow  ;  know  that  I  have  done 
All  arts  already  ;  nought  remains  for  me 
To  gain  by  action,  yet  I  work  for  ever 
"Tnweariedly,  and  this  whole  universe 
"Would  perish  if  I  did  not  work  my  work."' 


■'V" 


THE    KRISHNA    AYAT.UU. 

{From  a  native  picture.) 


It'  will  be  evident 
from  these  quotations 
that  the  Bhagavad-gita 
contains  much  lofty 
thought ;  indeed,  it  has 
been  praised  as  un- 
equalled for  sublimity  of 
conception,  reasoning, 
and  diction.  Yet  it  is  in 
no  slight  degree  parallel 
with  Buddhist  ideas,  in 
preaching  deliverance 
through  self-renuncia- 
tion and  devotion,  end- 
ing in  absorption  in 
the  Deity.  Although 
women  are  not  raised 
by  it,  yet  the  declara- 
tion of  Krishna  is,  that 
all  who  resort  to  him 
will  reach  the  highest. 
He  says  :  "  I  have  nei- 
ther friend  nor  foe  ;  I 
am  the  same  to  all ;  and 
To  them  that  love  me,  I 
No  soul  that  has 


all  who  worship  me  dwell  in  me  and  I  in  them. 

give  that  devotion  by  which  they  come  at  last  to  me. 

faith,  however  imperfect  the  attainment,  or  however  the  soul  have  wandered, 

shall  perish,  either  in  this  world  or  in  another.     He  shall  have  new  births 

till,  purified  and  made  perfect,  he  reaches  the  supreme  abode." 

The  repetition  of  incarnations  of  deity  is  an  important  feature  in  this 

incarnations  teaching ;  and  from  this  rcot  has  developed  the  great  "  avatar  " 

of  the  deity.  or  illcarnation  idea  of  the  Hindus,  the  idea  being  that  the  deity 

is  continually  being   manifested   for   the   guidance   and   protection  of  his 


MODERN  HINDUISM. 


2  17 


people.  Throughout  the  transition  period,  from  Brahmanism  to  Hinduism, 
varying  forms  of  Krishna,  as  the  incarnation  of  Vishnu1  are  continually 
described.  He  appears  as  the  protecting  hero  and  saint  and  sage,  the 
overcomer  of  evil  spirits,  the  popular  wonder-worker. 

From  some  of  the  characteristics  of  Krishna  it  has  been  imagined  that 
he  has  been  derived  from  Christ ;  but  there  is  no  proof  of  this,  and,  indeed, 
the  multiplication  and  varying  form  of  the  incarnations  tells  against  this 
idea.  In  fact,  the  belief  proceeds  from  a  date  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
meaning  of  the  word  Krishna,  "  black,"  also  makes  against  the  Christian 
relationship  ;  it  rather  points  to  respect  for  common  humanity  of  black  and 
white  alike  ;  for  Krishna 
is  the  teacher  of  Arjuna, 
11  white." 

This  doctrine  about 
Krishna  brings  into  view 
the  essential  imm0rtaiity 
link  by  which  taught, 
the  intellectual  Brahmans 
connected  their  higher 
philosophy  with  the  com- 
mon beliefs  of  the  people. 
Krishna  manifests  the 
noblest  traits  of  Hindu  ge- 
nius ;  he  also  condescends 
to  the  most  ordinary  pur- 
suits of  men  and  children, 
and  even  to  sportive  re- 
creation. The  higher  doc- 
trine of  immortality  is 
preached  in  such  passages 
as  the  following  in  the 
Bhagavad-gita,  "  There  is 
an  invisible,  eternal  exist- 
ence, beyond  this  visible, 
which  does  not  perish 
when  all  things  else 
perish,  even  when  the 
great  days  of  Brahman's  creative  life  pass  round  into  night,  and  all  that 
exists  in  form  returns  unto  God  whence  it  came  ;  they  who  obtain  this 
never  return.  .  .  .  Bright  as  the  sun  beyond  darkness  is  He  to  the 
soul  that  remembers  Him  in  meditation,  at  the  hour  of  death,  with  thought 
fixed  between  the  brows, — Him  the  most  ancient  of  the  wise,  the  primal 
ruler,  the  minutest  atom,  the  sustainer  of  all, — in  the  hour  when  each  finds 
that  same  nature  on  which  he  meditates,  and  to  which  he  is  conformed.   .   .    . 

1  Vishnu  is  a  god  named  in  the  Rig- Veda  as  a  form  of  the  sun  striding  across  the 
heavens  in  three  paces. 


VISHNU. 

(From  a  unlive  picture.] 


2l8 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


They  who  put  their  trust  in  Me,  and  seek  deliverance  from  decay  and  death, 
know  Brahma,  and  the  highest  spirit,  and  every  action.  They  who  know 
me  in  my  being,  my  person,  and  my  manifested  life,  in  the  hour  of  death, 
know  me  indeed." 

The  other  great  epic  poem,  the  Ramayana,  or  the  goings  of  Rama,  is  a 
chronicle  which  relates  primarily  to  another  region  of  Aryan  conquest,  Oudh, 
The  and  then  recounts  the  advance  of  the  Aryans  into  Southern  India. 
Ramayana.  Jt,  represents  perhaps  a  later  stage  than  the  earlier  parts  of 
the  Mahabharata,  but  was  arranged  into  something  like  its  present  form  a 
century  earlier — perhaps  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  B.C. 
Like  the  sister  epic,  it  presents  the  Brahman  idea  of  the  Godhead  in  the 
form  of  an  incarnation,  Rama,  of  Vishnu,  to  destroy  a  demon.  Briefly 
stated,  the  story  is  as  follows.  It  begins  by  relating  the  sonlessness  of  the 
king  of  Oudh.  a  descendant  of  the  sun-god.     After  a  sacrifice  to  the  gods, 

Partial  f0111"  sons  were  born  of 
incarnations.  }±[s  three  wives,  the  eldest, 
Rama,  having  one-half  the  nature  of 
Vishnu ;  the  second,  Bharata,  one- 
fourth  ;  and  two  others,  twins, 
having  each  one-eighth.  This  ex- 
emplifies the  Brahman  doctrine  of 
partial  incarnations,  Krishna  being 
a  full  incarnation  ;  and,  beyond  this, 
there  might  be  fractional  incarna- 
tions of  the  Divine  essence,  in  men, 
animals  and  even  inanimate  objects. 
The  wonderful  youth,  marriage  to 
Sita,  and  exile  of  Rama,  are  next 
told  and  the  refusal  of  Bharata  to 
take  the  kingdom  on  his  father's 
death.  Rama  continuing  an  exile, 
Ravana,  the  demon  king  of  the  south,  heard  of  his  wife's  beauty,  and 
conquests  carried  her  off  in  a  magical  chariot  to  Ceylon.  Rama  then  makes 
of  Rama,  alliances  with  the  aboriginal  peoples  of  Southern  India,  invades 
Ceylon,  slays  Ravana  and  delivers  his  wife,  who  has  to  undergo  the  further 
trial  of  being  suspected  of  infidelity  and  banished.  She  is  the  type  of 
womanly  devotion  and  purity,  and  after  sixteen  years'  exile  is  reconciled  to 
her  husband,  with  whom  she  is  after  all  translated  to  heaven. 

Such  was  the  framework  in  which  the  change  from  ancient  Brahman- 
ism  to  modern  Hinduism  was  developed  and  taught.  These  epics  bear 
witness  to  the  fact  that  notwithstanding  the  great  extension  of  Buddhism 
in  India,  there  was  no  time  when  Brahmanism  was  not  working  with  great 
skill  and  intellectual  force  to  adapt  itself  to  the  changed  conditions.  At 
Resistance  of  a  council  of  the  Buddhist  monarch  Siladitya  at  Kanauj  on  the 
»•  Ganges  in  a.d.  084,  while  a  statue  of  Buddha  was  installed  on 
the  first  day,  on  the  second  an  image  of  the  Sun-god,  on   the   third   an 


SIVA,    BBA.HMA,    AND    VISHNU. 


MODERN  HINDUISM. 


219 


Sankara. 


image  of  Siva,  the  product  of  later  Brahmanism,  was  inaugurated.  A  great 
series  of  Brahman  apostles  arose  simultaneously  with  the  decay  of  Buddhism, 
beginning  with  Kumarila  Bhatta,  about  a.d.  750,  who  revived  the  old 
Brahman  doctrine  of  a  personal  God  and  Creator,  and  reconverted  Kumarila 
many  of  the  people.  He  was  the  first  of  a  long  line  of  influential  Bhatta. 
religious  reformers,  who  all  solemnly  cut  themselves  off  from  the  world 
like  Buddha,  and  give  forth  a  simple  message,  readily  understood,  including 
in  essence,  according  to  Sir  "W.  W.  Hunter,  "  a  reassertion,  in  some  form,  of 
the  personality  of  God  and  the  equality  of  men  in  His  sight." 

Sankara  Acharya  was  the 
disciple  of  Kumarila,  still  more 
famous  than  his  master  ; 
he  popularised  the  late 
Vedantist  philosophy  as  a  national 
religion,  and  "  since  his  short  life 
in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century, 
every  new  Hindu  sect  has  had  to 
start  with  a  personal  God  "  (Hun- 
ter). He  taught  that  the  supreme 
God  Brahma  was  distinct  from 
the  old  Brahman  triad,  and  must 
be  worshipped  by  spiritual  medi- 
tations, not  by  sacrifices  ;  and  he 
perpetuated  his  teaching  by  found- 
ing a  Brahman  sect,  the  Smart  as. 
However,  he  still  allowed  the 
practice  of  the  Vedic  rites,  and 
worship  of  the  deity  in  any  popu- 
lar form  ;  and  it  is  claimed  by 
popular  tradition  that  he  founded 
many  of  the  Hindu  sects  of  the 
present  day.  Siva  worship  is  sup- 
posed to  be  specially  his  work, 
though  it  existed  long  before;  and 
he  has  ever  been  represented  by 
his  followers  as  an  incarnation  of 
Siva.     Siva  is,  as  we  have  said  before,  the  Rudra  or  Storm-god  of  the  Rig 


SIVA. 

(From  a  native  picture.) 


Veda,  recognised  as  the  Destroyer  and  Reproducer.  He  was  worshipped 
contemporaneously  with  the  Buddhist  ascendency  and  is  highly  spoken  of 
in  the  Mahabharata ;  but  Sankara's.  followers  elevated  his  worship  till  it 
became  one  of  the  two  chief  forms  of  Hinduism. 

The  doctrine  of  Sankara  just  referred  to,  that  Brahma  or  Brahman,  is 
the  supreme  God,  distinct  from  the  triad  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  WorsMp  of 
Siva,  who  are  manifestations  of  him.     The  supreme  Brahman  is  the  supreme 
the  absolute,  having   no   form,  nor   shape,   self-existent,  illimit- 
able, free  from  imperfection.     There  are  but  a  few  worshippers  of  Brahman 


THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 


or  Brahma  alone.  As  creator  he  is  believed  to  have  finished  his  work,  and 
there  is  now  onl}r  one  temple  to  him,  at  Pnshkara  in  Ajmir.  Ward,  in 
ISIS,  wrote  :  "  The  Brahmans  in  their  morning  and  evening  worship  repeat 
an  incantation  containing  a  description  of  the  image  of  Brahma;  at  noon  they 
present  to  him  a  single  flower;  at  the  time  of  burnt-offering,  ghee  is 
presented  to  him.  In  the  month  of  Magh,  -at  the  full  moon,  an  earthen 
image  of  him  is  worshipped,  with  that  of  Siva  on  his  right  hand  and  Vishnu 
on  his  left." 

The  Smartas  of  Southern  India  are  a  considerable  sect  who  follow  the 
philosophic  teaching  of  Sankara.     There  are  numerous  religious  houses  con- 
nected with 
The  Smartas.  ,  ,   . 

this  sect, 
acknowledging  the 
headship  of  the  monas- 
tery of  Sringiri,  in  the 
western  Mysore  hills ; 
and  the  chief  priest  of 
the  sect,  the  head  of 
this  monastery,  is  spe- 
cially acknowledged 
by  all  Sivaite  worship- 
pers, who  regard  San- 
kara as  one  of  the  in- 
carnations of  Siva. 

"  The   worship  of 
Vishnu,"  says   Sir  W. 

Vishnu       W.  Hunter, 
worship.       «  i  n        0  n  e 

phase  or  another,  is  the 
religion  of  the  bulk  of 
the     middle     classes  \ 
with     its    roots     deep 
down    in   beautiful 
forms    of    non- Aryan 
nature  -  worship,      and 
its   top   sending   forth 
branches  among  the  most  refined  Brahmans  and   literary  sects.     It  is  a 
religion  in  all  things  graceful.     Its  gods  are  heroes  or  bright  friendly  beings, 
who  walk  and  converse  with  men.     Its  legends  breathe  an  almost  Hellenic 
beauty.  '    This  is  the  lofty  position  assigned  to  Vishnuism  by  one  of  the  most 
learned  and  most  impartial  students— a  very  different  opinion  from  that 
which  regards  the  car  of  Juggernaut  as  the  representative  of  all  that  is  vile. 
The  doctrines  of  modem  Hinduism,  in  their  learned  aspect,  are  con- 
tained in  the  Puranas  (in  Sanskrit),  a  series  of  eighteen  treatises,  in  which 
The       various  Brahmans  expound,  in  lengthy  dialogues,  the  supremacy 
of  Vishnu  or  Siva.      The  chief  of  them  is  the  Vishnu  Purana, 


HAVANA. 

Prow  a  nativi  picture.     See  account  of  Ramayana.) 


MO  DERN  HIND  UISM. 


221 


dating  from  the  eleventh  century,  but  containing,  as  the  word  "purana" 
signifies,  ancient  traditions,  some  of  which  descend  from  Vedic  The  vishnu 
times ;    and   others   are  traceable  to  the  two  great  epics.    "  It     purana. 
includes  a  complete  cosmogony  or  account  of  primary  creation,  accounts 
of  the  destruction  and  renovation  of  worlds,  genealogies  of  gods  and  patri- 
archs, the  reigns  of  the  Manus,  the  institutes  of  society,  including  caste 
and  burial  rites,  and  the  history  of  the  princes  of  the  solar  and  lunar  races, 
a  life  of  Krishna,  and  an  account  of  the   end   of  the  world.     It   is   not 
necessary  to   dwell   upon  its  contents,    which  would    require   a    volume. 
Pantheism    is 
woven  into  the 
general  scheme, 
God  and  Nature 
being  identified, 
and  Vishnu,    as 
supreme  God, 
being   incarnat- 
ed in  Krishna. 

The  style 
of    the    Vishnu 

Pnr- 

Description  of 

ana  the  supreme 

Being-. 
•0      n 

its  philosophical 
side  may  be  ga- 
thered from  the 
following  ex- 
tracts, relating 
to  the  supreme 
•deity,  as  trans- 
lated by  H.  H. 
Wilson:  "Who 
•can  describe 
him  who  is  not 
to  be  appre- 
hended by  the 
■senses,    who    is 

the  best  of  all  things,  and  the  supreme  soul,  self-existent ;  who  is  devoid  of 
all  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  complexion,  caste,  or  the  like,  and  is 
•exempt  from  birth,'  vicissitude,  death,  or  decay  ;  who  is  always,  and  alone  ; 
who  exists  everywhere,  and  in  whom  all  things  here  exist ;  and  who  is 
thence  named  Vasudeva  (the  resplendent  one  in  whom  all  things  dwell). 
He  is  Brahma,  supreme  lord,  eternal,  unborn,  imperishable,  undecaying  ; 
of  one  essence  ;  ever  pure  as  free  from  defects.  He,  that  Brahma,  was  all 
things,  comprehending  in  his  own  nature  the  indiscrete  (spirit)  and  the 
•discrete  (matter).      He  then   existed  in   the  forms  of  Purusha  and  Kala. 


KALI    DANCING    ON    SIVA. 

{From  a  native  picture.) 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Purusha  (spirit;  is  the  first  form  of  the  supreme.  Next  proceeded  two 
other  forms — the  discrete  and  the  indiscrete  ;  and  Kala  (time)  was  the  last. 
These  four  the  wise  consider  to  be  the  pure  and  supreme  condition  of 
Vishnu.  These  four  forms,  in  their  due  proportions,  are  the  causes  of  the 
production  of  the  phenomena  of  creation,  preservation,  and  destruction. 
Vishnu  being  thus  discrete  and  indiscrete  substance — spirit  and  time— sports 
like  a  playful  boy,  as  you  shall  learn  by  listening  to  his  frolics."  Here  it 
should  be  noted  that  the  creation  of  the  world  is  very  commonly  considered 
by  the  Hindu  to  be  the  sport  or  amusement  of  the  supreme  Being. 

The  life  of  Krishna,  as  given  by  this  Purana,  is  so  full  of  fabulous 

marvels  as  to  read  like  an  Arabian  Night's  story,  without  its  charm.      It 

is  sufficient  to  say  that  this   Purana   did   not   work   the   great 

vishnuite   development  of  Vishnu  worship,  which  was  due  to  a  series  of 

Vishnuite   preachers,   beginning    with   Ramanuja   in   the    12th 

century,  rising  against  the  cruel  doctrines  of  the  Sivaites.      It  was  not  till 

the  end  of   the    13th   or  beginning   of   the    14th   century   that  the  great 

development  of  popular  religion  in  the  name  of  Vishnu  took  place,  under 

the   apostolic  leadership   of  Ramanand.     This  teacher   had  his 

headquarters  in  a  monastery  at  Benares,  and  travelled  from  place 

to  place  in  Northern  India.     He  chose  twelve  disciples  from  the  despised 

castes  of  the  barbers,  leatherdressers,  weavers,  and  the  like,  who,  like  the 

Buddhist  monks,  had  to  forsake  the  world,  and  depend  solely  on  alms,  while 

they   went  about  teaching  religion.     They  addressed  the   people   in   the 

vernacular  Hindi,  and  largely  helped  to  make  it  a  literary  language.     The 

inclusion  of  lower-caste  men  among  Ramanancl's  chief  disciples  is  a  proof 

that  his  reaction   was   directed   against   Brahman   exclusiveness ;    and  it 

embraced  many  features  of  Buddhism,  including  the  monasteries  or  retreats 

lor  the  mendicants. 

Kabir,  the  greatest  of  Ramanand's  disciples,  is  notable  for  his  effort  to 
combine  the  Mohammedans  with  the  Hindus  in  one  religious  fraternity. 
Kabir  ^e  caste  system  and  Brahman  arrogance,  as  well  as  image- 
worship,  found  in  him  a  strong  opponent.  He  taught  that  the 
g<  ii  I  <  »f  the  Hindu  is  the  same  as  the  god  of  the  Mahometan.  "  To  Ali  (Allah) 
and  to  Rama  "  (writes  one  of  his  disciples)  "  we  owe  our  life,  and  should 
show  like  tenderness  to  all  who  live.  What  avails  it  to  wash  your  mouth, 
to  count  your  beads,  to  bathe  in  holy  streams,  to  bow  in  temples,  if,  while 
you  mutter  your  prayers  or  journey  on  pilgrimage,  deceitfulness  is  in  your 
heart?  The  Hindu  fasts  every  eleventh  day;  the  Mussulman  on  the 
Ramazan.  "Who  formed  the  remaining  months  and  clays,  that  you  should 
venerate  but  one  ?  .  .  .  Behold  but  one  in  all  things.  He  to  whom  the 
world  belongs,  He  is  the  father  of  the  worshippers  alike  of  Ali  and  of  Rama." 
Kabir  recognised  in  all  the  varied  lots  and  changes  of  man,  his  hopes  and 
fears  and  religious  diversities,  the  one  Divine  Spirit ;  when  this  was  re- 
i  ognised,  Maya,  or  illusion,  was  over,  and  the  soul  found  rest.  This  was  to 
be  obtained,  not  by  burnt-offerings  or  sacrifices,  but  by  faith  and  meditation 
on  the  Supreme  being,  and  by  keeping  his  holy  names  for  ever  on  the  lips 


MODERN  HINDUISM.  223 

and  in  the  heart.     Kabir  had  a  vast  number  of  followers,   especially  in 
Bengal ;  the  headquarters  of  his  sect  is  the  Kabir  Chaura  at  Benares. 

The  worship  of  Juggernaut,  more  properly  Jagannath  (literally,  the 
Lord  of  the  world)  dates  only  from  the  beginning  of  the  10th  century, 
being  mainly  propagated  by  Chaitanya,  who  was  so  great  a 
preacher  of  the  Vishnuite  doctrines  that  since  his  death  he  has 
been  widely  worshipped  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  He  preached  a 
religion  of  faith  to  Hindus  and  Mohammedans  alike  ;  but  he  laid  great  stress 
on  obedience  to  religious  teachers.  By  contemplation  rather  than  ritual  he 
taught  that  the  soul  would  find  liberty  from  the  imperfections  and  sins  of 
the  body.  After  death  the  soul  of  the  believer  would  dwell  for  ever  in  a 
heaven  of  perfect  beauty,  or  in  the  presence  of  Vishnu  himself,  known  in 
his  supreme  essence. 

After  the  death  of  Chaitanya  there  appeared  teachers  who  lowered 
the  spiritual  level  of  Vishnuism,  some  preaching  the  religion  of  enjoyment, 
others  giving  increased  importance  to  the  idea  of  physical  love  ;  one  adoring 
the  infant  Krishna  as  the  cowherd.  Vallabha-Swami  (sixteenth  century) 
was  one  of  the  chief  of  these ;  he  established  a  ritual  of  eight  services  in 
which  the  image  of  Krishna  as  a  lovely  boy  is  bathed,  anointed,  sumptu- 
ously dressed  and  fed,  and  in  which  beautiful  women  and  other  sensual 
delights  figure  largely.  Such  a  religion  appealed  largely  to  the  well-to-do, 
the  luxurious,  and  the  sensually  minded,  and  was  made  the  pretext  for  self- 
indulgence. 

Before  particularising  the  forms  of  modern  Hindu  worship,  we  must 
briefly  indicate  the  influence  which  Buddhism  and  other  popular  religious 
of  India  have  had  on  Hinduism.  The  brotherhood  of  man  is  influence  of 
implicitly  if  not  explicitly  recognised  by  many  of  the  Hindu  BuddMsm. 
sects ;  the  Buddhist  communities  or  monasteries  are  reproduced  in  the 
monastic  houses  of  many  Hindu  brotherhoods.  Sir  W.  Hunter  describes 
the  rules  of  the  Vishnuite  communities  as  Buddhistic,  with  Brahmanical 
reasons.  One  of  the  brotherhoods  of  Kabir's  followers  has  as  its  first  rule 
the  very  Buddhistic  one  that  the  life  neither  of  man  nor  of  beast  may  be 
taken,  the  reason  being  that  it  is  the  gift  of  God.  Truth  is  enjoined  as 
the  great  principle  of  conduct  ;  for  all  ills  and  ignorance  of  God  spring  from 
original  falsehood.  Retirement  from  the  world  is  commended,  worldliness 
being  hostile  to  tranquillity  of  soul  and  meditation  on  God.  Similarly  the 
Buddhist  trinity  of  ideas,  Buddha,  Dharma  (the  Law),  and  Samgha  (the 
congregation)  is  largely  present,  more  or  less  openly,  in  Hinduism.  Not 
the  least  strange  conjunction  of  Hinduism  with  other  religions  is  that  in 
which  Siva-worshippers  visit  Adam's  Peak  in  Ceylon  to  worship  the  foot- 
prints of  their  deity.  Buddhists  revere  the  same  impression  as  the  impression 
of  Buddha's  foot,  while  Mohammedans  revere  it  as  a  relic  of  Adam,  the 
father  of  mankind.  This  is  but  a  specimen  of  the  common  resorts  of 
Hindu  pilgrims,  where  Mussulman  and  Hindu  alike  revere  some  sacred 
object. 

Hindus  also  absorbed  or  adopted  many  rites  and  superstitions  of  non- 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Aryan  peoples,  such  as  the  serpent  and  dragon  worship  of  the  Nagas,  re- 
verence for  crocodiles  and  generative  emblems,  fetish  and  tree 
Tandthea    worship,    etc.       The    worship    of   generative    emblems    (linga) 
saiagram.    foun(j  a  wicie  £ej(i  among    the    Sivaites,    whose    god    was    the 
reproducer  as  well  as  destroyer;  while  the  fetish,  or  village  or  local  god, 
in  the  shape  of  an  unhewn  stone  (known  as  salagram)  or  a  tree,  usually  the 
tulasi  plant,  became  the  usual  symbols  of  the  Vishnuite.     In  not  a  few 
their  rites  are  little  elevated  above  those  of  primitive  savagery  as 
conducted  by  low-caste  Hindus. 

Coming  now  to  a  description  of  the  chief  Hindu  gods  as  popularly 
w<  irshipped,  we  find  Brahma,  the  creator,  represented  as  a  red  man  with 
four  heads,  dressed  in  white,  and  riding  upon  a  goose.  Brahma's 
,rahma.  w^  garasVati,  the  goddess  of  wisdom  and  science,  is  depicted  as 
a  fair  young  woman  with  four  arms  ;  with  one  right  hand  she  presents  a 
flower  to  Brahma ;  in  the  other  she  holds  a  book  of  palm-leaves  ;  in  one  of 
her  left  hands  she  carries  a  string  of  pearls.  In  the  Mahabharata  she  is 
called  the  mother  of  the  Vedas.  She  is  worshipped  once  a  year  in  the 
same  month  as  Brahma  by  all  who  have  any  learning  ;  and  with  this 
worship  are  connected  pens,  ink,  paper,  books,  etc.  Women  take  no  part 
in  this  festival. 

Vishnu  is  adored  by  the  Vishnuite  sects  as  the  equal  or  even  the 
superior  of  Brahma,  and  is  especially  termed  the  Preserver,  exempt  from 
impatience  and  passion.  Various  legends  in  the  Puranas  describe 
the  other  gods  as  submitting  to  Vishnu,  who  is  termed  om- 
niscient and  almighty.  In  pictorial  representations  Vishnu  usually  appears 
as  a  black  man  with  four  arms :  in  one  hand  a  club  is  held,  in  a  second  a 
shell,  in  the  third  a  discus,  in  the  fourth  a  lotus,  and  he  rides  upon  the 
Graruda  bird. 

Sir  Monier- Williams  describes  both  Vishnuism  and  Sivaism  as  forms 
of  monotheism,  because  they  set  aside  the  coequal  trinity  Brahma,  Vishnu 
and  Siva  in  favour  of  their  special  god  :  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
many  of  the  Vislmuites  can  be  called  intelligent  monotheists,  rather  than 
superstitious  worshippers  of  they  know  not  what.  The  opinion  of  this  great 
Indian  scholar,  that  Vishnuisni  "  is  the  only  real  religion  of  the  Hindu 
peoples,  and  has  more  common  ground  with  Christianity  than  any  other 
non-Christian  faith,"  must  be  taken  as  having  but  a  limited  application 
when  he  has  to  qualify  it  by  referring  to  "  the  gross  polytheistic  supersti- 
tions and  hideous  idolatry  to  which  it  gives  rise."  We  must  acknowledge 
the  distinguishing  merit  of  Vishnuism  to  be,  that  it  teaches  intense  devo- 
tion to  a  personal  god,  who  exhibits  his  sympathy  with  human  suffering 
ind  his  interest  in  human  affairs  by  frequent  descents  (avatars)  upon  earth. 
Of  these  we  must  give  a  brief  account. 

As  many  as  twenty-eight  avatars  of  Vishnu  have  been  enumerated  in 

the  Puranas.     They  represent  the  descent  into  human  bodies,  by  birth  from 

incarnations  earthly  parents,  of  a  portion  or  the  whole  of  the  divine  essence  of 

of  Vishnu,   the  god  ;  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  divine  body  of  the  god, 


MODERN  HINDUISM. 


225 


which  remains  unchanged.  Of  these  we  may  enumerate  (1)  the  Fish, 
whose  form  Vishnu  took  to  save  Manu,  the  progenitor  of  mankind,  from  the 
universal  deluge.  Manu  obtained  the  favour  of  Vishnu  by  his  piety,  was 
warned  of  the  coming  deluge,  and  commanded  to  build  a  ship,  wherein  he 


was  to  take  the  seven  E-ishis  or  patriarchs  and  the  seeds  of  all  living  things. 
When  the  flood  came,  Vishnu,  as  the  Fish,  dragged  the  ship,  by  a  cable 
fixed  to  a  horn  on  his  head,  to  a  high  crag  where  it  was  secured  till  the 
flood  went  down.      The  avatars  of  the  tortoise,  the  boar,  the  man-lion,  the 

Q 


226  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 

dwarf,  and  Rama  with  the  axe,  we  must  pass  over.     The  great  Rama,  Eama- 

chandra,  or  the  moon-like  Rama,  has  been  already  referred  to  as 
Rama 

the  subject  of  the  Ram  ay  ana.     "  Every  man,  woman,  and  child 

in  India,"  says  Sir  Monier- Williams,  probably  with  some  exaggeration, 
"is  familiar  with  Rama's  exploits  for  the  recovery  of  his  wife,  insomuch 
that  a  common  phrase  for  an  ignorant  person  is  '  one  who  does  not  know 
that  Sita  was  Rama's  wife.'  From  Kashmir  to  Cape  Comorin  the  name  of 
Rama  is  on  every  one's  lips.  All  sects  revere  it,  and  show  their  reverence 
by  employing  it  on  all  occasions.  For  example,  when  friends  meet,  it  is 
common  for  them  to  salute  each  other  by  uttering  Rama's  name  twice. 
Xo  name  is  more  commonly  given  to  children,  and  no  name  more  commonly 
invoked  at  funerals  and  in  the  hour  of  death.  It  is  a  link  of  union  for 
all  classes,  castes,  and  creeds." 

But  Krishna  is  the  most  popular  of  all  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu,  and 
is  represented  as  manifesting  his  entire  essence.  He  is  especially  the  god 
Krishna  the  °f  the  lower  orders,  having  been  brought  up  among  cowherds 
preserver.  an(j  0^ner  peasants,  with  whom  he  constantly  sported.  A  mul- 
titude of  marvellous  stories  are  told  about  him  ;  but  it  is  evident  from  the 
history  of  Krishna  literature  and  practices  that  he,  like  Rama,  is  a  deified 
hero.  Sir  Monier- Williams  identifies  him  as  a  powerful  chief  of  the  Yadava 
tribe  of  Rajputs  in  central  India  east  of  the  Jumna,  while  the  original 
of  Rama  was  a  son  of  a  king  of  Ouclh.  So  possible  is  it  to  trace  gods 
adored  by  multitudes  of  human  beings  to  the  exaggeration  and  deification 
of  heroic  men. 

Thus  we  shall  be  little  surprised  to  find  Buddha  adopted  as  one  of  the 
incarnations  of  Vishnu.  The  Brahmans  account  for  this  by  saying  that 
b  ddh  ^risnnu?  in  compassion  for  animals,  descended  as  Buddha  in  order 
to  discredit  the  Vedic  sacrifices.  The  Brahmanical  writers,  says 
Wilkins,  "  were  far  to  shrewd  to  admit  that  one  who  could  influence  men 
as  Buddha  did  could  be  other  than  an  incarnation  of  deity ;  and  as  his  in- 
fluence was  in  favour  of  teaching  opposed  to  their  own,  they  cleverly  say 
that  it  was  to  mislead  the  enemies  of  the  gods  that  Buddha  promulgated 
his  doctrine,  that  they,  becoming  weak  and  wicked  through  their  errors, 
might  fall  an  easy  prey." 

Not  content  with  incarnations  that  have  taken  place,  the  Vishnuites 
look  for  a  future  descent  which  they  call  the  Kalki  avatar.  He  is  to  appear 
at  the  end  of  the  Kali  age  (which  began  with  his  descent  as  Krishna), 
when  the  world  has  become  utterly  wicked,  and  will  be  seen  in  the  sky, 
seated  on  a  white  horse,  wielding  a  drawn  sword,  for  the  destruction  of  the 
wicked  and  the  restoration  of  the  world  to  purity. 

We  have  not  included  Jagannath  among  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu, 

both  because  it  is  believed  that  he  is  an  appearance  of  Vishnu  himself,  and 

Jagannath.  als0  because  it  is  probable  that  he  was  originally  the   god   of 

^  a  non-Aryan  tribe  adopted  into  Hinduism.     It  is  a  sight  of  this 

god  that  is  so  vehemently  desired,  whether  as  he  is  bathed  or  dressed,  or 

emg  drawn  on  his  car.     Chaitanya,  the  reformer,  is  another  incarnation  of 


MODERN  HINDUISM. 


\  Vishnu,  according  to  the  popular  notion,  although  he  lived  in  almost  modern 
times.     Lakshmi,  the  wife  of  Vishnu,  is  very  considerably  wor-        ■)Sa\Lm\. 

|  shipped  as  the  goddess*  of  Love,  Beauty,  and  Prosperity.     She  is 
represented  as  of  a  bright  golden  colour,  seated  on  a  lotus,  and  having  only 
the  ordinary  number  of  arms. 

Siva,  the  destroyer,  is  naturally  represented  as  of  a  stern  and  vindictive 
disposition  ;  but  yet  this  is  compatible  with  his  being  regarded  as  a  bene- 
ficent deity.  Death  being  the  transition  to  a  new  form  of  life,  the  Sivai  the 
Destroyer  is  truly  the  Re-creator,  and  this  accounts  for  the  mean-  destroyer, 
ing  of  his  name — the  Bright  or  Happy  one.  Siva  is  exclusively  a  post-Vedic 
god,  though  he  has  been  identified  by  the  Hindus  with  the  Rudra  of  the 
Veclas,  and  numerous  features  of  Siva's  character  and  history  are  developed 
from  those  of  Rudra.  In  the  Ramayana,  Rudra  (Siva)  is  represented  as 
marrying  Uma,  the  daughter  of  Daksha ;  it  is  this  same  Uma  who  is  much 
more  widely  known  under  the  names  of  Parvati,  Durga,  and  Kali.  It  is 
stated  that  a  great  quarrel  arose  between  Siva  and  Daksha,  his  father-in-law. 
In  this  quarrel  Uma  gave  herself  voluntarily  to  the  flames,  and  became  a 
sati  (suttee),  and  was  reborn  as  Parvati.  Siva  then  became  an  ascetic } 
living  with  Parvati  in  the  Himalaj^as,  destroying  demons.  He  is  represented 
sometimes  with  Parvati,  wearing  round  his  black  neck  a  serpent  and  a 
necklace  of  skulls,  and  with  an  extensive  series  of  emblems,  such  as  a 
white  bull  on  which  he  rides,  a  tiger's  skin,  etc.  ;  he  has  three  eyes,  one 
being  in  his  forehead.  As  Mahadeva  (the  great  god),  which  is  his  most 
usual  name,  he  may  be  shown  as  an  ascetic  with  matted  hair,  living  in 
meditation  and  self-discipline  in  a  forest.  It  is  said  that  Siva,  in  a  quarrel 
with  Brahma,  cut  off  his  fifth  head,  which,  however,  stuck  to  the  destroyer's 
hand.  To  escape  from  a  pursuing  giant  created  by  Brahma,  Siva  fled  to 
Benares,  where  he  became  absolved  from  his  sin  and  freed  from  the  head  of 
Brahma,  thus  causing  Benares  to  become  a  specially  sacred  city. 

In  consequence  of  Siva's  patronage  of  the  bull  as  his  steed,  a  strange 
custom  has  arisen  in  connection  with  the  funerals  of  Sivaites.  "Whenever 
it  is  possible,  a  bull  is  set  free  to  wander,  and  has  a  sacred  character,  so  that 
no  one  dares  to  injure  it ;  sometimes  as  many  as  seven  bullocks  are  thus  set 
free.  This  is  believed  to  secure  the  favour  of  Siva.  Similarly,  since  he. 
was  an  ascetic,  many  of  his  followers  pay  court  to  him  by  a  life  of  austerity 
and  painful  suffering.  This  was  much  more  frequent  in  former  times  than 
now,  for  the  British  Government  has  discouraged  or  prohibited  many  of  the 
most  painful  exhibitions.  Formerly  many  Siva  worshippers  would  be 
swung  from  iron  hooks  fixed  in  their  backs,  or  would  jump  from  Ascetic 
a  height  upon  the  edges  of '  sharp  knives.  But  it  is  not  easy  to  Sivaites- 
put  down  such  practices  as  the  maintenance  of  the  arms  and  legs  in  one 
position  for  years,  the  holding  of  the  fist  clenched  till  the  nails  grow 
through  the  palm,  the  keeping  of  silence  or  the  fixing  of  the  eye  continuously 
upon  the  sun.  There  are  still  many  thousands  of  these  devotees  in  India. 
Intoxication  is  also  freely  indulged  in  by  Sivaites  during  then  worship, 
this  being   believed   to  be   pleasing   to  the  god.      After  all,  Siva  is  most 


228 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Durga. 


worshipped  under  the  emblem  of  the  Linga,  although  he  is  said  to  have 
a  thousand  names. 

The  wife  of  Siva  occupies  a  comparatively  subordinate  position  as  Uma 
and  Parvati ;  but  as  Durga  she  is  a  powerful  warrior,  with  many  stern 
and  fierce  qualities.  In  this  character  she  is  represented  to  have 
appeared  in  many  incarnations,  and  is  very  widely  worshipped. 
The  name  Durga  was  given  to  her  as  having  slain  a  demon  named  Durga. 
The  tales  about  this  are  of  the  most  mythical  and  exaggerated  nature.  Not- 
withstanding her  powers,  Durga  is  portrayed  with  a  gentle  and  beautiful  face 
and  a  golden  colour ;  but  she  has  ten  arms,  holding  various  weapons,  while 
her  lion  leans  against  one  leg  and  her  giant  against  the  other.  Of  the 
various  forms  of  Durga  we  can  only  refer  to  Kali  (the  black  woman),  prob- 
ably some  tribal  goddess  adopted  into  the  Hindu  series.  She  won  a  victory 
over  giants  by  drinking  their  blood  with  the  aid  of  Chandi,  another  form 
of  Kali.     The  account  of  the  image  of  Kali  given  later  in  describing  one  of 

the  Bengal  festivals  will  ex- 


KalL 


I'.KAHMA    AND    SAUASVATI. 


plain  some  of  her 
qualities.  Former- 
ly human  beings,  as  well  as 
considerable  animal  sacri- 
fices, were  offered  to  Kali,  a 
human  sacrifice  being  said  to 
please  Kali  for  a  thousand 
years.  Cutting  their  flesh 
and  burning  portions  of  their 
bodies  were  among  the  ac- 
tions by  which  worshippers 
sought  to  please  the  goddess. 
The  great  number  of  Hindus 
who  bear  the  name  of  Kali 
or  Durga  or  Tara  indicates 
her  popularity  down  to  the  present  day. 

Ganesa,  the  elder  son  of  Siva  and  Parvati,  the  god  of  prudence  and 
policy,  having  an  elephant's  head,  indicating  his  sagacious  nature,  is  the 
god  of  Bengal  shopkeepers  ;  he  has  a  trunk,  one  tusk,  and  four 
hands.  Kartikeya  is  the  younger  son  of  Siva  and  Parvati,  and 
is  called  the  god  of  war ;  in  southern  India  his  name  is  Subramanya.  Lastly, 
we  must  notice  Ganga,  the  Ganges,  whose  birth  and  doings  are 
the  subject  of  elaborate  legends,  and  whose  waters  are  believed  to 
have  power  to  cleanse  from  all  sins,  past,  present  and  future.  A  specially 
sacred  spot  is  that  where  the  Ganges  meets  the  ocean,  at  Sagar  island,  to 
which  vast  numbers  of  people  flock  each  January,  to  bathe  with  joy  in  the 
flood,  and  to  worship  the  long  line  of  deities  whose  images  are  set  up  by 
priests  who  take  toll  of  the  pilgrims. 

But  when  we  have  exhausted  the   list  of  great  gods,  we  have  only 
touched  as  it  were  the  more  prominent  of  Hindu  deities,  which  are  popularly 


Ganesa. 


Ganga. 


MODERN  HINDUISM. 


229 


said  to  number  three  hundred  and  thirty  millions.  In  fact,  throughout 
India  the  old  local  deities  and  demons,  so  much  noticed  in  Local  deities 
China,  hold  extensive  sway.  Every  village  has  its  own  special  and  demons- 
guardian  mother,  who  has  a  husband  associated  with  her  as  protector. 
But  the  mother  is  most  worshipped,  and  is  believed  to  be  most  accessible 
to  prayer  and  offerings,  and  very  liable  to  punish,  and  to  inflict  diseases  if 
neglected.  Many  have  a  specialty,  such  as  the  prevention  of  a  particular 
disease,  or  the  giving  of  children.  Many  are  deifications  of  notable  women  ; 
some  are  in  effect  devils,  delighting  in  blood.  All  are  believed  to  control 
secret  operations  of  nature,  and  to  have  magic  powers  which  may  be  imparted 
to  worshippers. 

Some  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  predominant  belief  of  the 
Hindus,  especially  in  the  villages,  is  a 
dread  of  evil  spirits,  who  are  believed  to 
bring  about  all  evils  and  diseases,  and 
often  have  peculiar  and  special  areas 
of  destructiveness.  They  may  have 
material  bodies  of  a  more  ethereal  struc- 
ture than  those  of  men,  have  differences 
of  sex,  and  possess  the  power  of  assum- 
ing any  shape  and  moving  through  the 
air  in  any  direction.  Some  of  these  are 
the  Asuras,  or  demons  created  at  the 
foundation  of  the  world  or  by  the  gods 
(though  originally  the  word  meant 
simply  beings  of  a  godlike  nature).  We 
cannot  go  into  their  classes ;  but  it  is 
to  be  noted  that  the  majority  of  de- 
mons are  believed  to  have  been  origin- 
ally human  beings,  whose  evil  nature 
lives  after  them  as  demons.  All  crimes, 
diseases,  and  calamities  are  due  to 
special  devils.  They  mostly  require 
food,  and  especially  the  blood  of  living 
animals.  Sometimes  mounds  of  earth,  piles  of  bricks,  etc.,  do  duty  as 
shrines  for  their  "  worship,"  the  offering  of  food  and  recital  of  incantations 
being  the  chief  rites.  Every  village  has  its  own  demon.  A  volume  might 
be  occupied  in  describing  the  devil-cults  of  India.  In  the  south,  where 
they  are  believed  to  delight  in  dancing,  music,  etc.,  "  when  pestilence  is 
rife  in  any  district,  professional  exorcisers,  or  certain  persons  selected  for 
the  purpose,  paint  their  faces,  put  on  hideous  masks,  dress  up  in  fantastic 
garments,  arm  themselves  with  strange  weapons,  and  commence  danc- 
ing. Their  object  is  to  personate  particular  devils,  or  rather  perhaps  to 
induce  such  devils  to  leave  the  persons  of  their  victims  and  to  occupy  the 
persons  of  the  dancers,  who  shriek,  fling  themselves  about,  and  work  them- 
selves up  into  a  frenzy  of  excitement,  amid  beating  of  tom-toms,  blowing  of 


fa 

JIli 

/^"lVs>xS^ 

'-^^t% 

g*?£  w 

K  lh^*A 

/~J^JyZ 

1       1         V'-^) 

I 

SASTHI. 
(From  a  unlive  jn'cture.) 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


horns,  and  ringing  of  bells.     "When  the  dancers  are  thoroughly  exhausted, 
they  sink  down  in  a  kind  of  trance,  and  are  then  believed  to  be  gifted 
wi1  h  clairvoyance  and  a  power  of  delivering  prophetic  utterances.     The  spec- 
tators  ask    them   questions  about  missing  relatives  or  future  events,  and 
their  deliverances  are  supposed  to  be  oracular  "  (Monier- Williams).     Many 
strange  festivals  are  held  in  connection  with  this  devil-worship  in  India, 
and  the  facts  show  how  general  must  formerly  have  been  the  practices 
now  found  among  the  more  savage  races.     The  extensive  animal 
animals  and  worship  of  cows,  serpents,  monkeys,  etc.,  and  the  worship  of  trees 
trees'      still  prevailing  is  another  considerable  survival  of  more  primitive 
times.     It  depends  largely  in  India  on  the  view  taken  of  the  sacredness 
of  life,  and  the  transmigration  of  the  souls  of  men  into  animals.     Again,  the 
worship  of  great  men  seems  even  more  deeply  implanted  in  the 

Deification  of    ^.     ,     *_        ?      _      _..  .  ...  ,  .  \  ^      .  *-  .  .       , 

heroes  and  Hindu  than  m  the  Chinese  mmd,  and  again  and  again  great  leaders, 

saints.  preac]ierSj  teachers  or  saints  are  deified,  and  regarded  as  incarna- 
tions of  Vishnu  or  Siva ;  and  even  men  of  moderate  fame  are  after  death 
honoured  and  worshipped,  and  a  shrine  is  set  up  to  them  in  the  place  where 
they  were  best  known.  Surely  we  have  said  enough  to  show  that  in  every 
way  the  Hindus  are  very  remarkable  for  their  worship  of  the  superior 
powers  in  all  conceivable  forms. 

[See  "Oriental  Eeligions  :  India,"  by  S.  Johnson,  English  and  Foreign  Philosophical  Library.  Sir 
W.  W.  Hunter's  "  India,"  vol.  vi.  of  the  "  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India,"  and  also  separately  pub- 
lished. Rev.  W.  Ward's  "View  of  the  History,  Religion  and  Literature  of  the  Hindus,  1818."  Rev. 
W.  J.  Wilkins's  "  Hindu  Mythology  and  Modern  Hinduism."  Sir  Monier- Williams's  "Religious 
Thought  and  Life  in  India,"  and  "Indian  Wisdom  ;"  "  Sacred  Books  of  the  East."] 


A  GHAUT  AT  BENARES,  WITH  KECESSES  FOR  DEVOTEES. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
i¥lofcmt  tKiftutem  n- 

Inclusiveness  of  Hindu  worship — Variations  in  modern  times— Religiousness  of  the  Hindus— House- 
hold worship — The  guru — Initiation — Elements  of  worship — Brahman  ritual — Ritual  of  the 
common  people— Temple  services — Temple  priests— Frequent  festivals— Images— Festival  cere- 
monies— Miracle-plays— Festivals  of  Durga— Pilgrimages  to  holy  places— Benares— Temple  of 
Bisheshwar— Pilgrims'  observances— Puri— The  great  temple— The  images— Consecrated  food— 
The  Car  festival— Reported  immolation  of  victims— A  touching  incident— Vishnu  temple  at 
Trichinopoly— Vishnuite  sects— Sivaite  sects— The  Saktas— The  Sikhs— The  Sikh  bible— The 
Brahmo  Somaj— Rammohun  Roy— Devendra  Nath  Tagore — Keshub  Chundra  Sen— The  Uni- 
versal Somaj — Fatalism — Maya,  or  illusion— Transmigration — Rewards  and  punishments — Death 
and  cremation— Ceremonies  for  the  dead — Moral  state— Condition  of  wives— Position  of  women 
— Widows — Suttee — Disconnection  of  morals  and  religion — Hindu  virtues. 


IN  describing  modern  Hindu  religious  practices  and  worship,  we  are  met 
with  a  most  varied  assemblage  of  rites  and  customs,  often  mutually 
discordant,  all  of  which  have  an  equal  claim  to  inclusion  underInclugivenegs 
the  name  Hinduism.  Never  has  there  been  a  religion  so  expan-  of  Hindu 
sive  and  all-inclusive.  As  a  recent  Bengal  census  report  states, 
the  term  denotes  neither  a  creed  nor  a  race,  neither  a  church  nor  a  people, 
but  is  a  general  expression  devoid  of  precision.  It  embraces  alike  the 
disciples  of  Vedantic  philosophy,  the  high-class  Brahman,  the  low-caste 
worshippers  of  all  the  gods  of  the  Hindu  pantheon,  and  the  semi-barbarous 
aborigines  who  are  entirely  ignorant  of  Hindu  mythology,  and  worship  a 
stone  in  time  of  sickness  and  danger.  There  is  so  great  a  difference  in  the 
prevalent  forms  of  worship  in  different  districts,  there  are  so  many  personal 


231 


23,  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


and  household  ceremonies,  differing  according  to  rank  or  locality,  and  also 

variations  in  there  have  been  so  many  changes  in  modern  times,  that  it  is  quite 

modern  times.] mp0ssible  to  give  more  than  a  partial  view  in  a  limited  space. 

The  common  people  believe  their  worship  has  lasted  unchanged  for  long 

ages,  and  Europeans  have  largely  adopted  the  same  view  ;  but  while  the 

Hindu  nature  remains  very  largely  the  same,  variations  in  worship  have 

been  multitudinous.     The  great  car  festival  of  Jagannath  is  a  modification 

of  a  Buddhist  festival ;  and  it  would  be  easy  to  multiply  proofs  of  the 

changes  in  modern  Hinduism. 

To  a  greater  extent  than  any  nation  under  the  sun,  the  Hindus  are  a 

religious  people.     As  Mr.  Wilkins  says,  "  to  treat  of  the  ordinary  life  of  the 

„  ,,  .  Hindu  is  to  describe  the  Hindu  religion.     From  before  birth  to 

Religiousness  _  y  .   . 

of  the  the  close  of  life  periodical  ceremonies  are  enjoined  and,  for  the 
most  part,  practised."  Mostly  they  are  survivals  from  animism, 
sorcery,  astrology,  and  the  like  primitive  beliefs.  Thus,  before  the  birth  of 
a  child  the  mother  must  not  wear  clothes  over  which  birds  have  flown, 
must  always  have  a  knot  in  her  dress  round  the  waist,  must  not  walk  or  sit 
in  the  courtyard,  in  order  to  avoid  evil  spirits  must  wear  an  amulet  round 
her  neck  containing  flowers  consecrated  to  the  god  Baba  Thakur,  and  must 
drink  every  day  a  few  drops  of  water  touched  by  this  amulet.  The  naming 
of  a  boy  is  a  most  important  ceremony,  including  a  thanksgiving  service, 
with  gifts  for  the  benefit  of  ancestors.  The  names  of  gods  or  deified  heroes 
are  often  chosen,  with  the  addition  of  another  chosen  by  the  astrologer,  who 
calculates  the  horoscope  of  the  child. 

Every  household  at  all  raised  above  poverty  has  a  family  priest  (unless 
the  head  is  himself  a  Brahman),  who  performs  service,  usually  twice  a  day, 
Household  ui  a  room  in  which  the  family  idol  is  kept.  There  is  also  a  plat- 
worship.  form  opposite  the  entrance  gate  of  the  house,  to  receive  the 
images  made  for  the  periodic  festivals.  The  priest  bathes  and  anoints  the 
idol,  recites  a  ritual,  and  presents  offerings  of  fruits  and  flowers  given  by 
the  family.  The  family,  however,  are  not  usually  present,  the  priest  being 
the  only  person  whose  presence  is  needed.  The  offerings  are  his  perquisite, 
and  he  is  supported  entirely  by  one  or  two  families.  Of  course  he  is  present 
at  all  the  important  family  ceremonies. 

The  guru,  or  religious  teacher,  is  a   distinct   functionary  ;    he   is   the 
initiator  into  the  Hindu  sects,  and  the  teacher  of  their  doctrines  ;  but  he 

The  guru    C*0es  not  **ve  *n  ^ie  nouse  °f  a  disciple.     The  Hindus  are  taught 

that  it  is  better  to  offend  the  gods  than  their  guru,  for  the  latter 

can  intercede  if  the  former  are  angry  ;  but  if  the  guru  is  offended,  no  one 

can  intercede,  and  the  curse  of  the  guru  brings  untold  miseries.     He  usually 

visits  his  disciples  only  once  a  year,  unless  he  wants  more  money.     His 

treatment  of  them  is  very  lofty  ;  and  educated  Hindus  themselves  describe 

the  gurus   as   covetous,  unprincipled,    and   familiar  with  vice.     The  best 

initiation.   entertam]uent,  new  carpets  and  large  presents  are  demanded  by 

them,  and  few  teach  anything  of  value.    Every  Hindu  boy  of  eight 

i  old  (sometimes  older)  receives  from  his  chosen  guru,  who  need  not 


MODERN  HINDUISM. 


233 


be  a  Brahman,  a  sacred  text  or  mantra,  called  the  seed  text,  which  is  taught 


to  him  in  private,  with  the  name  of  the  god  selected  by  the  guru  for  his 
especial  worship.     This  text  must  never  be  repeated  to  others,  and  must  be 


234  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


said  over  mentally  or  in  whispers  one  hundred  and  eight  times  a  day  (the 
number  is  often  counted  by  a  rosary).  The  youth,  before  receiving  it,  fasts, 
bathes,  and  appears  in  spotless  robes;  and  if  he  be  of  the  twice-born 
(Brahman,  Kshatrya,  or  Vaisya)  castes,  he  for  the  first  time  puts  the  sacred 
thread  round  his  neck.  The  relationship  between  the  disciple  and  his  guru 
continues  throughout  life.  The  present  race  of  gurus  are  as  a  rule  self- 
indulgent  and  ignorant  men.  The  astrologer  is  an  equally  necessary 
personage  to  the  household  ;  no  journeys  can  be  undertaken,  no  new  busi- 
ness begun  without  his  aid;  he  fixes  the  hour  for  weddings  and  religious 
festivals,  and  numerous  other  matters  depend  absolutely  on  his  pronouncing 
the  time  opportune. 

The  great  elements  of  Hindu  worship  may  be  defined  as  (1)  mediation, 
(2)  works  of  merit,  (3)  purchasing  the  favour  or  arresting  the  disfavour  of  the 

Elements  gods  by  presents  and  sacrifices.  The  educated  Hindu  certainly 
of  worship.  iias  a  ^jgh  object,  namely,  to  gain  a  realisation  of  his  identity 
with  the  supreme  Being,  and  to  become  reunited  to  Him.  This  state  can 
only  be  approached  by  the  Brahman  ascetic ;  all  others  not  Brahmans  must 
by  religious  works  seek  to  be  reborn  in  some  future  life  in  a  higher  caste, 
until  they  reach  the  bliss  of  Brahmanism. 

We  have  already  indicated  to  some  extent  the  ritual  observances  laid 
down  for  Brahmans  in  the  sacred  books.     These  are  still  kept  up  in  essence  ; 

Brahman  and  so  numerous  and  laborious  are  they,  that  two  hours  both 
ritual,  morning  and  evening,  and  an  hour  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  are 
occupied  in  fulfilling  them  all.  The  ascetics  have  plenty  of  time  for  this ; 
but  Brahmans  engaged  in  business  find  them  very  trying,  and  a  few  perform 
them  by  deputy,  through  a  family  priest.  Previous  to  any  act  of  worship 
a  complex  ablution  must  be  performed,  with  many  details  and  prayers  ; 
then  the  sun  is  worshipped,  with  meditation  on  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva  ; 
the  text  known  as  Gayatri  is  next  repeated  three  times  while  holding  the 
breath.  It  runs  thus  :  "  Om  "  (see  p.  192),  "  earth,  sky,  heaven  !  We  medi- 
tate on  the  adorable  light  of  the  resplendent  generator  (the  sun)  which 
governs  our  intellects,  which  is  water,  lustre,  savour,  immortal  faculty  of 
thought,  Brahma,  earth,  sky,  heaven."  Thus,  the  light  of  the  sun  is  taken  as 
the  type  of  all  effulgent  power  ;  and,  as  a  native  commentator  says,  "  it  must 
be  worshipped  by  them  who  dread  successive  births  and  deaths,  and  who 
eagerly  desire  beatitude.  .  .  ."  But  this  prayer  must  be  preceded  by 
the  repetition  of  the  names  of  the  seven  worlds:  1.  This  earth.  2.  The 
wi  .rid  of  the  unconscious  dead  awaiting  the  end  of  the  present  age.  3.  The 
heaven  of  the  good.  4.  The  middle  world.  5.  The  world  of  births,  foi 
animals  destroyed  at  the  end  of  each  age.  6.  The  abode  of  the  sons  of 
Brahma.  7.  The  abode  of  Brahma  the  supreme.  The  word  Om  is  to  be 
repeated  before  and  after  this  list.  Many  other  ceremonies  follow.  The 
heart  is  supposed  to  be  cleansed  from  sin  by  drawing  up  a  little  water  by  one 
nostril  and  expelling  it  by  the  other.  One  of  the  prayers  is,  "  May  whatever 
sin  I  have  committed  by  night,  in  thought,  word,  or  deed,  be  cancelled  by 
day.     Whatever  sin  is  in  me,  may  it  be  far  removed." 


MODERN  HINDUISM.  235 

Before  the  reading  of  the  Vedas,  which  follows,  offerings  of  grain,  etc., 
must  be  made  to  the  gods,  with  invitations  to  them  to  be  present  and 
cheerful  during  the  reading  of  the  Veda  ;  then  similar  offerings  must  be 
made  to  Yama  and  the  great  progenitors  of  mankind,  then  for  the  Brahman's 
ancestors,  and  for  all  men,  with  the  object  of  relieving  the  wants  of 
sufferers  in  hells,  or  increasing  the  blessedness  of  those  in  heaven.  After 
this  exhausting  series  of  ceremonies,  the  Brahman,  before  taking  his  meal, 
offers  a  portion  to  deities,  ancestors,  and  to  all  other  beings,  and  must  then 
feed  his  guests  before  partaking  himself.  Finally  he  must  wash  his  hands 
and  feet,  afterwards  tasting  the  water.  As  his  food  is  given  him,  he  says, 
"  May  heaven  give  thee !  "  and  when  he  takes  it  he  says,  "  May  earth 
receive  thee  !  "  He  may  not  yet  eat  until  he  has  passed  his  hand  round  the 
plate  to  separate  it  from  the  rest  of  the  company,  has  offered  five  pieces  to 
Yama,  has  made  five  oblations  to  breath,  and  has  wetted  his  eyes.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  rites  (which  are  here  only  partially  given)  there  may  be  others 
significant  of  the  particular  sect  to  which  the  man  belongs.  Some  will  also 
wait  for  possible  guests  before  taking  food,  for  Brahma  himself  is  represented 
as  present  in  every  guest. 

But  it  must  be  owned  that  the  mass  of  the  Hindus  have  no  such 
elaborate  daily  ritual.  The  Sakta  sect,  it  is  true,  and  the  more  religious 
members  of  other  sects,  have  a  considerable  daily  ceremony,  all  Ritual  of  the 
including  much  the  same  ideas  of  purification  of  body,  avert-  common 
ing  the  anger  of  ghosts  or  ancestors,  the  offering  of  sacrifices  to 
the  great  gods  and  goddesses,  the  recitation  of  their  deeds  as  told  in 
the  Puranas,  etc.  But  the  majority  of  Hindus  only  bathe  daily,  and  raise 
their  hands  and  bow  to  the  rising  sun.  Shopkeepers  have  an  image  or  a 
picture  of  Ganesa  in  their  shops,  and  burn  a  little  incense  before  it  in  the 
morning  ;  Vishnuites  have  one  or  more  of  the  god's  emblems,  especially  the 
Salgrama  (a  fossil  Ammonite),  which  they  guard  as  if  it  were  a  living  being, 
bathing  it  in  the  hot  season,  etc.,  and  before  these  daily  prayers  are  offered. 
The  names  of  the  gods  are  repeated  a  great  number  of  times  a  day.  How- 
ever, on  days  when  it  is  not  very  convenient  to  go  through  a  long  form,  the 
Hindu  will  be  content  with  repeating  the  text  he  was  taught  by  his  guru, 
which  is  often  an  unmeaning  jingle. 

The  public  temples  contain  the  principal  religious  apparatus  of  the 
mass  of  the  Hindus.  But  it  must  not  be  imagined  from  this  that  their 
temples  are  as  a  rule  large.  They  are  not,  in  general,  places  for  Temple 
the  assemblage  of  numbers  of  people,  and  in  fact  they  are  mostly  services- 
not  more  than  ten  or  a  dozen  feet  square.  They  are  simply  small  buildings 
in  charge  of  a  priest,  who  takes  care  of  an  idol  or  image,  which  is  supposed 
to  be  a  special  abode  of  the  deity,  and  who  receives  offerings  from  worshippers 
coming  one  by  one,  and  prostrating  themselves  before  the  image.  Many  of 
them  have  been  built  by  public  contributions,  others  by  rulers,  and  many 
jby  well-to-do  private  persons  anxious  to  secure  merits  to  balance  their  sins. 
If  they  desire  to  make  a  large  offering,  they  do  not  build  a  larger  temple, 
but  a  number  of  smaller  ones,  seven,  fourteen,  twenty-one,  or  even  more, 


2,6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


some  of  which  may  never  be  used.  Old  temples  of  this  kind  are  not  re- 
paired ;  the  new  man  does  not  wish  to  do  what  will  but  add  to  the  merit 
of  another.  Usually  the  temple  has  an  outer  court,  often  with  verandahs 
round,  in  which  pilgrims  may  lodge  when  they  come  from  a  distance.  The 
pie  itself  has  two  main  portions — the  vestibule,  and  the  shrine  contain- 
ing the  image,  only  large  enough  to  admit  the  priest.  One  of  the  singular 
forms  observed  is  the  ringing  of  a  bell  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  god  to  his 
worshipper,  who  merely  walks  round,  hands  his  gift  to  the  priest,  and  bows 
to  the  image. 

The  priests  of  these  temples  are  all  Brahmans,  who  alone  perform  the 
proper  worship,  usually  without  any  spectators.  The  sacred  texts  are 
Temple  merely  muttered,  and  being  in  Sanskrit,  are  unintelligible  to  the 
priests.  masses ;  the  texts,  of  course,  differ  according  to  the  god  or  incar- 
nation that  is  being  worshipped.  The  essential  character  of  this  worship 
lies  in  the  treatment  of  the  image  as  if  it  were  a  living  being,  and  the  priest 
his  servant ;  washing,  dressing,  feeding,  decorating,  putting  to  bed,  etc.,  are 
all  gone  through  most  carefully.  "With  all  this  the  people  have  nothing  to 
do  but  to  bring  the  offerings,  which  become  the  priests'  property.  Of  course, 
in  the  case  of  deities  whose  rites  require  animal  sacrifices,  there  is  a  great 
business  of  slaughtering  victims,  and  afterwards  disposing  of  the  meat  not 
required  by  the  priests  ;  it  finds  a  ready  sale,  being  especially  valuable 
owing  to  its  sacred  character. 

The  regular  daily  worship  of  the  temples  forms  but  a  small  part  of  the 
religious  life  of  the  Hindu.  His  attention  is  mainly  given  to  the  festivals 
Frequent  which  occur  so  frequently,  though  somewhat  irregularly,  as  to 
festivals.  0CCUpy  the  place  of  the  Christian  Sunday.  Most  of  the  gods  have 
special  festival  days,  and  others  are  only  worshipped  publicly  on  such  days. 
Not  only  are  special  images  of  the  gods  made  for  the  temples,  but  also  for 
many  private  persons,  whose  houses  become  public  temples  for  the  day  or 
days  of  the  festival,  and  are  visited  by  crowds  of  people.  Usually,  after  the 
proper  ceremonial  has  been  gone  through,  various  amusements — nautch 
dances,  plays,  musical  entertainments— are  provided.  Sometimes  two  or 
more  adjoining  villages  will  join  in  these  celebrations,  each  householder 
paying  his  share. 

Images  are  provided  for  these  festivals  by  regular  tradesmen.     They  are 
largely  based  upon  bamboos  tied  together,  and  covered  with  hay  and  mud 
from  a  sacred  stream.     They  are  then  dried  in  the  sun,  and  after- 
wards painted,  dressed,  and  otherwise  decorated  according  to  some 
mode  presented  by  the  sacred  law-books.    When  they  are  taken  to  the  place 
<>!'  worship,  the  priest  engaged  for  the  occasion  performs  a  ceremony  called 
the  giving  of  life,  in  which  the  god  is  invited  to  reside  in  the  image  for  one, 
two,  or  three  days.     It  then  becomes  sacred,  and  must  be  touched  by  none 
Festival    but  a  Brahman, — must  be  approached  by  none  but  a  Hindu.     A 
lomes.  fuii  morning  anj  evening  worship  is  celebrated  before  the  image, 
that  in  the  evening  being  followed  by  amusements.     The  concluding  day 
witnesses   the  farewell  of  the   deity,  who  is  thanked  for   favouring    the 


MODERN  HINDUISM. 


237 


worshippers  with  his  or  her   presence,  and  is   supplicated   to   return  next 
year.      When   the  god   is    supposed  to   have    departed,   the  sacred  image 


CAR    OF   JAGAMNATH   AX   l'UHI,    OKISisA. 


becomes  once  more  common  clay,  and  may  be  touched  by  any  one.  About 
sunset  it  is  taken  to  a  river  bank,  or  to  a  tank,  with  a  musical  procession, 
dancing  women  and  lighted  torches.     The  image  is  rowed  out  to  the  middle 


,38  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


of  the  stream  and  dropped  into  the  water,  there  to  dissolve  and  decay.  The 
amount  of  worship  performed  by  Hindus  is  increased  by  the  necessity  of 
averting  the  evil  which  other  gods  besides  their  own  special  deity  may 
cause  and  by  their  desire  to  gain  any  possible  additional  benefit.  We 
can  net  give  space  to  a  recital  of  the  important  public  festivals  which 
,  ,ccur  throughout  the  months  of  the  year.  These  vary  in  different  localities, 
bhe  total  number  is  enormous.  For  instance,  there  are  festivals  all  over 
,1  to  Jagannath,  in  imitation  of  the  great  ones  at  Puri,  cars  and  great 
images  being  similarly  provided.  There  are  numerous  special  festivals  to 
Sasthi  who  watches  over  women  in  child-bearing,  and  protects  children. 
At  the  festivals  of  Krishna  miracle-plays  form  an  important 
Miracle  plays,  f  ea£ure^  an(j  represent  the  most  important  events  in  the  lives  of 
the  gods,  the  actors  being  got  up  to  represent  them,  and  not  omitting  their 
many  indecent  words  and  actions.  By  such  representations,  among  other 
things  the  illiterate  Hindu  masses  come  to  have  a  more  vivid  idea  of  the 
history  of  their  gods  than  any  people. 

The  festival  of  Durga  in  Bengal  is  especially  elaborate,  the  sons  of 
Dur°"a,  Sarasvati,  the  wife  of  Brahma,  and  Lakshmi,  the  wife  of  Vishnu, 
Festivals  of  being  attendant  figures.  Durga  herself  has  ten  hands,  holding 
Durga.  weapons  emblematic  of  her  victories.  The  forms  of  worship 
previous  to  the  coming  to  life  of  the  goddess  are  very  long,  and  one  or  more 
animals  may  be  sacrificed,  sometimes  a  buffalo.  So  generally  is  this  festival 
observed, — husbands  and  sons  returning  home  for  it,  and  business  being 
suspended, — that  it  has  been  termed  the  Christmas  of  Bengal.  It  is  cele- 
brated in  the  sixth"  month  (parts  of  September  and  October).  The  festival 
of  Lakshmi,  which  follows,  is  the  occasion  for  sitting  up  at  night  playing 
cards  or  amusing  themselves,  for  the  goddess  is  believed  during  the  night 
to  pass  over  all  who  are  awake.  In  the  seventh  month  there  is  a  very 
repulsive  celebration  of  Durga  in  her  bloodthirsty  aspect.  "  In  the  images 
which  represent  her  at  this  festival,"  says  Mr.  Wilkins,  "  she  is  black,  as  her 
name  Kali  implies,  and  her  husband  is  lying  down  under  her  feet.  Her 
tongue  protrudes  from  her  mouth,  her  four  arms  are  extended,  one  hand 
grasping  a  sword,  another  the  head  of  a  giant,  and  the  other  two  signalling 
to  her  hosts.  As  ear-rings  she  has  two  dead  bodies  of  her  foes ;  her  neck  is 
adorned  with  a  necklace  of  skulls,  and  her  only  garment,  a  zone,  is  made 
of  the  hands  of  her  vanquished  foes,  whilst  her  hair  falls  down  in  long 
tresses  to  her  waist.  Intoxicated  with  the  blood  of  her  foes,  her  eyes  flash 
with  rage,  her  eyebrows  are  dyed  with  crimson,  and  blood  flows  down  her 
breast."  This  worship  is  attended  with  midnight  sacrifices  of  animals, 
shrieking  invocations,  and  drunken  orgies.  Many  of  the  festivals  assume 
the  aspect  of  carnivals.  At  some  of  the  festivals  of  Siva  hooks  used  to  be 
ted  in  the  backs  of  men,  which  were  then  swung  in  the  air  at  a  great 
'!;•  Lght;  but  this  is  now  discontinued,  either  a  dummy  being  used,  or  the 
hook  fixed  to  a  rope  round  the  man's  body. 

The  next  great  department  of  Hindu  worship  is  that  concerned  with 
pilgrimages  to  particular  places  of  great  sanctity  or  to   special   temples. 


MODERN  HINDUISM.  239 

Large  numbers  of  Hindus  have  given  themselves  up  to  nothing  but  travel- 
ling from  one  sacred  place  to  another ;  but  a  great  proportion  piigrimages 
of  the  people  strain  every  nerve  to  visit  a  shrine  at  least  onceto holy places, 
in  their  lifetime,  and  will  exercise  self-denial  for  many  years  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  their  journey  and  provide  offerings  for  the  gods,  believing  that 
their  pilgrimage  will  secure  them  great  blessings  both  in  this  world  and 
the  next.  They  cheerfully  endure  the  greatest  privations  or  sufferings  on 
the  way,  and  show  the  most  intense  joy  when  they  come  in  sight  of  their 
destination,  or  see  the  sacred  image  exhibited.  "  I  have  seen  the  people 
throw  themselves  on  the  ground,"  says  Mr.  Wilkins,  "  and  kiss  the  very 
dust  as  soon  as  they  have  caught  sight  of  the  holy  city  of  Benares  ;  I  have 
seen  them  take  the  dust  from  the  wheels  of  Jagannath's  car,  and  place  it 
on  their  head  with  signs  of  the  intensest  pleasure ;  I  have  heard  them  shout 
with  joy  as  they  have  come  in  sight  of  the  meeting  of  the  waters  of  the 
Ganges  with  the  sea  at  Saugor  Island."  Many  now  travel  by  rail  to  the 
famous  shrines,  and  thus  the  crowds  that  visit  them  are  greater  than  ever  • 
but  many  still  go  by  road  or  boat,  often  being  drowned,  or  dying  by  the 
wayside.  Some  take  vows  to  perform  long  distances  by  measuring  their 
length  upon  the  ground.  The  sacrifice  of  life  is  increased  by  the  demands 
of  the  priests,  which  too  often  do  not  leave  the  pilgrims  enough  money 
to  provide  for  the  return  journey.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the  amount  or 
character  of  the  worship  paid  is  an  adequate  justification  for  the  weary 
toil  and  expense  of  the  journey.  Bathing,  presenting  offerings,  walking 
round  the  temples  and  seeing  the  place  are  the  chief  religious  acts,  and  too 
often  the  rest  of  the  time  is  occupied  with  immoral  or  degrading  practices 
which  the  priests  facilitate.  The  reputation  of  many  shrines  is  kept  up  by 
the  preaching  or  talking  of  travelling  adherents,  always  engaged  for  the 
purpose  of  vaunting  the  benefits  obtained  by  a  pilgrimage.  Visits  are  also 
paid  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  the  much-valued  blessing  of  a  son,  or  in 
fulfilment  of  a  vow  in  time  of  distress  or  sickness. 

We  can  only  notice  in  any  detail  the  two  greatest  places  of  pilgrimage 
in  India,  Benares  and  Puri :  the  former  being  the  special  abode  of  Siva,  the 
latter  of  Vishnu.  In  no  Indian  city  has  gross  idolatry  a  stronger 
hold  than  in  Benares  ;  ugly  idols,  monstrosities,  and  reproductive 
emblems  are  met  with  on  all  sides.  More  temples  have  been  built  and  more 
money  has  been  spent  on  worship  under  British  rule  than  during  an  equal 
period  of  Mussulman  domination ;  but  this  is  accounted  for  by  the  greater 
wealth  and  freedom  of  the  people.  Some  years  ago  more  than  a  thousand 
temples  were  counted  in  Benares  proper,  exclusive  of  suburbs,  and  of  images 
in  house  walls.  These  are  devoted  to  a  great  variety  of  deities,  sometimes 
Siva  under  different  names,  or  relatives  of  other  deities  connected  with  Siva  ; 
and  not  content  with  an  image  of  the  god  worshipped  in  a  particular 
temple,  in  many  cases  the  priests  have  added  images  of  others  in  niches  or 
in  rows ;  sometimes  even  a  hundred  are  to  be  seen  in  rows.  The  exceeding 
sanctity  of  Benares  is  accounted  for  by  a  legend  which  we  have  already 
given  (p.  227),  and  this  holy  character  extends  to  ten  miles  from  the  Ganges, 


24o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

the  tract  being  bounded  by  a  winding  road  fifty  miles  long,  containing 
hundreds  of  temples.  To  walk  along  this  road  is  itself  a  most  meritorious 
act;  residents  are  taught  that  they  should  walk  along  it  at  least  once  a 
year ;  and  whosoever  dies  within  this  area,  even  a  heretic  or  a  criminal, 
gains  heaven. 

The  most  important  temple  in  the  city  is  that  of  Bisheshwar  (god  of 
the  world),  a  name  given  to  Siva  as  king  of  all  the  gods  in  the  Benares 
Temple  of  territory,  the  gods  of  the  sacred  road  being  his  police  force.  He 
Bisheshwar.  js  supposed  to  reside  in  a  stone  linga  emblem,  and  before  this 
crowds  of  people  pass  daily  with  offerings  of  rice,  flowers,  grain,  ghee,  and 
money.  Many  of  the  worshippers  in  approaching  the  god  show  signs  of 
great  fear,  dreading  to  call  down  his  anger.  Another  of  the  great  places 
of  attraction  is  the  Mankarnika  well,  a  foul  tank  of  water  which  is  believed 
to  wash  out  the  greatest  crimes. 

Pilgrims   taking  the   fifty  miles  journey  round  Benares  have  to  go 

through  a  severe  ritual ;  they  must,  if  possible,  bathe  before  starting,  and 

Pilgrims'    at  the  end  of  each  day,  and  must  walk  barefoot,  must  provide 

observances.  for  their  own  wants  without  receiving  from  or  giving  to  others, 

must  not  quarrel  or  use  bad  language  on  the  road,  and  must  give  gifts  to 

the  priests  of  the  Mankarnika  well  at  the  end  of  the  journey. 

In  a  somewhat  different  way  from  Benares,  Puri  (the  city)  on  the 
coast  of  Orissa  is  as  famous  and  holy  in  the  eyes  of  Hindus.  Here  Vishnu 
is  worshipped  as  Jagannath  (the  Lord  of  the  World) ;  and  a  series 
of  notable  festivals  throughout  the  year  keep  up  a  continual 
round  of  religious  excitement,  culminating  in  the  famous  Car  Festival, 
attended  by  something  like  100,(300  pilgrims.  There  seems  little  doubt 
that  Puri  was  a  Buddhist  sanctuary,  to  the  reputation  of  which  Jagan- 
nath has  succeeded.  The  present  temple  dates  from  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century,  and  is  a  pyramidal  building  on  a  site  about  twenty  feet  above  the 
The  great  surrounding  country.  Vishnu  worship  was  greatly  modified  by 
temple.  Chaitairya,  who  taught  that  faith  and  love  were  more  acceptable 
to  the  deity  than  penance  and  rites.  The  temple  already  had  a  large  double 
enclosure  with  lofty  walls  ;  and  Chaitanya  taught  that  within  it  men  of  all 
castes  were  equal,  and  might  eat  together  of  the  sacred  food.  Altogether 
the  worship  of  Jagannath  became  that  of  a  gentle,  genial  deity  with  human 
feelings  and  sympathies,  and  having  no  trace  of  those  bloodthirsty  qualities 
generally  associated  in  this  country  with  the  'car  of  Juggernaut.'  No  doubt 
the  genial  has  become  the  jovial  and  the  voluptuous  with  many  of  the 
worshippers,  and  the  worship  itself  is  accused  of  licentiousness,  but  as 
warmly  defended  from  the  charge  by  some  who  have  had  good  opportunities 
of  knowing. 

The  inner  enclosure  of  the  great  temple,  nearly  four  hundred  by  three 
hundred  feet,  includes  a  number  of  small  temples  and  sacred  places  and 
trees  as  well  as  the  large  temple.  The  latter  contains  four  principal  halls, 
the  Hall  of  Offerings,  the  Dancing  Hall  for  amusements,  the  audience 
chamber,  and  the  shrine  proper,  both  the  latter  being  eighty  feet  square. 


MODERN  HINDUISM 


-  1' 


In  niches  in  the  shrine  are  three  large  images  of  three  of  Vishnu's  incarna- 
tions—the  Boar,  the  Man-lion  and  the  Dwarf.  The  principal  images  are 
those  of  Jagannath,  painted  black  ;  of  Balarama,  his  brother,  white,  and 


Subhadra,  their  sister,  golden  yellow.  They  are  made  of  one 
block  of  iron-wood,  and  are  most  uncouth  representations  of 
human  bodies  without  hands  or  legs,    the     arms  being   stumps  to  which 


2 42  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

golden  hands  are  fixed.  The  male  images  are  about  six  feet  high,  the 
female  four  and  a  half  feet.  The  clothing  and  ornaments  of  these  images 
are  changed  several  times  a  day,  so  that  they  appear  very  different  at 
different  hours,  sometimes  being  dressed  as  Buddha,  sometimes  as  Krishna, 
sometimes  as  Ganesa.  Various  stories  are  told  to  account  for  these  ugly 
images,  one  being  that  God  is  so  great  that  no  figure  can  properly  represent 
Him,  consequently  these  ugly  ones  are  made  to  inspire  people  with  fear,  that 
they  may  propitiate  Him  by  gifts.  Most  probably  they  are  modified  forms 
of  Buddhist  images  ;  there  is  an  additional  shapeless  stump  about  six  feet 
high,  which  is  said  to  have  the  mark  of  a  wheel  on  the  top,  representing 
the  Buddhist  wheel  of  the  law.  A  certain  relic  is  imbedded  in  the  image 
of  Jagannath,  and  is  carefully  transferred  when  new  images  are  made ; 
what  it  is,  none  but  the  priests  know,  and  it  is  probably  a  Buddhist  relic. 

Numerous  other  gods  or  forms  of  the  principal  gods  have  images  in  or 

near  the  shrine.     The  chief  images  are  only  moved  at  the  great  festivals  : 

consecrated  but  daily  services  of  a  complete  character,  as  if  they  were  human 

food.       beings,  are  performed.     At  the  four  chief  meals  of  the  day  large 

quantities  of  cooked  food  are  brought  into  the  temple  and  consecrated  by 

being  set  in  front  of  the  idol.    It  is  cooked  by  men  of  low  caste,  and  eagerly 

eaten  by  pilgrims  of  all  castes  after  consecration,  or  even  taken  home  as  a 

sacred  treasure.     On  some  clays  this  food  is  supplied  to  100,000  people,  for 

paj^ment,  of  course,  so  that  the  profits  of  the  priests  in  charge  are  enormous. 

The  great  festivals  at  Puri  are  the   Dol  Jatra  festival,    a  sort  of  spring 

carnival ;  the  Snan  Jatra,  when  the  images  are  bathed  with  sacred  water 

and  beautifully  dressed,  after  which  they  are  supposed  to  have  taken  a  fever 

from  exposure  and  are  put  in  a  sick  chamber  for  a  fortnight,  during  which 

The  car     time  they  are  repainted  ;  and  then  follows  the  Rath  Jatra,  or  Car 

Festival.     Festival,  when  the  gods  are  taken  for  a  ride  on  their  cars.    These 

chariots  have  often  been  described  ;  they  are  of  immense  weight  and  cuni- 

brousness,  that  of  Jagannath  being  forty-five  feet  high,  and  having  sixteen 

wheels.     Amid  an  enormous  concourse  the  images  are  placed  on  the  cars, 

and  dressed,  and  have  golden  hands  and  arms  attached  to  them.     When 

this  is  complete,  the  chief  guardian  of  the  temple,  the  Kurda  Raja,  termed 

"  the  sweeper  of  the  temple,"  sweeps  the  road  for  one  hundred  yards  in 

front  of  the  cars,  worships  the  images,  and  touches  the  ropes  of  the  car  as  if 

he  were  dragging  them ;  then  hundreds  of  Hindus  specially  set  apart  for  the 

office,  aided  by  the  attendant  pilgrims,  drag  the  car  slowly  to  a  set  of  temples 

about  two  miles  distant.      This  great  effort,  however,  occupies  four  days, 

and  on  arrival  at  the  destination  the  image  of  Lakshmi  is  taken  to  see 

Jagannath.     After  four  or  five  days  the  return  journey  takes  place.     It  is 

at  this  festival  that  immolations  of  pilgrims  have  been  supposed  to  take 

place  as  part  of  the  routine,  so  that  the  car  of  Juggernaut  has  become  with 

Reported    many  almost  synonymous  with  a  system  of  ruthless  crushing  of 

immolation  human  victims ;  but  this  is  really  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the 

worship   of  Vishnu.      No   doubt    self-immolation    has    not   un- 

frequently  taken  place,  because  the  worshippers  felt  their  sins  were  all 


MODERN  HINDUISM.  243 


atoned  for,  and  they  did  not  wish  to  return  to  the  world  to  commit  fresh 
sins  ;  and  in  the  crowds  many  have  no  doubt  been  accidentally  crushed  to 
death ;  but  human  sacrifice  is  not  inculcated  by  the  priests  nor  in  any  way 
encouraged  by  them,  for  a  drop  of  blood  spilt  in  the  presence  of  Jagannath 
pollutes  priests,  people,  and  consecrated  food.  If  a  death  takes  place  within 
the  precincts  of  the  temple,  the  worship  is  suddenly  stopped,  and  the 
offerings  are  taken  away  from  the  sight  of  the  offended  deity.  There  is 
an  almost  continual  round  of  festivals  at  Puri,  which  indeed  lives  on  its 
religious  character,  having  no  other  attraction. 

Other  notable  localities  for  pilgrimages  are  the  great  temples  of  Tan- 
jore,  Madura,  and  Rarnesvara  (an  island  between  India  and  Ceylon),  these 
being  seats  of  Siva  worship.  It  is  a  great  pilgrims'  feat  to  visit  Benares 
and  bring  from  thence  a  pot  of  Ganges  water  to  Ramesvara,  to  pour  it  on 
the  symbol  of  Siva  and  then  bathe  in  the  sea,  of  course  with  payment  of 
fees.  Sir  Monier- Williams  relates  a  touching  incident  in  con-  a  touching 
nection  with  this.  "  Shortly  before  my  arrival  at  the  temple  a  i11"*16111- 
father  and  son  had  just  completed  their  self-imposed  task,  and  after  months 
of  hard  walking  succeeded  in  transporting  their  precious  burden  of  Ganges 
water  to  the  other  side  of  the  channel.  The  longed-for  goal  was  nearly 
reached  and  the  temple  of  Ramesvara  already  in  sight,  when  the  father 
died  suddenly  on  the  road,  leaving  his  son,  a  mere  child,  utterly  destitute 
and  unprotected.  The  boy,  however,  had  one  treasure  left — his  jar  of 
Ganges  water.  This,  if  only  it  could  be  poured  upon  the  sacred  symbol, 
would  prove  a  complete  panacea  for  all  his  earthly  troubles.  Eagerly  he 
grasped  his  burden  once  more  and  hurried  on  to  the  shrine.  Imagine  the 
child's  outburst  of  passionate  grief  when  the  door  was  closed  against  him. 
He  had  no  fee  for  the  presiding  priest."' 

The  most  remarkable  Vishnu    temple   in    southern   India   is   that   of 
Sri-rangam,  at  Trichinopoly.     It  has  a  vast  series  of  seven  enclosures  one 
within    another,    in   which    hundreds   of   Brahmans   live.     The     visanu 
corners   of    the    four   grate wavs   of    each   square   have   splendid   temple  at 

mi  T7"  1.       1    Trichinopoly. 

pyramidal  towers.     The  whole  is  supposed  to  represent  Vishnu  s 

heaven.     The  principal  image  is  lying  down,  and  believed  to  be  immovable 

— of  course  with  a  legend  to  account  for  the  position,  and  there  is  a  shrine 

over  it  in  the  shape  of  the  syllable  Om.     A  second  image  of  Vishnu  is  kept 

for  carrying  in  processions  at  the  Car  Festival,  etc.     The  crown  of  the  idol 

is  covered  with  diamonds,  pearls,  and  rubies,  and  the  other  ornaments  are 

equally  rich.     Temples  like  this  maintain  large  bands  of   musicians    and 

troops  of  dancing  girls,  to  take  part  in  the  festivals. 

We  must  now  give  some  brief  account  of  the  sects  into  which  the 

Hindus  are  divided.     To  some  extent  these  follow  lines  already  indicated, 

as  worshipping  Vishnu  or  other  gods  under  different  manifesta-   vishnuite 

tions,  or  following  the  teaching  of  particular  reformers.     Thus,  to 

|begin  with  the  Vishnuite  sects,  there  are  the  Ramanujas,  or  followers  ot 

Ramanuja,  the  Ramanandis,  the  Kabir  Panthis,  and  numerous  other  sects 

founded  by  individuals.      All   these  have  special  marks   which   must   be 


244  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

painted  on  their  foreheads,  after  bathing  at  the  great  festivals,  with  a 
special  white  earth.  The  Ramanujas,  for  instance,  are  distinguished  by 
two  perpendicular  lines  passing  from  the  roots  of  the  hair  to  the  eyebrows, 
and  a  transverse  line  across  the  top  of  the  nose  connecting  the  other  two. 
In  the  centre  is  a  transverse  streak  of  red.  They  are  also  marked  with 
patches  of  red  and  white  on  the  breast  and  arms,  supposed  to  represent 
certain  signs  of  Vishnu.  Their  chief  special  belief  is  that  Vishnu  is 
Brahman,  the  supreme  Being.  The  Ramanandis  specially  worship  Vishnu 
as  Ramachandra,  with  Sita  his  wife.  This  sect  has  many  monasteries,  and 
many  travelling  members,  who  collect  offerings  and  visit  shrines,  all  these 
being  celibates.  They  practically  disregard  caste.  The  Kabir  Panthis, 
following  Kabir,  believe  in  one  god,  and  need  not  join  in  the  outward 
worship  of  the  Hindu  deities ;  but  they  sing  hynins  to  Kabir,  their 
founder.  Their  moral  code  is  excellent,  including  truth,  humanity,  and 
hatred  of  violence. 

There  are  very  many  worshippers  of  Vishnu  under  the  form  of  the 
infant  Gopal,  child  of  the  cowherd.  This  sect,  founded  by  Vishnu  Swami 
and  extended  by  Vallabha,  is  notable  for  its  belief  in  costly  apparel  and 
liberal  feeding  as  meritorious,  in  opposition  to  asceticism.  The  chief  temple 
of  Gopal  is  in  Ajmir. 

The  Madvas  of  Southern  India  are  followers  of  Madhava,  said  to  have 
been  an  incarnation  of  the  god  Vayu  in  the  12th  century.  They  wear  a 
single  cloth  of  a  dirty  yellow  colour,  go  bareheaded,  and  have  the  symbols  of 
Vishnu  stamped  with  a  red-hot  iron  on  their  shoulders  or  breast.  They 
worship  a  plurality  of  gods,  but  teach  that  the  human  spirit  is  distinct  from 
the  Divine  Spirit,  though  united  to  it,  and  that  absorption  in  the  godhead 
is  impossible,  thus  differing  markedly  from  the  ordinary  Hindu  belief. 

The  majority  of  the  Vishnu  worshippers  of  Bengal  belong  to  the  sect 
founded  by  Chaitanya,  whose  influence  raised  the  festivals  of  Puri  to  such 
popularity.  His  followers  believe  that  Vishnu  is  the  supreme  soul  and  the 
one  substance  in  the  universe,  and  that  Chaitanya  was  an  incarnation  of 
him.  They  also  lay  great  stress  upon  bakti,  or  faith,  of  which  there  are  five 
degrees :  (1)  peace,  calm  contemplation  ;  (2)  servitude;  (3)  friendship;  (4) 
filial  affection;  (5)  sweetness.  Their  cult  is  a  joyous  one,  qualified  by  the 
necessity  of  implicit  obedience  to  the  guru.  Caste  is  laid  aside  at  their 
feasts. 

The  distinguishing  marks  of  the   Sivaitic  sects  are    horizontal   lines 

instead  of  perpendicular;  and  differences  of  width  and  colour  indicate  the 

sivaitic     particular  sect.     The  Sivaites  are  very  largely  Brahmans,  and  the 

•      sects  are  not  so  extensive  and  popular  as  those  of  the  Vishnuites. 

Among  them  are  the  Dandis,  or  staff  bearers,  mendicants  who  spend  most 

bheir  time  in  meditation.     Often  they  become  almost  idiotic  from  their 

perpetual   suppression   of  thought   and  speech.     The   Yogis   are    another 

of  meditationists  with  very  special    regulations,  which  are  believed 

i  give  them  the  power   of   levitation,  of  travelling   immense    distances 

tantly,   of    rendering   themselves   invisible,    etc.     Many    of    them    are 


MODERN  HINDUISM. 


245 


practically  jugglers  and  fortune-tellers,  travelling  about  and  practising  on 
popular  credulity. 

The  Saktas  include   those   sects   specially   devoted  to  the  worship  of 


female  forms  of  the  deity,  such  as  Sarasvati,  Lakshmi,  Sita,  Parvati,  Durga, 
Kali,  etc.    The  Saktas  look  upon  their  female  deity  as  the  active  ^  Saktas 
energy  of  all  things,  and  the  source  of  all  beings,  for  without  the 


246 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


female  element  they  could  not  be  born.  It  is  chiefly  in  modern  books 
termed  Tantras  that  these  views  are  taught.  They  have  been  called  the 
Bible  of  the  Saktas,  and  are  akin  to  the  Puranas  in  parts,  but  in  others  deal 
largely  with  the  peculiar  rites  of  the  Saktas,  and  charms  and  spells,  mostly 
being  in  the  form  of  dialogues  between  Siva  and  his  wife.  No  doubt  in 
this  cultus  the  lowest  grade  of  Hinduism  was  reached.  It  upholds  and  pro- 
pagates the  most  unbridled  ideas  of  sensuality,  in  the  belief  that  to  indulge 
the  grossest  appetites  with  the  mind  fixed  on  the  supreme  Being  was  the 
most  pious  act  possible.  The  drinking  of  alcoholic  liquors  forms  a  great 
element  in  Sakti  worship,  as  well  as  the  eating  of  meat.  The  powers  sup- 
posed to  be  acquired  by  meditating  on  the  texts  and  spells  of  the  Tantras 
outdo  anything  imaginable.  By  them  it  is  possible  to  predict  the  future, 
work  more  wonders  than  the  gods,  inspire  any  one  with  love,  turn  plants 
into  meal,  etc.  Credulity  cannot  go  farther  than  in  the  case  of  the 
believers  in  Saktism.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  spread  of  education 
by  the  English  has  done  much  to  diminish  the  sway  of  these  baleful 
notions. 

Here  we  may  call  attention  to  an  opposite  phenomenon  in  modern 

Hinduism — the  spread  of  theistic  sects  of  an  increasingly  pure  tendency. 

The  Sikhs  of  the  Puniaub  owe  their  rise  to  Nanak,  a  follower  of 

The  Sikhs 

Kabir  in  the  15th  century,  born  not  far  from  Lahore  in  1469. 
He  became  a  guru  or  teacher,  and  his  followers  were  termed  Sikhs  or 
disciples.  He  taught  a  religion  free  from  caste  and  idolatry,  having  been 
largely  influenced  by  the  growing  Mohammedanism  around  him  ;  but  he 
still  remained  more  of  a  pantheist  than  a  monotheist,  and  he  taught  that 
God  should  be  especially  worshipped  under  the  name  of  Hari,  one  of  the 
titles  of  Vishnu.  After  his  death  there  succeeded  him  a  line  of  chief  gurus, 
who,  at  first  friendly,  developed  great  hostility  to  the  Mohammedans,  and 
became  largely  military  leaders.  Their  political  history  must  be  read  else- 
where. The  fourth  guru,  Ram-das,  set  up  a  lake  temple  in  the  sacred  tank 
at  Umritsur,  which  became  the  head-quarters  of  the  Sikhs.  The  fifth  guru, 
Arjun,  compiled  the  first  Sikh  bible  largely  from  the  precepts  of  his  prede- 
cessors. Govind,  the  tenth  guru,  compiled  a  second  book  or  supplement, 
devised  a  form  of  baptism,  imposed  a  vow  not  to  worship  idols,  to  bow  to  no 
one  but  a  Sikh  Guru,  and  in  many  ways  cemented  the  bonds  of  the  party.  War 
was  made  a  religious  duty  ;  and  while  Govind  refused  to  name  a  successor  as 
guru,  he  created  the  Sikh  bible  (or  Granth),  a  permanent  object  of  worship 
with  the  title  Sahib.  Henceforth  it  was  to  be  their  infallible  guide  ;  what- 
The  sikh  ever  they  asked  it  would  show  them.  The  Sikh  bible  is  written 
bible.  in  tjie  0i(j  Hindi  dialect,  with  a  peculiar  mode  of  writing.  It 
declares  the  unity  of  God,  but  is  based  on  pantheistic  ideas.  Many  of  the 
names  of  Vishnu  are  accepted  as  names  of  the  supreme  Deity.  It  forbids 
image  worship,  but  the  way  in  which  the  Granth  itself  is  worshipped, 
dressed,  and  decorated,  goes  far  to  elevate  it  into  an  idol.  Many  ordinary 
Hindu  superstitions  are  included  in  it,  such  as  the  belief  in  the  sanctity  of 
the  cow,  the  vast  number  of  transmigrations  of  souls,  and  complete  submis- 


MODERN  HIND  r ISM.  247 

sion  to  the  guru.  In  recent  years  the  Sikh  faith  has  very  considerably 
retrograded  towards  Vishnuism.  Many  Sikhs  now  adopt  caste,  wear  the 
Brahmanical  thread,  and  observe  Hindu  festivals  and  ceremonies.  There 
is  a  notable  temple  to  Govind  at  Patna  containing  many  remains  of  him. 
The  temple  at  Umritsur  is  one  of  the  most  striking  sights  in  India  ;  it  is 
dedicated  to  the  one  god  under  his  name  Hari ;  but  he  is  believed  to  be 
visibly  represented  by  the  Sacred  Book. 

A  very  significant  development  of  modern  Hinduism  is  that  represented 
by  the  Brahmo  Somaj,  which  represents  a  revival  of  the  theism  to  be  found  in 
the  Veclas,  influenced  not  a  little  by  the  teaching  of  Christianity.  The  Brahmo 
Rammohun  Eoy  (born  1774),  founder  of  the  Brahmo  Somaj,  was  a  somaj. 
high-caste  Brahman,  son  of  a  Vishnu  worshipper,  and  highly  educated  in 
Persian,  Arabic,  and  Sanskrit.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  wrote  a  tract  against 
idolatry,  and  excited  such  opposition  that  he  left  home  for  some  Rammohun 
years,  studying  Buddhism  in  Tibet.  He  afterwards  studied  R°y- 
English,  obtained  government  employment,  and  mixed  with  Europeans. 
After  his  father's  death  he  was  more  free  in  his  opposition  to  what  he  con- 
sidered perversions  of  the  true  Vedic  religion ;  and  he  particularly  drew 
attention  to  the  fact  that  suttee,  the  self-immolation  of  widows,  was  not 
sanctioned  by  the  Vedas.  In  1819,  after  studying  Christianity,  he  pub- 
blished  a  book,  "  The  Precepts  of  Jesus,  the  Guide  to  Peace  and  Happiness," 
in  which  he  stated  that  he  found  the  doctrines  of  Christ  more  conducive 
to  moral  principles,  and  better  adapted  for  the  use  of  rational  beings,  than 
any  other  that  had  come  to  his  knowledge.  Nevertheless  he  strongly 
objected  to  accept  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  for  he  considered  it 
to  be  of  the  same  nature  as  that  of  a  plurality  of  gods.  Thus  he  is  properly 
described  as  a  Unitarian.  He  preferred  to  choose  the  best  from  all  religions, 
believing  that  inspiration  was  not  confined  to  any  age  or  nation  ;  thus  he 
accepted  whatever  was  good  in  the  sacred  books  of  all  nations. 

The  Brahmo  Somaj  was  finally  established  in  1830,  "  for  the  worship 
of  the  eternal,  unsearchable,  and  immutable  Being,  who  is  the  Author  and 
Preserver  of  the  universe."  No  image  or  portrait  was  to  be  admitted,  no 
sacrifice  was  to  be  made,  and  nothing  worshipped  by  other  men  was  to  be 
spoken  of  with  contempt  in  the  building.  Although  he  has  spoken  and 
written  against  the  caste  system,  Rammohun  Roy  did  not  give  it  up,  nor 
abandon  the  Brahmanical  thread.  The  Vedas  were  still  read  at  his  meet- 
ings, while  the  Bible  was  not  introduced.  In  1831  he  visited  England 
with  several  objects,  but  fell  a  victim  to  the  climate  and  died  in  1833  at 
Bristol.  To  him  must  be  given  the  credit  of  the  first  striking  new  de- 
parture in  the  elevation  and  purification  of  modern  Hinduism. 

His  practical  successor  was  Devendra  Nath  Tagore,  bom  in  1818,  who 

in  1839  formed  a  society  for  the  knowledge  of  truth,  and  in  1811  joined  the 

Brahmo    Somaj.      He   prepared    a   scheme   for   organising   that    Devendra 

society  as  a  church  in  1843,  including  seven  solemn  vows  to  be       Nath 

J  i         •      <•  •  i    1  Tagore. 

taken  by  members.    The  members  were  to  abstain  from  idolatry, 

to  worship  the  great  God,  Creator,  Preserver,  and  Destroyer,  through  the 


.4S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


love  of  God  and  doing  works  dear  to  God, — to  lead  holy  lives  and  to  seek 
forgiveness  through  abandonment  of  sin.  A  minister  was  appointed,  and 
by  18-17,  707  persons  had  taken  the  vows,  while  many  others  adhered  to 
them.  About  1850  it  was  decided  that  the  Vedas  were  not  infallible,  and 
tluir  only  such  views  as  were  in  harmony  with  Theistic  truth  were  to  be 
accepted  from  them.  Approved  extracts  were  made  from  the  Vedas, 
Maim,  the  Satapatha  Brahmana,  etc.  The  views  of  the  church  include  the 
Fatherhood  of  God,  who  has  never  become  incarnate,  but  whose  providence 
is  over  his  creatures,  and  who  hears  their  prayers.  Repentance  is  the  one 
path  of  atonement,  forgiveness,  and  salvation.  The  only  necessary  religious 
deeds  are  good  works,  charity,  contemplation  and  devotion,  and  the  attain- 
ment of  knowledge,  all  penances  and  pilgrimages  being  useless.  The  only 
sacrifice  is  self-sacrifice,  the  only  temple  is  the  pure  heart.  Caste  is  not 
acknowledged. 

With  all  these  advanced  views,  much  tacit  recognition  of  Hinduism,  and 

even  conformity  with  it  was  still  maintained  ;   and  in  1865  a  new  reformer 

Keshub     proclaimed  his  mission,  the  well-known  Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  im- 

chunder    bued  with  more  advanced  views  as  well  as  a  more  emotional  and 
Sen.  .   . 

spiritual  nature.     He  wished  to  abolish  all  caste  observances,  and 

this  led  to  a  rupture.  A  new  form  of  initiation,  the  admission  of  women 
and  the  reform  of  marriage  observances  followed  ;  but  after  vigorous  work 
for  a  number  of  years,  Keshub  agreed  to  the  marriage  of  his  daughter 
while  a  child  to  the  Maharajah  of  Kuch  Behar,  at  which  some  Hindu 
ceremonies  were  observed,  and  this  caused  much  scandal.  Nevertheless  his 
church,  the  Progressive  Brahmo  Somaj  of  India,  showed  much  vitality 
under  his  almost  autocratic  rule  up  to  his  death  on  January  8th,  1884. 
The  original  society,  now  known  as  the  Adi  Somaj,  continues  under  the 
guidance  of  Devendra  Nath  Tagore,  but  has  somewhat  gone  back  towards 
Hinduism.  Keshub  had  the  skill  to  introduce  new  festivals  to  replace  the 
older  Hindu  celebrations,  including  religious  meetings  with  public  pro- 
cessions, music,  and  singing.  He  also  professed  himself  inspired  to  put 
down  sectarianism  and  discord  between  sects.  His  influence  still  lives  ;  the 
apostolic  Durbar  of  his  church  refused  to  allow  the  platform  from  which 
he  taught  to  be  used,  and  declared  that  Keshub  was  still  the  leader  of  the 
church.  It  would  be  curious  to  note  if  this  is  followed  by  any  further  step 
towards  his  deification. 

The  party  who  left  Keshub  after  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  have 

formed  a  stronger  church  than  the  one  they  left,  under  the  title  of  the 

The        Universal   Somaj.      They  have  adopted  a   sort    of  presbyterian 

universal    government,  to  prevent   the  autocratic    rule   of    one  man,   and 

only  those  who  have  given  up  idolatry  and  caste  in  private  as 

well  as  in  public  can  be  office-bearers.     Altogether  there  are  about  1,500 

strict  members  and  8,000  adherents  of  these  various  Theistic  bodies  in  India, 

distributed  over  178  churches. 

We  have  said  little  hitherto  of  certain  common  notions  of  the  Hindus, 
which  however  influence  them  very  greatly  and  hinder  improvement.     For 


MODERN  HINDUISM. 


^49 


instance,  fatalism  is  one  of  their  strongest  beliefs.     All  a  man's  life  is  con- 
trolled by  the  Deity,  and  it  is  fruitless  for  man  to  oppose  the  decrees    Fatalism 
of  God.     It  is  this  resignation  to  fate  which  so  largely  paralyses 


the  efforts   of  the  people,  especially  in  regard  to  sickness.     The  belief  in 
Maya,  or  illusion,  is  another  of  their  beliefs.     It  is  said  that  all     Mayai  or 
mankind  are  the    victims   of  illusion,   especially  in  imagining     musl0n- 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


themselves  to  be  something  different  from  God.     It  is  commonly  said  that 

the  supreme  Being  was  tired  of  being  alone,  and  formed  the  world  as  a 

sport  or  amusement,  and  that  all  the  miseries  of  life  came  from  Maya,  the 

creatures  being  ignorant  that  they  are  really  one  with  God. 

Again,  belief  in  the  transmigration  of  souls  pervades  all  India.     It  will 

be  found  to  constitute  a  prominent  feature  in  Buddhism.     We  may  here 

.»_  briefly  state  the  essential  details  of  the  creed.     Existence  after 

TransrmgTa-  J  .  „ 

tion.       death   is   a   matter   of  course.      A   predominantly  good   life   is 

rewarded  with  heaven,  an  evil  life  with  hell.     After  a  longer  or  shorter 

time  the  soul  returns  to  earth  to  be  re-born  in  a  higher  or  lower  station, 

according  to  its  good  or  evil  deeds.    Re-births  may  be  indefinitely 

and  numerous,  and  may  be  alternately  higher  and  lower,  or  higher 
urns  men  s.  ^  ^  ^e  conduct  has  been  sufficiently  good.  Many  of  the 
gods  are  believed  to  have  a  heaven  of  their  own,  into  which  they  take 
their  worshippers  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  and  admit  them  to  various 
degrees  of  nearness  to  themselves.  Many  are  the  acts  which  confer  these 
privileges,  but  especially  pilgrimages,  acts  of  worship,  sacrifices,  building 
temples,  giving  gifts  to  Brahmans,  and  honouring  gurus.  The  higher  states 
of  blessedness  are  exclusively  for  Brahmans  ;  but  those  of  lower  caste  may 
by  good  works  earn  re-birth  in  higher  castes  till  they  at  last  become 
Brahmans. 

The  various  hells  and  heavens  are  elaborately  described  in  the  Puranas. 
There  are  said  to  be  a  hundred  thousand  hells,  one  for  each  class  of  offence. 
For  instance,  a  glutton  is  to  be  cast  into  boiling  oil ;  he  who  injures  a  man 
of  superior  caste  is  punished  by  being  torn  by  swine  ;  one  who  contemptu- 
ously treats  a  religious  mendicant  is  made  to  stick  fast  in  the  mud  with  his 
head  downwards.  But  fortunately  for  both  sinners  and  priests,  these 
punishments  may  be  remitted  if  appropriate  atonements,  good  deeds, 
and  offerings  are  made.  For  corporeal  sins,  says  Manu,  a  man  will  be  re- 
born as  a  plant  or  a  mineral ;  for  verbal  sins,  as  a  bird  or  a  beast ;  for 
mental  sins,  in  the  lowest  human  state.  The  slayer  of  a  Brahman  will  be 
re-born  as  a  dog,  boar,  ass,  bull,  etc.  ;  he  who  steals  gold  from  a  priest  will 
be  born  a  thousand  times  in  the  bodies  of  spiders,  snakes,  etc.  But  the 
earlier  books  are  far  surpassed  by  the  later  ones  in  their  teaching  on  this 
point.  Thus,  in  the  Agni  Purana  it  is  taught  that  "  a  person  who  loses 
human  birth  passes  through  8,000,000  births  amongst  inferior  creatures 
before  he  can  appear  again  on  earth  as  a  human  being.  Of  these  he 
remains  2,100,000  among  the  immovable  parts  of  creation,  as  stones,  trees, 
etc.  ;  1)00,000  amongst  the  watery  tribes  ;  1,000,000  amongst  insects,  worms, 
etc. ;  1,000,000  amongst  birds,  and  3,000,000  amongst  the  beasts.  In  the 
ascending  scale,  if  his  works  be  suitable,  he  lives  400,000  lives  amongst  the 
lower  castes  of  men,  and  100  amongst  Brahmans.  After  this  he  may  obtain 
absorption  into  Brahma."  To  such  an  extent  can  the  policy  of  frightening 
people  into  goodness,  or  rather  into  compliance  with  priestly  demands,  be 
developed.  Happily  the  Hindus,  as  a  rule,  do  not  remember  the  sufferings 
of  their  imaginary  previous  lives  or  conditions  ;  and  it  is  a  ready  way  of 


MODERN  HINDUISM.  251 

accounting  for  any  misfortune  to  say  that  it  is  a  punishment  for  sins  com- 
mitted in  a  former  life. 

With  such  views  it  is  not  surprising  that  death  and  its  approach 
should  be  made  the  occasion  for  endeavouring  to  obtain  future  benefits,  or 

relief  from  penalties.     The  Hindu  is  taught  that  after  death  his 

....  &  Death, 

spirit  will  wander  in  wretchedness,  unless  he  dies  near  the  Ganges 

or  some  holy  stream,  or  unless  his  body  is  burned  on  its  banks,  or  at  any  rate 
near  some  water,  and  some  portion  of  his  ashes  must  be  thrown  into  it.  This 
leads  to  a  custom  of  exposing  the  dying  on  the  banks  of  rivers.  Long  rows 
of  steps  line  the  banks  and  rude  buildings,  used  for  the  dying  to  lie  in,  called 
ghats.  The  benefits  of  so  dying  are  represented  as  so  great,  that  relatives 
often  believe  it  to  be  the  greatest  kindness  to  expose  them,  often  carrying 
them  through  terrible  heat,  and  exposing  them  at  imminent  risk.  Great 
numbers  of  lives  have  been  sacrificed  in  this  way  when  the  disease  was  by  no 
means  mortal ;  the  word  of  the  native  doctors  is  taken  as  sufficient,  and  great 
haste  is  made  lest  the  patient  should  die  at  home.  The  whole  scene  is 
repulsive  and  injurious  in  the  highest  degree.  A  few  minutes  before  death 
is  expected  the  victim  is  brought  down  to  the  brink  of  the  river,  where  he 
dies  more  or  less  immersed  in  the  stream.  No  doubt  in  some  cases  advan- 
tage is  taken  of  these  circumstances  to  administer  poison.  A  native  writer 
says  :  "  Persons  entrusted  with  the  care  and  nursing  of  a  dying  man  at 
the  burning  ghat  soon  get  tired  of  their  charge  (no  women  being  allowed 
to  be  there) ;  and  rather  than  minister  to  his  comforts,  are  known  to  resort 
to  artificial  means.  The  process  of  immersion  is  another  name  for  suffoca- 
tion." So  tenacious  are  some  people  of  life,  that  they  will  sometimes- 
survive  nine  or  ten  immersions,  and  be  brought  home  again ;  but  their 
continued  life  is  considered  disgraceful. 

The  burning  of  the  corpse  follows  quickly  on  death.  "The  corpse  is 
removed  from  its  resting-place  to  the  burning  ghat,  a  distance  of  a  few 
hundred  yards,  and  preparations  for  a  funeral  pile  are  speedily 
made.  The  body  is  then  covered  with  a  piece  of  new  cloth  and 
laid  upon  the  pyre,  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  which  are  composed  of 
firewood,  faggots,  and  a  little  sandalwood  and  glue  to  neutralise  the  smell. 
The  Manipora  Brahman,  an  outcaste,  reads  the  formula,  and  the  son,  or 
nearest  of  kin,  changing  his  old  garments  for  new  white  clothes,  at  one  end 
of  which  is  fastened  an  iron  key  to  keep  off  evil  spirits,  sets  fire  to  the 
pile.  The  body  is  consumed  to  ashes,  the  portion  remaining  unburnt  is 
thrown  into  the  river.  The  son,  after  pouring  a  few  jars  of  holy  water  on 
the  pile,  bathes  in  the  stream  and  returns  home  with  his  friends."  Then 
follow  wild  expressions  of  grief  on  the  part  of  the  women.  Often  the 
family  cannot  afford  to  buy  enough  wood  to  consume  the  corpse,  and  part 
is  left  for  jackals  and  vultures.  The  Brahmans  of  course  go  through  much 
more  elaborate  funeral  ceremonies  than  are  here  indicated. 

After  the  cremation  come  the  Shradda,  or  ceremonies  for  the  benefit 
of  the  dead  ;  these  may  be  comparatively  inexpensive,  or  may  be  made 
the  occasion  of  lavish  expenditure.     On  the  thirtieth  day  after  death,  offer- 


.-_,  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


-  of  food,  sweetmeats,  etc.,  are  made  to  the  spirit  of  the  deceased  and  his 
or  her  ancestors,  and  at  the  same  time  a  number  of  Brahmans 

Ceremonies  • 

for  the  and  persons  of  other  castes  are  entertained.  These  ceremonies 
deacL  are  evidently  much  akin  to  the  ancestor-worship  of  the  Chinese, 
as  already  detailed,  showing  how  powerful  a  factor  this  reverence  for 
ancestral  spirits  has  been  in  races  very  dissimilar.  One  of  the  prayers  is 
•  May  those  in  my  family  who  have  been  burnt  with  fire,  or  who  are  alive 
who  are  }ret  unburnt,  be  satisfied  with  the  food  presented  on  the  ground, 
and  proceed  contented  towards  the  supreme  path!  May  those  who  have 
no  father  nor  mother,  nor  kinsman,  nor  food,  nor  supply  of  nourishment,  be 
contented  with  this  food  offered  on  the  ground,  and  attain,  like  it,  a  happy 
al  x  >de  ! "  Some  of  the  food  is  cast  into  the  fire,  by  which  means  it  is  supposed 
to  reach  those  for  whom  it  is  intended.  Brahmans  repeat  these  ceremonies 
frequently  in  the  first  year  after  death,  and  afterwards  annually.  The  title 
to  property  is  most  intimately  bound  up  with  the  funeral  rites.  Only  a  son 
or  near  male  relative  is  properly  qualified  to  perform  them ;  but  if  males 
fail,  females  or  other  heirs  may  undertake  the  duty.  Large  promises  are 
made  in  the  Puranas  and  other  sacred  books  to  those  who  properly  per- 
form the  Shradda  rites,  including  the  forgiveness  of  all  their  own  sins.  The 
details,  like  those  of  all  religious  matters  in  so  religious  a  people,  are  far  too 
lengthy  to  be  given. 

What  about  the  influence  of  Hindu  religious  ideas  upon  their  moral 

condition  ?     Many  writers  agree  that  this  is  bound  up  with  the  position  of 

women,  and  that  until  thev  are  freed  and  elevated  no  permanent 

Moral  state 

'  improvement  can  be  made.     Here  is  an  extract  from  a  Hindu 

lady's  book  on  the  duties  of  wives.     "  The  husband  is  the  wife's  religion, 

the  wife's  sole  business,  the  wife's  all-in-all.     The  wife  should  meditate  on 

her  husband  as  Brahma.     For  her,  all  pilgrimages  should  be  concentrated 

condition  of  orL  her  husband's  foot.     The  command  of  a  husband  is  as  obliga- 

wives.  tory  as  a  precept  0f  the  Vedas.  To  a  chaste  wife  her  husband  is 
her  god.  When  the  husband  is  pleased,  Brahma  is  pleased.  The  husband 
is  the  wife's  guru,  her  honour,  the  giver  of  her  happiness,  the  bestower  of 
fortune,  righteousness,  and  heaven,  her  deliverer  from  sorrow  and  from  sin." 
Of  course  the  seclusion  of  women  is  not  generally  possible  among  the 
lower  classes,  but  it  is  often  aimed  at  by  them ;  and  the  full  consequences 
Position  of  °f  the  belief  that  the  birth  of  a  girl  is  a  misfortune  follow  most 

women.  In.clia.rL  women  through  life.  On  the  contrary,  Hindu  women 
pray,  make  pilgrimages,  fast,  and  make  costly  offerings,  that  they  may  have 
sons  who  can  by  performing  the  Shradda  rites  deliver  their  ancestors  from 
sufferings  after  death.  All  a  girl's  worship  is  directed  towards  obtaining 
good  husbands  and  sons,  by  a  series  of  rites  which  we  cannot  particularise ; 
nor  can  we  enlarge  upon  the  evils  of  girl  marriages  (at  the  age  of  from 
seven  to  ten),  and  of  plural  marriages  in  the  higher  castes,  or  the  details  of 
wedding  ceremonies,  which  however  are  full  of  religious  significance. 

The  wives  of  the  poorer  people  have  considerable  freedom ;  but  among 
the  richer  classes  a  wife  is  the  servant  not  only  of  her  husband  but  of  all 


MODERN  HINDUISM. 


253 


the  older  women  of  his  family.  She  must  always  be  visited  in  the  presence 
other  brothers-in-law,  and  must  not  speak  to  her  husband  in  the  daytime, 
nor  even  take  her  meals  with  him.  Too  frequently  she  is  the  subject  of 
painful  tyranny  and  abuse  on  the  part  of  the  older  women  of  the  zenana. 

Yet  the  life  of  a  Hindu  wife  is  heaven  compared  with  that  of  a  childless 
widow.  The  faithful  wife  was  long  expected  to  sacrifice  herself  on  his 
funeral  pile  (suttee),  and,  according  as  she  did  it  or  not,  was 
lauded  or  cursed.  Many  widows  in  the  past,  from  lack  of  courage 
to  perform  what  they  vowed,  had  themselves  drugged  and  forcibly  immo- 


Widows. 


Suttee. 


SHRINE    OF    THE    GODDESS    PARVATI,    WIFE    OF    SIVA    (EARLIER    FORM    OF    KALI,    DUBGA,    ETC.), 
IN    A    TEMPLE    AT    POONAH. 

lated.     Frequently  widows  would  most  calmly  and  impassionately  devote 

themselves  to  the  fire,  never  giving  a  cry  or  a  sigh  of  pain.     So  powerfully 

can  the  belief  that  they  are  doing  what  is  pleasing  to  the  gods 

and  their  deceased  husbands  work  upon  the  Hindu  women.     In 

1830  suttee  was  prohibited  in  States  under  British  rule  ;   but  it  was  still 

practised  in  some  of  the  native  States.    Mr.  Wilkins  states  that  the  last  case 

he  heard  of  was  about  1880. 

The  extreme  difficulty  experienced  in  abolishing  suttee  is  explained  by 
the  treatment  to  which  surviving  widows  are  subjected,  especially  child- 
less widows,  who  are  forbidden  to  marry  again,  and  become  the  household 


,54  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


drudges  and  objects  of  scorn  of  the  zenana.  One  meal  a  day,  with  a  fast  for 
two  days  a  month,  is  their  hard  lot ;  with  the  deprivation  of  ornaments  and 
of  every  pleasure.  In  many  cases  the  sufferings  of  a  widow  are  such  that 
she  would  gladly  die.  No  doubt  the  older  widows  are  able  to  assert  them- 
selves  and  in  time  gain  influence.  But  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that 
thf  key  to  much  of  the  religious  and  social  question  in  India  is  bound  up 
with  the  condition  and  education  of  women.  Some  improvement  has 
already  come  with  the  improved  education  of  the  better  classes,  and  the 
partial  opening  of  the  zenanas  to  European  ladies  and  to  lady  doctors  ;  and 
herein  lies  great  hope  for  the  future. 

The  Hindu  system  is  such  that  merit  and  pardon  can  be  obtained  for 
gross  offences  without  any  reform  of  heart  and  life.  Thus  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  theft,  dishonesty,  lying,  ingratitude,  forgery,  perjury, 
of  morals  and  revenge,  cruelty,  and  personal  immorality  are  very  rife  among 
religion,  ^heni.  Mr.  AVilkins  saj^s  :  "  It  does  not  surprise  me  at  all  to  find 
the  Hindus  morally  what  they  are,  as  I  remember  that  whilst  their  books 
contain  some  of  the  highest  and  noblest  moral  precepts,  their  deities,  when 
incarnate,  are  described  as  ignoring  these  beautiful  moral  lessons  ;  and  still 
further,  when  I  see  that  religion  and  morality  are  quite  separate  in  their 
view.  .  .  .  When  a  Hindu's  anger  is  excited,  truth,  honour,  trust — all 
are  forgotten,  and  no  means  are  left  unemployed  that  can  injure  an  enemy. 
The  term  '  mild  Hindu,'  certainly  is  the  purest  sarcasm ;  they  submit  to 
oppression  and  cruelty  because  they  are  physically  incapable  of  resistance. 
Only  give  them  the  opportunity  to  avenge  themselves  and  to  oppose  others, 
and  certainly  they  are  as  vindictive  in  their  way  as  any  race  of  men  on 
earth.  They  do  not  use  the  knife  or  the  dagger,  it  is  true,  but  they  resort 
to  poison,  and,  what  is  sometimes  even  worse,  the  poison  of  their  own 
untruthful  tongues."  On  the  other  hand,  we  must  credit  the  Hindus  with 
Hindu  much  fraternal  affection  and  filial  regard,  much  charity  in  the 
virtues.  form  of  gifts,  great  patience,  industry,  and  ingenuity.  Out  of 
these  elements  and  their  great  intellectual  powers  we  may  hope  that  there 
may  yet  arise  a  nation  mighty  in  goodness  and  noble  in  character. 

In  addition  to  works  referred  to  in  the  previous  chapter,  the  following  are  valuable:  Bose's 
■I  lii  Hindus  as  They  Are";  H.  H.  Wilson's  "Hindu  Sects";  "Medical  Jurisprudence,"  by  Dr. 
Norman  Chevers;  Dr.  Lall  Mittra  on  "Orissa";  Eev.  T.  E.  Slater's  "Life  of  Keshub  Chundra 
Sen";  many  articles  in  The  Calcutta  Review.] 


>E>OoS* 


M"1DHV    AND    1HE    LOTUS. 


BUDDHISM, 


CHAPTER    V. 
3Life  of  Butioba, 

The  soil  prepared — The  founder's  period — Real  existence  of  Buddha — Buddhist  sacred  books— The 
native  land  of  Buddha — His  youth  and  early  life — The  great  renunciation— His  long  retirement 
— His  enlightenment — His  temptation — Opening  of  his  mission — The  eightfold  path— The  origin 
of  suffering — The  freedom  of  Buddhism — Early  converts — General  features  of  Buddha's  life— alter- 
nation of  itinerancy  with  rest — The  Buddhist  gardens — Buddha  and  the  courtesan  Ambapali — 
Anxious  inquirers — The  new  order  of  monks  —  Buddha  not  a  socialist  —  Buddha's  principal 
adherents — Lay  believers — Women  and  Buddhism — Reception  of  sisters  or  nuns— Opposition — 
Brahmans  confuted — The  best  sacrifice — Method  of  teaching— Long-drawnd  issertations— A  noble 
youth's  conversion — Socratic  method — Parables — The  book  of  the  Great  Decease— Buddha  pre- 
pares for  his  final  discourse — His  last  temptation — His  death. 


THAT  BuddliisHi  arose  in  a  country  and  among  people  saturated  with 
Brahmanism,1  as  we  have  described  it,  must  never  be  forgotten  in 
contemplating  its  rise  and  development.  Without  pre-existing  Brahman- 
ism it  would  have  lacked  its  most  essential  elements,  its  raison  The  soil 
d'etre.  The  higher  Brahman  philosophy  had  already  merged  the  PrePared- 
multitude  of  early  Vedic  gods  into  the  Universal  Spirit,  and  had  developed 
very  considerably  their  Pantheistic  system ;  but  at  the  same  time  the  fetters 
of  Brahman  control,  the  observance  of  expensive  and  frequent  rites,  the 
obligation  to  obey  the  Vedic  teaching  and  the  authorised  comments  upon  it 
were  made  more  and  more  strict  and  onerous  ;  and  a  spirit  of  reaction 
naturally  arose.  That  the  reform  associated  with  the  great  Buddha's  name 
was  only  one  evidence  of  this  spirit,  may  be  seen  by  the  account  we  have 
already  given  of  other  rationalist  philosophies  (p.  102,  etc).  But  while  these 
gave  a  more  or  less  nominal  assent  to  the  Vedas,  Buddhism  declared  the  good 
man's  independence  of  Brahmans  and  Vedas,   and  his  power  of  working 

1   [Bhys   Davids'  "Hibberfc  Lectures."      Oldenbery's  "Buddha"  (0).     Sacred   Books    of   the 
East  (S.E.).] 

255 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


out  his  own  salvation.  It  put  forward  at  once  a  higher  ideal  of  a  religious 
Life  and  claimed  a  release  from  the  bonds  of  Pharisaism. 

When  we  come  to  examine  into  the  life  of  the  supposed  founder  of 
Buddhism,  we  find  great  uncertainty  even  as  to  the  period  at  which  he 
me  founder's  lived.  Many  good  authorities  formerly  placed  him  in  the  sixth 
period.  aU(i  seventh  centuries  B.C.;  but  the  latest  and  apparently  the 
most  reasonable  view  assigns  him  to  the  fifth  century  b.c.  and  places  his 
death  about  420-400  b.c 

How  far  Brahmanism  was  directly  connected  with  the  origin  of 
Buddhism  can  probably  never  be  known  ;  but  the  deity  "  Brahman  "  of  the 
earlier  religion  is  adopted,  amplified,  and  subdivided  in  early  Buddhism  ; 
ami  no  doubt  the  encouragement  of  the  hermit  and  ascetic  lives  had  led 
to  the  formation  of  communities  of  hermits  and  ascetics  who  may  be  taken 
as  the  prototypes  of  Buddhist  monastic  orders.  Probably  there  were  several 
sects  of  new  religionists,  who  did  not  stick  closely  to  the  Veda  and  professed 
to  have  found  a  more  excellent  way,  of  whom  the  Buddhists  and  Jains  have 
alone  remained. 

We  need  not  doubt  that  Buddhism  had  a  founder,  though  less  may  be 
attributable  to  him  than  is  commonly  imagined.  Those  who  have  believed 
that  the  story  of  Buddha  was  altogether  a  myth  representing  a 
existence  of  smi-hero  have  had  to  construct  more  imaginary  tales  than  those 
they  seek  to  destroy.  The  study  of  the  Buddhist  accounts,  as 
preserved  in  Ceylon,  written  in  the  Pali,  or  sacred  language  of  Buddhism 
(an  early  modification  from  Sanskrit),  shows  that  from  a  very  early  time 
(supposed  to  be  considerably  before  the  Christian  era)  their  religion  has 
been  believed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Knowing  or  Enlightened  One 
(Buddha),  also  designated  the  Exalted  One  (Bhagava).  But  it  must  be 
confessed  that  we  have  no  genuine  ancient  biography  of  Buddha  dating 
from  the  same  age  as  the  early  Pali  texts.  Such  information  as  they  do 
contain  is  rather  in  an  incidental  and  unconnected  form  ;  but  this  does  not 
cause  us  to  doubt  his  having  existed  and  been  a  religious  leader,  for  at  that 
early  period  and  among  that  people  the  idea  of  composing  a  biography  of  a 
man  had  not  arisen  ;  and  all  the  ancient  Hindu  books  are  destitute  of  any 
specimen  of  an  attempt  at  even  a  brief  biography  of  a  man.  But  the 
Buddhist  existence  of  numerous  Buddhist  sacred  books,  the  composition  of 
sacred  books.  w]aic]1  almost  certainly  took  place  before  the  council  of  the  seven 
hundred  fathers  met  at  Vesali  in  the  fourth  century  b.c,  together  with  the 
nature  of  their  contents,  suffices  to  assure  us  that  they  represent  the 
teaching  of  a  great  teacher,  the  Buddha,  who  preached  salvation  and  deliver- 
ance to  the  people,  and  was  in  rivalry  or  opposition  to  six  other  heads  of 
of  whom  one,  Nataputta,  founded  the  Jain  system,  often  represented 
as  an  offshoot  of  Buddhism,  though  it  is  rather  a  representative  of  similar 
tendencies  acting  at  the  same  time.  "  It  is  evident,"  says  Prof.  Oldenberg 
"  that  Buddha  was  a  head  of  a  monastic  order  of  the  very  same  type  as  that 
to  which  Nataputta  belonged;  that  he  journeyed  from  town  to  town  in  the 
garb  and  with  all  the  external  circumstances  of  an  ascetic,  taught  and 


LIFE    OF  BUDDHA. 


257 


gathered  round  himself  a  band  of  disciples,  to  whom  he  gave  simple 
ordinances."  The  form  in  which  details  concerning  him  have  been  pre- 
served is  chiefly  his  discourses  and  teaching,  sometimes  doubtfully  asso- 
ciated with  the  name  of  the  place  where  they  were  uttered  ;  and  in  addition 
to  this  the  main  events  of  his  life  are  frequently  referred  to. 

The  native  land  of  Buddha  was  situated  between  the  lower  Himalayas 
of  Nepal  and  the  middle  course  of  the  river  Rapti,  in  the  north-east  of 
Oudh.      The   little   river   Rohim,    which  joins   the   Rapti   near 
Goruckpore,  about    100   miles   north  of   Benares,  is   its  eastern     land  of 
boundary.     Both  the  Rohim  and  the  Rapti  appear  by  the  same 
names  in  early  Buddhist  literature.     In  this  fertile  region,  liable  to  heavy 
rains  and  long-lying  inundations,  the  Aryan  tribe  or  people  of  the  Sakyas 
(the   Powerful),  grew  rice    and   main- 
tained a  close  connection  with  the  more 
powerful  kingdom  of  Kosala  (Oudh)  to 
the   south-west,  which   ultimately  ab- 
sorbed  them.     Although   it   has   been 
widely   represented   that    the   Buddha 
was  a  king's  son,  the  oldest  records  only 
mention  the   father  as  Suddhodana,  a 
wealthy  landowner,  one  of  whose  wives, 
playa,  of  the  same  tribe,  died  ms  youth  and 
Boon  after  the  birth  of  her    e^y^fe. 
son,  who  was  named  Siddhattha,  and 
was  often  called  Sakya,  or  Sakya-muni, 
the  Sakya  sage  ;  this  event  took  place 

Drobably  somewhere  about  500  b.c.     He 

massed  his  youth  in  Kapila,  the  capital 

)f  the  Sakyas,  and   there  is  no  early 
(tradition  of  his  having  become  a  Vedic 

student ;  rather  the  events  of  his  after- 

ife  tend  the  other  way,  exhibiting  him 

is  a  reformer  and  an  opponent  of  Brah- 

nanic  pretensions.    He  appears  to  have 

seen  married,  and  to  have  had  one  son,  Rahula,  who  became  one  of  his 

lisciples ;  but  there  is  no  absolutely  certain  detail  about  the  reasons  and 

iircumstances  which  led  him  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine  to  me  Great 
I  ibandon  his  home,  and  become  a  wandering  ascetic,  thenceforward  Renunciation- 
I  caown  as  the  ascetic  Gautama  (pronounced  Gowtama).  One  of  the  earliest 
I  ecords  represents  him  as  having  felt  deeply  and  often  meditated  on  the 
i  Weakness  and  decay  of  old  age,  and  the  horror  of  sickness  and  death,  and 
I  laving  thus  lost  the  buoyancy  of  youth  and  the  enjoyment  of  life.  Other 
I  arly  records  tell  that  "the  ascetic  Gautama  has  gone  from  home  into  home- 
\  bssness,  while  still  young,  young  in  years,  in  the  bloom  of  youthful  strength , 

a  the  first  freshness  of  life.     The  ascetic  Gautama,  although  his  parents 

lid  not  wish  it,  although  they  shed  tears  and  wept,  has  had  his  hair  and 


SEATED    FIGURE    OF    BUDDHA. 


258  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


beard  shaved,  has  put  on  yellow  garments,  and  has  gone  from   his  home 
into  homelessness."      Elsewhere  we   read,   "  distressing   is  life  at  home,  a 
state  of  impurity  ;  freedom  is  in  leaving  home  ;  while  he  reflected  thus,  he 
is  home."    (0.) 

Thus  seeking  spiritual  enlightenment,  freedom,  deliverance,  Gautama 
travelled  during  a  period  of  seven  years,  placing  himself  in  succession  under 
His  long  re-  two  notable  teachers.     Leaving  them  without  being  satisfied,  he 
tirement.    travelled  through?  the  kingdom  of  Magadha,  and  arrived  at  the 
town  of  Uruvela.     There,  in  a  beautiful  forest  land,  he  spent  many  years  inj 
self-discipline,   repressing   and   curbing   his   desires    and    aspirations,    and 
waiting  for  supreme  enlightenment.      Fasting,  suppression  of  the  breath, 
and  other  forms  of  self-mortification  were  tried  with  the  greatest  persistence, 
but  in  vain.     Five  other  ascetics,  who  had  been  his  companions  for  a  time, 
abandoned  him.     Finally  came  the  great  crisis,  when,  sitting  under  a  tree] 
His  eniight-  (the  Bo-tree,  or  Tree  of  Knowledge),  he  passed  through  successive 
enment.     stages    of  abstraction   until    he   became   enlightened   about   the] 
transmigrations  of  souls,  and  the  Four  Sacred  Truths,  (1)  that  suffering  is 
universal  in  the  world  ;  (2)  that  its  cause  is  desire  or  attachment ;  (3)  that 
it  can  be  ended  by  Nirvana;  (4)  the  way  to  attain  Nirvana.     "When  I  j 
apprehended  this,"  say  the  early  records,  "  and  when  I  beheld  this,  my 
soul  was  released  from  the  evil  of  desire,  released  from  the  evil  of  earthly 
existence,  released  from  the  evil  of  error,  released  from  the  evil  of  ignorance. J 
In  the  released  awoke  the  knowledge  of  release  ;  extinct  is  re-birth,  finished 
the'sacred  course,  duty  done,  no  more  shall  I  return  to  this  world  ;  this  L 
knew."    (0.)    He  had  become  the  Buddha,  the  awakened,  the  enlightened. 

For" some  time  Buddha  remained  near  the  tree  of  knowledge,  fasting 
and  enjoying  the  happiness  of  deliverance  ;  the  oldest  narrative  states  that 
ms  tempta-  this  period  lasted  four  times  seven  days.  After  this  time,  he  is 
tion.  believed  to  have  undergone  severe  temptation  to  enter  at  once 
into  the  desired  condition  of  Nirvana  instead  of  preaching  his  doctrine  to  the ' 
world.  Meeting  a  Brahman,  who  questions  his  right  to  assume  the  title  of 
Brahman,  Buddha  tells  him  that  he  is  a  true  Brahman  who  has  put  away 
all  evil  from  himself,  who  knows  nothing  of  contempt  or  impurity,  and  has 
conquered  himself.  Finally  at  the  request  of  the  supreme  Being  Himself, 
Brahma  Sahampati,  Buddha  resolved  to  proclaim  to  the  world  the  truth  he 
had  attained. 

Buddha's  formal  mission,  by  general  consent,  opened  at  Benares.     He  is 

supposed  to  have  started  with  preaching  to  the  ascetics  who  had  been  his 

opening  of  former  companions,  expounding  to  them  the  perfect  way,  a  mean 

his  mission,  "between  mortification  and  self-indulgence,  and  leading  to  rest,  to 

knowledge,  to  enlightenment,  to  Nirvana,  by  the  eightfold  path :  "  Right 

The  eightfold  faith,  right  resolve,  right  speech,  right  action,  right  living,  right 

Path-  ^   effort,  right  thought,  right   self-concentration."      This,  his  first 

sermon,  is  recorded  in  a  form  which,  if  it  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  giving 

the  ad  mil  words  Buddha  uttered,  embody  a  very  early  form  of  what  the 

Buddhist  monks  regarded  a    the  essence  of  their  master's  teaching.     As  we 


LIFE    OF  BUDDHA.  259 


read  it,  we  realise  more  vividly  liow  suffering  was  regarded  by  Hindus 
generally  as  the  bane  of  existence,  a  feeling  which  might  well  x^e  origin  of 
arise  in  the  ceaseless  turmoil  of  strife  and  oppression  among  which  suffering'- 
they  lived.  "  Birth  is  suffering,  old  age  is  suffering,  sickness  is  suffering, 
death  is  suffering,  to  be  united  with  the  unloved  is  suffering,  to  be  separated 
from  the  loved  is  suffering,  not  to  obtain  what  one  desires  is  suffering ;  in 
short,  the  fivefold  clinging  to  the  earthly  is  suffering." 

"  This,  0  monks,  is  the  sacred  truth  of  the  origin  of  suffering :  it  is  the 
thirst  for  being,  which  leads  from  birth  to  birth,  together  with  lust  and 
desire,  which  finds  gratification  here  and  there  ;  the  thirst  for  pleasures,  the 
thirst  for  being,  the  thirst  for  power." 

"  This,  0  monks,  is  the  sacred  truth  of  the  extinction  of  suffering,  the 
extinction  of  this  thirst  by  complete  annihilation  of  desire,  letting  it  go, 
expelling  it,  separating  oneself  from  it,  giving  it  no  room."  He  then 
expounded  to  them  the  eightfold  path,  by  which  he  had  attained  the 
supreme  Buddhahood  in  this  world  and  the  worlds  of  gods.  Henceforth 
there  was  for  him  no  new  birth.  The  new  doctrine  is  summed  up  thus  : — 
I  Walk  in  purity,  to  make  an  end  of  all  suffering." 

The  five  ascetics  being  the  first  converts,  others  soon  began  to  flock 
Iround  them,  and  Buddha  sent  them  forth  to  preach  in  the  surrounding 
(country.  A  conspicuous  feature  in  their  teaching,  contrasting  The  freedom 
arkedly  with  that  of  the  Brahmans,  was  their  freedom  from of  Buddnism- 
onstraint,  from  forms,  from  ceremonies,  from  Pharisaism.  "  I  am  loosed 
om  all  bands,  divine  and  human,"  says  Buddha.  "  Ye  also,  0  disciples, 
e  loosed  from  all  bands,  divine  and  human.  Go  ye  out,  0  disciples,  and 
avel  from  place  to  place  for  the  welfare  of  many  people,  for  the  joy  of 
any  people,  in  pity  for  the  world,  for  the  blessing,  welfare,  and  joy  of  gods 
,nd  men.     Go  not  in  twos  to  one  place." 

Returning  then  to  Uruvela,  where  he  had  entered  into  the  knowledge 
f  deliverance,  he  preaches  to  a  band  of  ascetics,  whose  leader,  Kassapa,  he 
onverts  after  performing  numerous  miracles,  according  to  the  re-      Early 
ords.    The  whole  body  then  proceeded  to  Rajagaha,  the  capital  of    converts- 
agadha  (Behar),  whose  king,  Bimbisara,   he  converted  ;  this  was  followed 
y  the  conversion  of  many  of  the  noble  youths  of  M agadha,  so  much  so  as 
lead  to  much  murmuring,  the  people  fearing  that  the  ascetic  was  come 
bring  childlessness  and  widowhood  and  the  subversion  of  families. 
From  this  time  forward  we  can  frame  no  proper  history  of  Buddha's 
fe ;  but  from  the  early  records  about  him  it  is  easy  to  realise  the  general 
ature  of  his  career,  although  without  those  touches  of  individu-     Generai 
ity  which  Hebrews  and  Europeans  so  well  knew  how  to  hand  features  of 
jown,  but  which  have  scarcely  been  noted  by  the  Hindus  and 
fhinese.     This  is  partly  because  individuality,  as  we  understand,  it  was 
tagely  undeveloped  among  them.     Their  civilisation  created  types  rather 
Lan  individuals,  accustomed  continually  to  do  the  same  thing,  feel  simi- 
jtrly,  and  think  alike.     But  one  thing  is  certain  ;  in  early  Buddhism  there 
little  trace  of  a  contradictory  spirit  within  the  order,  no  trace  of  a  disciple 


26o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

developing  the  master's  teaching  in  new  and  unexpected  directions,  or  mak- 
ing himself  a  second  founder.  Whether  Buddha  himself  was  all  that  he  is 
described  in  the  earliest  records  or  not,  he  has  no  rival,  and  his  disciples 
closely  imitated  what  they  believed  him  to  have  said  or  done.  Thus  the  pic- 
ture of  Buddha's  life  will  describe  much  of  that  of  his  immediate  disciples. 
The  contrast  of  the  principal  Indian  seasons  marks  the  two  chief 
alternations  in  Buddha's  life.     The  three  rainy  months  necessitated  a  season 

,of  rest  and  retirement  in  or  near  towns  and  villages ;  and  this 
Alternation  of        .  -i 

itinerancy  period  was  devoted  partly  to  teaching  the  disciples  who  flocked 

'  round  him.  The  rest  of  the  year  was  spent  by  Buddha  in  travel- 
ling from  place  to  place,  attended  by  disciples,  throughout  the  kingdoms  of 
Kosala  and  Magadha  and  their  neighbourhood,  chiefly  comprised  within 
Oudh  and  Behar.  They  do  not  appear  to  have  entered  Western  Hindustan 
where  Brahmanism  had  its  stronghold.  Near  the  chief  cities  of  these  king- 
doms, Savatthi  (now  Sahet  Mahet  on  the  Rapti),  and  Rajagaha  (now 
Rajgir),  pleasant  gardens  were  given  to  Buddha  and  his  followers,  well 
provided  with  places  for  lodging,  eating,  and  assembling.  We  may  gather 
some  idea  of  what  these  places  were  like  from  a  description  in  one  of  the 
The  Buddhist  early  Buddhist  books.  "  Not  too  far  from,  nor  yet  too  near  the 
gardens.  town,  Well  provided  with  entrances  and  exits,  easily  accessible  to 
all  people  who  inquire  after  it,  with  not  too  much  of  the  bustle  of  life  by 
day,  quiet  by  night,  far  from  commotion  and  the  crowds  of  men,  a  place  of 
retirement,  a  good  spot  for  solitary  meditation."  Here  were  beautiful  groves 
of  trees,  pools  in  which  the  symbolic  lotus  grew,  and  every  convenience  for 
meetings  ;  and  such  on  a  smaller  scale  were  provided  in  many  other  places. 
Among  the  visitors  were  strangers  from  distant  countries,  and  those  who 
had  accepted  the  teaching  of  his  disciples  and  longed  to  see  him ;  even  kings 
and  chiefs  thronged  to  see  him  and  to  hear  his  teaching.  In  some  cases  the 
rulers  of  a  town  commanded  every  inhabitant  to  go  forth  and  meet  the 
Exalted  One  when  arriving,  under  a  heavy  penalty. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  records  in  the  Buddhist  books  is  that  re- 
lating the  conversion  of  a  courtesan,  and  his  preference  of  her  invitation 
Buddha  and  ^°  ^at  °^  ^ie  n°klest  people.  This  has  been  compared  to  a  well- 
the  courtesanknown  incident  in  the  life  of  Christ ;  but  it  must  be  confessed 
that  the  resemblance  is  but  superficial.  The  following  is  abridged 
from  the  "  Book  of  the  Great  Decease." 

"  Now  the  courtesan  Ambapali  heard  that  the  Blessed  One  had  arrived 
at  Vesali  and  was  staying  at  her  mango  grove.  And  ordering  a  number  of 
magnificent  vehicles  to  be  made  ready,  she  mounted  one  of  them,  and  pro- 
ceeded with  her  train  towards  her  garden.  She  went  in  the  carriage  as  far 
as  the  ground  was  passable  for  carriages ;  there  she  alighted,  and  she  pro- 
ceeded on  foot  to  the  place  where  the  Blessed  One  was,  and  took  her  seat 
respectfully  on  one  side,  and  when  she  was  thus  seated,  the  Blessed  One 
instructed,  aroused,  incited,  and  gladdened  her  with  religious  discourse. 

'  Then  she,  instructed,  aroused,  incited,  and  gladdened  with  his  words- 
addressed  the  Blessed  One  and  said  :— 


LIFE    OF  BUDDHA.  261 


"  '  May  the  Blessed  One  do  me  the  honour  of  taking  his  meal,  together 
with  the  brethren,  at  my  house  to-morrow.' 

"  And  the  Blessed  One  gave  by  silence  his  consent.  Then  when 
Ambapali,  the  courtesan,  saw  that  the  Blessed  One  had  consented,  she  rose 
from  her  seat  and  bowed  down  before  him,  and  keeping  him  on  her  right 
hand  as  she  passed  him,  she  departed  thence. 

"  Now  the  Likhavis  of  Vesali  (rich  noble  youths)  heard  that  the  Blessed 
One  had  arrived  at  Vesali,  and  was  staying  at  Ambapali's  grove,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  invite  Buddha  to  dinner  the  next  day ;  but  he  refused,  saying 
he  was  already  engaged  to  dine  with  Ambapali. 

"  And  the  Blessed  One  robed  himself  early  in  the  morning  and  took 
his  bowl,  and  went  with  the  brethren  to  the  place  where  Ambapali's 
dwelling-house  was  ;  and  when  he  had  come  there  lie  seated  himself  on  the 
seat  prepared  for  him,  and  Ambapali,  the  courtesan,  set  the  sweet  rice  and 
cakes  before  the  Order,  with  the  Buddha  at  their  head,  and  waited  upon 
them  till  they  refused  any  more. 

"  And  when  the  Blessed  One  had  quite  finished  his  meal,  the  courtesan 
had  a  low  stool  brought,  and  sat  down  at  his  side,  and  addressed  the  Blessed 
One,  and  said  :  '  Lord,  I  present  this  mansion  to  the  order  of  mendicants,  of 
which  Buddha  is  the  chief.'  And  the  Blessed  One  accepted  the  gift ;  and  after 
instructing,  and  rousing,  and  inciting,  and  gladdening  her  with  religious 
discourse,  he  rose  from  his  seat  and  departed  thence." 

Here  it  will  be  noted  that  there  is  absolutely  no  teaching  special  to 
the  case.  The  regular  formulas  are  supposed  to  have  been  uttered,  and  to 
have  proved  invincible,  so  that  the  hearer  yielded  absolutely.  The  great 
points  are  the  condescending  to  take  a  meal  with  the  courtesan  (a  woman 
of  considerable  property,  nevertheless),  and  preferring  her  invitation  to  that 
of  rich  young  nobles,  whose  forms  were  compared  with  those  of  the  Vedic 
gods. 

Among  those  who  visited  Buddha  are  distinguished  Brahmans,  who  seek 
enlightenment  on  their  differences  from  him,  and  are  brought  to  see  the  un- 
reality of  their  own  religious  views  and  the  truth  of  the  Buddhist  Anxious 
belief,— as  well  as  logical  casuists,  who  lay  traps  for  him,  and  seek  mium*8- 
to  make  him  contradict  himself.  In  fact  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men, 
except  apparently  the  poor,  resort  to  Buddha  to  obtain  the  knowledge  he 
had  to  impart ;  and  they  usually  signalise  their  adhesion  to  his  order  by 
giving  him  and  his  companions  a  dinner,  followed  again  by  spiritual  in- 
struction. When  he  had  no  invitation,  Buddha  and  his  companions  would 
traverse  the  town  carrying  bowls  and  seeking  alms.  As  Dr.  Oldenberg 
says  :  "In  the  days  when  his  reputation  stood  at  its  highest  point,  and  his 
name  was  named  throughout  India  among  the  foremost  names,  one  might 
day  by  day  see  that  man  before  whom  kings  bowed  themselves,  walking 
about,  alms-bowl  in  hand,  through  streets  and  alleys,  from  house  to  house, 
and  without  uttering  any  request,  with  downcast  look,  stand  silently  waiting 
until  a  morsel  of  food  was  thrown  into  his  bowl." 

But  the  great  achievement  of  Buddha,  apart  from  his  doctrine,  was  his 


262  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


formation  of  a  new  society,  composed  of  the  Bhikkhu  or  Bhiggu,  which  cannot 
■me  new  order^e  accurately  rendered  in  its  Buddhist  sense.  It  has  often  been 
of  monks.  reiujered  "  monks,"  but  literally  it  signifies  "beggar,"  "mendi- 
cant." Yet  they  did  not,  strictly  speaking,  beg  at  all ;  they  had  given  up 
all  worldly  things,  but  were  not  secluded  from  society,  and  hence  were  not 
strictly  monks  ;  they  took  no  vow  of  obedience,  and  could  leave  the  order 
when  they  chose.  They  were  not  priests,  as  they  had  no  rites  to  administer, 
and  were  not  in  any  sense  the  vehicle  of  the  worship  of  others.  Perhaps 
the  terms  "  brethren  "  or  "  members  of  the  Order  "  would  be  least  mislead- 
ing ;  but  the  name  of  monk  is  most  used.  Their  outward  signs  of  member- 
ship were  the  tonsure  and  a  yellow  garment. 

That  Buddha  should  so  readily  have  established  a  separated  Order, 
shows  that  the  idea  of  separation  from  the  world  to  lead  a  religious  life 
had  already  a  wide  influence  in  his  time.  It  appears  to  have  soon  become 
a  regular  thing  for  convinced  inquirers  to  profess  their  belief  in  the  Blessed 
One,  and  to  ask  him  to  accept  them  as  disciples  and  true  believers  ;  and  he 
would  receive  them  in  some  such  form  as  this  :  "  Come  hither,  0  monk ; 
well  preached  is  the  doctrine,  walk  in  purity,  to  make  an  end  of  all  suffer- 
ing." Having  given  all  his  property  to  the  Order,  or  at  any  rate  having 
renounced  it,  having  quitted  family  ties,  and  vowed  to  live  a  life  of  chastity, 
they  in  many  cases  set  out  on  their  travels  to  spread  the  principles  taught 
by  the  Buddha.  Personal  ambition,  personal  exaltation,  vanity,  self-seek- 
ing, henceforth  had  no  place  among  them.  Caste  was  abolished,  or  rather 
ignored,  by  these  men  who  had  renounced  the  world.  Buddha  is  said 
to  have  answered  a  king  thus  :  "  If  a  slave  or  servant  of  the  king  puts 
on  the  yellow  garment,  and  lives  as  a  monk  without  reproach  in  thought, 
word,  and  deed,  wouldest  thou  then  say,  "Well  then,  let  this  man  still  be  my 
slave  and  servant,  to  stand  in  my  presence,  bow  before  me,  take  upon 
himself  to  perforin  my  behests,  live  to  minister  to  my  enjoyments,  speak 
deferentially,  hang  upon  my  word  ?  "  And  the  king  answers,  "  No,  sire  ; 
I  should  bow  before  him,  stand  before  him,  invite  him  to  sit  down,  give 
him  what  he  needed  in  the  way  of  clothing,  food,  shelter,  and  of  medicine 
when  he  is  ill,  and  I  should  assure  him  of  protection,  watch  and  ward, 
as  is  becoming."  And  this  treatment,  it  is  inferred,  is  what  Buddha  ap- 
proved. 

Prof.  Oldenberg  strongly  combats  the  idea  that  Buddha  was  specially 
a  social  reformer,  who  broke  the  chains  of  caste,  and  raised  the  poor  and 
Buddha  not  a  humble  to  his  spiritual  kingdom.  There  is  no  notion  in  his 
socialist,  teaching  of  upsetting  the  established  order  of  tilings  and  sup- 
planting it  by  a  new  one.  "  Buddha's  spirit  was  a  stranger  to  that 
enthusiasm,  without  which  no  one  can  pose  as  the  champion  of  the  oppressed 
against  the  oppressor.  Let  the  state  and  society  remain  what  they  are  ; 
the  religious  man  who  as  a  monk  has  renounced  the  world,  has  no  part  in 
its  cares  and  occupations.  Caste  has  no  value  for  him,  for  everything 
eartldy  has  ceased  to  affect  his  interests ;  but  it  never  occurs  to  him  to 
exen  is<>  his  influence  for  its  abolition  or  for  the  mitigation  of  the  severity 


LIFE    OF  BUDDITA.  263 


of  its  rules  for  those  who  have  lagged  behind  in  worldly  surroundings." 
It  is  scarcely  even  true  that  Buddha  practically  presented  an  equal  front 
to  all  classes  of  people.  Those  who  were  among  his  early  chosen  adherents 
were  almost  exclusively  drawn  from  the  upper  classes,  nobles,  Brahmans, 
merchants,  educated  persons.  We  find  in  early  Buddhist  works  such 
phrases  as  these  :  "  Truly  not  undesired  by  the  Exalted  One  is  such  an 
interview  with  such  noble  youths."  "  The  good-will  of  such  a  respected 
and  well-known  person  towards  this  doctrine  and  ordinance  is  of  the 
highest  importance."  Scarcely  can  an  isolated  story  be  found  of  the 
reception  of  a  person  of  very  low  grade,  such  as  the  sweeper-away  of 
withered  flowers  from  temples  and  palaces ;  and  in  his  case  the  moral  which 
specially  follows  is  directed  against  the  exclusiveness  of  the  Brahmans. 
"  By  holy  zeal  and  chaste  living,  by  restraint  and  self-repression,  thereby 
a  man  becomes  a  Brahman  ;  that  is  the  highest  Brahmanhood."  The  weak 
!  and  children  are  scarcely  mentioned.  "  To  the  wise  belongeth  this  law," 
it  was  said,  "not  to  the  foolish." 

We   need   only  briefly  mention  Buddha's    principal  adherents,  as  all 
resemble  one  another  in  purity,  in  the  attainment  of  perfect  peace,  and  in 
devotion  to  Buddha  :    Sariputta  and  Moggallana,  early  converts    Buddha.g 
from  Brahmanism,  following  him  through  life,  but  dying  shortly    principal 
before  Buddha  ;  his  own  cousin  Ananda,  and  his  brother  Deva- 
datta ;    Upali   the   court  barber  of  the  Sakyas.      Ananda   seems   to   have 
served  as  personal  attendant  to  Buddha  in  his  old  age,  and  to  have  often 
accompanied  him  alone  ;  to  him  many  of  his  last  discourses  were  specially 
addressed.     Devadatta  is  the  traditional  traitor,  who  sought  to  supplant  his 
brother  in  chief  influence,  and  is  said  to  have  attempted  to  kill  him,  a  project 
which  was  frustrated  by  many  recorded  miracles.     Devadatta  is  related  to 
have  attempted  to  enforce  a  more  ascetic  discipline  on  the  monks,  and  to 
have  failed  miserably. 

Besides  the  monks,  Buddha  recognised  lay  believers,  those  who  honoured 
his  teaching  as  the  truth,  but  who  remained  in  the  world,  and  were  per- 
mitted to  give  sifts  and  exercise  charity  to  the  brethren  of  the  T     wll 

°         o  .  • .  -     ,  .  •  Lay  believers. 

Order.     In  fact  this  was  but  a  recognition  of  the  necessities  01 

the  case.  If  there  were  no  adherents  outside  the  mendicant  members,  and 
if  all  other  persons  were  opponents,  there  would  be  little  possibility  of 
supporting  the  members  ;  of  course  their  maintenance  in  such  a  country 
as  India  cost  very  little,  but  still  it  was  needed  and  had  to  be  provided. 
No  special  form  of  reception  of  lay  adherents  was  provided,  and  they  never 
had  any  share  in  the  government  of  Buddhism.  And  as  with  regard 
to  the  brethren  or  monks,  so  with  regard  to  the  lay-adherents,  much  more 
prominence  is  given  to  the  princes  and  nobles,  Brahmans  and  merchants, 
who  appear  to  have  constituted  by  far  the  largest  proportion  of  them,  than 
to  the  poor.  Thus  Buddha  and  his  monks  gathered  round  them  crowds  of 
votaries  who  could  receive  and  maintain  them  and  convene  assemblies  to 
hear  them  speak,  or  who  accompanied  them  in  various  vehicles  or  on  foot. 
In  relation  to  women  Buddha  was  in  some  respects  more  liberal  and 


264  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


in  some  less  so  than  the  Brahmans.  Brahmanism  expected  the  Vedic 
women  and  student  to  become  a  householder,  to  marry,  and  to  bring  up  a 
Buddhism.  family  to  continue  the  sacrificial  rites;  yet  women  were  kept 
strictly  in  a  subordinate,  practically  in  a  servile  position.  Buddhist  monks 
were  to  abjure  marriage  and  intimate  relations  with  women,  as  utterly 
inconsistent  with  their  profession  ;  but  women  were  admissible  as  sisters 
of  the  Order,  analogous  to  nuns,  under  severe  restraints  as  to  intimacy 
with  men.  Women  were  recognised  as  lay  adherents,  and  indeed  the 
maintenance  of  the  Order  would  have  been  very  much  more  difficult  without 
their  ministrations.  But  the  toleration  and  even  welcome  of  women  came 
rather  late  in  the  day.  At  an  early  period,  when  Buddha  was  asked  by 
Ananda  how  the  brethren  should  behave  to  women,  he  answers,  "  Don't 
look  at  them  "  ;  and  when  further  pressed,  "  If  we  should  see  them,  what 
are  we  to  do?"  he  replies,  "Don't  speak  to  them  "  ;  and  again,  "  If  they 
should  speak  to  us,  what  are  we  to  do?"  "Keep  wide  awake,"  is  the 
master's  advice,  or  as  another  translation  has  it,  "  Keep  watch  over  your- 
selves," and  that  this  view  continued  in  considerable  force  may  be  gathered 
from  the  moral  of  one  of  the  later  Buddhist  narratives, — "  Unfathomably 
deep,  like  a  fish's  course  in  the  water,  is  the  character  of  women,  robbers 
with  many  artifices,  Avith  whom  truth  is  hard  to  find,  to  whom  a  lie  is 
like  the  truth  and  the  truth  like  a  lie." 

But  wider  experience  somewhat  modified  Buddha's  attitude  towards 
women,  though  not  without  much  hesitation.  His  foster-mother  and  his 
Reception  of  c^sciple  Ananda  at  last  persuaded  him,  on  the  ground  that  women 
sisters  were  capable  of  realising  the  four-fold  path.  He,  however, 
imposed  upon  them  eight  rules,  such  as  that  a  nun,  of  however 
long  standing,  was  always  to  serve  and  to  rise  in  the  presence  of  a  monk, 
even  if  only  just  initiated ;  and  in  several  respects  nuns  were  placed  in 
subordination  to  the  monks ;  they  must  be  initiated  by  monks  as  well  as 
nuns,  and  receive  admonition  from  monks.  But  Buddha  is  very  mournful, 
and  is  represented  as  saying  that  the  good  law  will  not  now  last  more  than 
five  hundred  years.  As  when  mildew  or  blight  visits  a  crop,  it  does  not  last 
long,  so  "  under  whatever  discipline  women  are  allowed  to  go  forth  from  the 
household  life  into  the  homeless  state,  that  religion  does  not  last  long.  And 
just  as  a  man  would  in  anticipation  build  an  embankment  to  a  great  reser- 
voir, so  have  I  laid  down  these  eight  chief  rules  for  the  sisters,  not  to  be 
overpassed  through  their  life."  The  female  disciples  were  to  adopt  the  same 
rules  as  the  men,  so  far  as  applicable  ;  and  the  general  rule  was  applied,  that 
whatever  doctrines  conduced  to  peace  and  not  to  passion,  to  veneration  and 
not  to  pride,  to  wishing  for  little  and  not  to  wishing  for  much,  to  seclusion 
and  not  to  love  of  society,  to  the  exercise  of  zeal  and  not  to  sloth,  to  content 
and  not  to  querulousness,  these  doctrines  were  the  teaching  of  the  Master. 

***  On  the  opposite  page  is  represented  one  of  the  elaborate  gateways  of  a  solid  stupa 
or  tope,  as  old  as.  Asoka's  time;  the  sculptures  on  the  gateways  (about  35  feet  high)  re- 
present scenes  irom  the  life  of  Buddha,  and  other  Buddhist  legends.  They  date  probably 
from  the  first  century  a.d.  . 


LIFE    OF  BUDDHA. 


265 


^ 


EASl    GATE    OS    THE    (JKEAT   TOPE,    BANCHI,    NEAB    BHILSA,    BHOPAL. 


jA  great  many  disabilities  and  restrictions  as  to  wearing  apparel,  decoration 
E>f  the  body  and  face,  habits  and  occupations,  etc.,  were  imposed.     Never- 


266  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

theless,  Buddha  and  his  followers  frequently  received  large  hospitality  from 
women,  who,  however,  were  to  regard  themselves  as  benefited  by  being 
allowed  to  give  anything  to  the  saints.  Visakha,  a  rich  and  noble  woman 
of  Savatthi,  voluntarily  offered  clothing,  food,  and  medicine  for  both  incom- 
ing and  outgoing  monks,  asking  this  as  a  boon.  Buddha's  response  was : 
•Whatsoever  woman,  upright  in  life,  a  disciple  of  the  Happy  One,  gives, 
glad  at  heart  and  overcoming  avarice,  both  food  and  drink — a  gift  heavenly, 
destructive  of  sorrow,  productive  of  bliss — a  heavenly  life  does  she  attain, 
entering  upon  the  path  that  is  free  from  corruption  and  impurity ;  aiming 
at  good,  happy  does  she  become,  and  free  from  sickness,  and  long  does  she 
rejoice  in  a  heavenly  body." 

It  is  striking  how  little  we  hear  of  active  opposition  to  Buddha  in  the 
Buddhist  literature.  This  of  course  may  proceed  from  concealment ;  but 
seeing  the  undoubted  great  prosperity  of  Buddhism,  serious 
opponents  would  have  been  mentioned,  if  only  to  show  how  they 
had  been  overthrown.  But  Buddhism  arose  in  the  eastern  land  where 
Brahmanism  had  not  taken  such  strong  root  as  in  the  north-west.  Numerous 
bodies  of  ascetics  and  religious  freethinkers  had  arisen ;  and  we  must  bear 
in  mind  the  predominant  religiousness  of  the  Hindus,  which  would  lead 
them  naturally  to  revere  a  seeker  after  religious  truth,  especially  one  who 
renounced  worldly  possessions,  and  who  did  not  in  any  way  disturb  the 
general  peace  and  order.  In  fact  the  asceticism  sanctioned  or  encouraged  by 
the  Brahman  literature  and  practice  had  numerous  points  of  resemblance  to 
that  of  Buddha.  Yet  it  could  only  be  in  a  country  where  high  Brahman 
pretensions  were  already  questioned,  or  denied,  that  Buddha  could  have  so 
severely  criticised  their  system.  Sacrifices,  Vedic  teaching,  caste,  were  to 
him  as  nothing.  In  a  kind  of  Socratic  method,  when  questioned  by  Brah- 
mans  as  to  the  right  path,  Buddha  makes  them  acknowledge  that  the  paths 
announced  in  the  Vedas  have  not  enabled  any  of  the  Brahmans  to  see 
Brahma  face  to  face,  or  to  know  him,  or  where  and  whence  he  is  ;  and  he 
declares  that  the  boasted  knowledge  of  the  Brahmans  is  foolishness  :  "  As 
when  a  string  of  blind  men  are  clinging  one  to  the  other,  neither  can  the 
Brahmans  foremost  see,  nor  can  the  middle  one  see,  nor  can  the  hindmost 
uted.  see  "  rp^-g  js  followed  by  an  elaborate  series  of  images  demon- 
strating the  same  thing.  The  Brahmans,  he  says,  are  hindered  from  know- 
ing the  truth  by  five  obstacles,— lustful  desire,  malice,  sloth  and  idleness, 
pride  and  self-righteousness,  and  doubt.  All  these  things  are  absent  from 
Brahma,  and  consequently  the  Brahmans  could  never  become  united  with 
him.  In  answer  to  the  appeal  that  he  would  show  the  Brahmans  the  way 
to  a  state  of  union  with  Brahma,  Buddha  says  that  from  time  to  time  an 
unsurpassed  teacher  is  born  into  the  world  as  a  guide  to  erring  mortals,  a 
fully  enlightened  one,  a  blessed  Buddha.  He  thoroughly  understands  the 
universe,  gods  and  men,  and  makes  his  knowledge  known  to  others.  "  The 
truth  doth  he  proclaim  both  in  its  letter  and  in  its  spirit,  lovely  in  its  origin, 
lovely  m  its  progress,  lovely  in  its  consummation ;  the  higher  life  doth  he 
make  known,  in  all  its  purity  and  in  all  its  perfectness."     A  householder 


LIFE    01   BUDDHA.  267 


hears  the  truth  and  believes  in  the  Buddha  and  then  considers,  "  Full  of 
hindrances  is  household  life,  a  path  defiled  by  passion  ;  free  as  the  air  is  the 
life  of  him  who  has  renounced  all  worldly  things.  How  difficult  is  it  for 
the  man  who  dwells  at  home  to  live  the  higher  life  in  all  its  fulness,  in  all 
its  purity,  in  all  its  bright  perfection  !  Let  me  then  cut  off  my  hair  and 
beard,  let  me  clothe  myself  in  the  orange-coloured  robes,  and  let  me  go  forth 
from  a  household  life  into  the  homeless  state !  " 

"  Then,  before  long,  forsaking  his  portion  of  wealth,  be  it  great  or  be  it 
small ;  forsaking  his  circle  of  relatives,  be  they  many  or  be  they  few,  he 
cuts  off  his  hair  and  beard,  he  clothes  himself  in  the  orange-coloured  robes, 
and  he  goes  forth  from  the  household  life  into  the  homeless  state. 

"  When  he  has  thus  become  a  recluse,  he  passes  a  life  self-restrained 
according  to  the  rules  of  the  Pattimokka ;  uprightness  is  his  delight,  and  he 
sees  danger  in  the  least  of  these  things  he  should  avoid ;  he  adopts  and 
trains  himself  in  the  precepts  ;  he  encompasses  himself  with  holiness  in 
word  and  deed  ;  he  sustains  his  life  by  means  that  are  quite  pure ;  good  is 
!  his  conduct,  guarded  the  door  of  his  senses ;  mindful  and  self-possessed,  he 
is  altogether  happy."     (S.E.) 

Buddha  is  equally  prepared  to  expound  to  Brahmans  the  essentials  of 
a  proper  sacrifice.  A  great  king  of  former  days,  he  says,  after  great  ex- 
ploits, and  establishing  peace  and  prosperity  in  his  land,  and  remedying 
evils,  made  a  great  sacrifice  at  which  no  animals  were  slain  and  no  trees 
were  cut  down  ;  simply  libations  of  milk,  oil,  and  honey  were  offered.  But 
Buddha  proclaims  that  a  better  and  easier  sacrifice  than  that,  is  to  The  best 
make  gifts  to  pious  monks,  and  build  dwelling-places  for  him  and  sacrifice- 
his  Order.  A  higher  offering  was  to  accept  Buddha's  doctrine  ;  higher  still 
to  become  a  monk ;  while  the  highest  offering  was  to  obtain  deliverance, 
and  the  knowledge,  "  I  shall  not  again  return  to  this  world." 

How  far  the  rival  ascetic  bodies  and  their  leaders  openly  disputed  the 
progress  of  Buddha  we  cannot  tell.  Later  we  find  some  traces  of  inter- 
change of  civilities  between  them,  and  also  some  attempts  to  deprive  each 
other  of  the  aid  of  influential  people.  Buddha's  greatest  distinction  from 
the  various  brotherhoods  was  his  disparagment  of  self-mortification.  He 
I  had  discovered  that  this  last  was  gloomy,  unworthy,  unreal.  The  life  of 
:  pleasure  and  sensual  enjoyment  was  base  and  ignoble.  The  perfect  life  was 
I  the  middle  way,  the  eight-fold  path.  Thus  he  exemplified  with  remarkable 
force  the  strength  which  lies  in  a  middle  course;  it  certainly  powerfully 
i  helped  to  make  his  the  religious  community  with  the  largest  following  in 
ithe  world. 

The  general  method  of  Buddha's  teaching  was  oral  and  conversational. 
I  Such  a  thing  as  writing  a  book  was  not  then  dreamt  of,  although  book- 
learning  was  highly  developed.  But  learning  by  heart  seemed  Method 
jthen  the  only  possible  or  stable  form  of  it ;  and  no  doubt  it  was  of  teaching, 
ionce  thought  a  great  innovation,  and  probably  an  unreasonable  thing,  for 
'any  one  to  attempt  to  write  out  a  book  in  full,  when  it  was  so  easy  and  so 
I  common  to  commit  the  contents  to  memory.     We,  with  our  comparatively 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

treble  recollections  of  the  contents  of  any  given  book,  do  not  realise  a  state 
of  society  when  people  who  were  learned  knew  their  few  books  by  heart 
more  perfectly  than  most  of  us  know  anything.  But  personal  teaching  was 
I  hen  as  influential  as  it  ever  has  been,  perhaps  more  so.  The  accounts 
given  of  Buddha's  interviews  with  disciples,  even  if  not  precisely  accurate, 
must  represent  a  kind  of  interview  which  was  the  common  type  of  such 
teaching,  and  which  at  that  very  early  age  was  accepted  as  the  type  of  his 
teaching.  Unlike  the  Vedic  books,  which  are  in  the  pure  high  Sanskrit,  the 
books  of  Buddhism  are  in  the  popular  dialect ;  and  in  the  sayings  attributed 
to  Buddha  there  is  no  trace  of  Sanskrit  being  used.  Indeed,  he  is  reported 
to  have  given  directions  that  every  believer  should  learn  the  words  of 
Buddha  in  his  own  tongue. 

Everything  in  the  Buddhist  narratives  bears  the  stamp  of  an  age  which 
had  become  accustomed  to  solemn,  long-drawn  dissertations,  and  in  which 
Long-drawn  people  of  leisure,  or  who  had  abandoned  the  world,  gave  them- 
•dlssertations- selves  up  to  continual  speculation  on  the  causes  of  various 
phenomena,  or  of  troubles  and  difficulties.  There  is  no  trace  of  a  life  like 
our  hurried  modern  one,  in  which  only  the  smallest  possible  time  is  given 
to  any  one  thing.  "With  these  old  Hindus  there  was  always  plenty  of  time 
if  a  discussion  was  on  foot,  and  it  must  be  conducted  in  an  orderly,  sober 
fashion,  with  due  ceremony  and  full  elaboration.  The  great  heat  caused 
a  tendency  to  indolent  gravity  and  long-drawn-out  expression.  Compression 
and  selection  were  scarcely  attempted.  The  Upanishads,  even  if  not  com- 
posed before  the  Buddhist  books,  were  in  existence  about  the  same  time,  and 
testify  to  the  widespread  spirit  of  abstraction  and  philosophising.  So  that 
the  form  of  Buddhist  teaching  was  due  to  the  spirit  of  the  more  educated 
among  the  Hindus,  as  it  had  been  developed  by  the  Vedic  and  post- Vedic 
literature.  Although  there  is  considerable  variety  in  the  matter  and  often 
much  beauty  in  the  illustrations  used  in  the  discourses  attributed  to 
Buddha,  the  following  gives  an  idea  of  a  method  frequently  followed  by 
him. 

He  is  expressing  the  thought  that  all  the  senses  and  the  outer  things 
which  they  perceive  are  eaten  away  by  the  sorrows  and  the  fleeting  nature 
of  mortal  affairs.  He  thus  addresses  the  thousand  disciples  or  monks  who 
were  with  him.  "  Then  said  the  Blessed  One  to  the  disciples :  '  Everything, 
O  disciples,  is  in  flames.  And  what  Everything,  0  disciples,  is  in  flames  ? 
The  eye,  0  disciples,  is  in  flames  ;  the  visible  is  in  flames ;  the  knowledge  of 
the  visible  is  in  flames  ;  the  contact  with  the  visible  is  in  flames,  the  feeling 
which  arises  from  contact  with  the  visible,  be  it  pleasure,  be  it  pain,  be  it 
neither  pleasure  nor  pain,  this  also  is  in  flames.  By  what  fire  is  it  kindled  ? 
By  the  fire  of  desire,  by  the  fire  of  hate,  by  the  fire  of  fascination,  it  is 
kindled ;  by  birth,  old  age,  death,  pain,  lamentation,  sorrow,  grief,  despair, 
it  is  kindled:  thus  I  say.  The  ear  is  in  flames,"'  and  so  on  through  a 
similar  repetition  of  every  detail ;  and  the  same  with  the  senses  of  smell, 
taste,  touch,  and  with  the  mind,  forming  a  long  discourse,  very  monotonous 
to  us,  but  probably  delighting  the  hearers.     It  then  goes  on,  "  Considering 


LIFE    OF  BUDDJ1A.  269 


this,  0  disciples,  a  wise  hearer,  walking  in  the  noble  path,  becomes  weary 
of  the  eye,  weary  of  visible  things,"  and  so  on  through  the  whole  detail  once 
more.  Then,  "becoming  weary  of  all  that,  he  becomes  free  from  desire; 
free  from  desire  he  becomes  delivered  ;  in  the  delivered  arises  the  know- 
ledge, I  am  delivered  ;  re-birth  is  at  an  end,  perfected  is  holiness,  duty  done; 
there  is  no  more  returning  to  this  world  ;  he  knows  this."  When  this 
discourse  had  been  delivered,  the  minds  of  these  thousand  disciples  became 
free  from  attachment  to  the  world.     (0.) 

The  mode  of  converting  a  noble  youth  who  was  already  mentally  pre- 
pared is  thus  represented  (Mahavagga  I.  7,  S.E.).     "  At  that  time  there  was 
in  Benares  a  noble  youth,  Yasa  by  name,  the  son  of  a  treasurer, 
and  delicately  nurtured.     He  had  three  palaces,  one  for  winter,     youth's 
one  for  summer,  and  one  for  the  rainy  season.     In  the  palace  for 
the  rainy  season  he  lived  during  the  four  months  of  that  season,  surrounded 
with  female  musicians  among  whom  no  man  was,  and  he  did  not  descend 
from  that  palace  all  that  time.     Now  one  day  Yasa,  the  noble  youth,  who 
was  endowed  with  and  possessed  of  the  five  pleasures  of  sense,  while  he  was 
attended  by  those  female  musicians,  fell  asleep  sooner  than  usual :  and  after 
him  his  attendants  also  fell  asleep.     Now  an  oil  lamp  was  burning  through 
the  whole  night. 

"And  Yasa,  the  noble  youth,  awoke  sooner  than  usual ;  and  he  saw  his 
attendants  sleeping  ;  one  had  her  lute  leaning  against  her  armpit,  one  had 
her  tabor  leaning  against  her  neck,  one  had  her  drum  leaning  against  her 
armpit,  and  one  had  dishevelled  hair,  one  had  saliva  flowing  from  her 
mouth,  and  they  were  muttering  in  their  sleep.  One  would  think  it  was  a 
cemetery  one  had  fallen  into.  When  he  saw  that,  the  evils  of  the  life  he 
led  manifested  themselves  to  him  ;  his  mind  became  weary  of  worldly 
pleasures.  And  Yasa,  the  noble  3^outh,  gave  utterance  to  this  solemn 
exclamation  :  '  Alas  !  what  distress  ;  alas  !  what  danger ! '  So  he  went  on 
into  the  night  and  sought  Buddha,  who  was  walking  up  and  down  at  dawn. 
To  him  he  expressed  his  distress.  Buddha  replied  to  him,  '  Here  is  no  dis- 
tress, Yasa;  here  is  no  danger.  Come  here,  Yasa,  sit  down  ;  I  will  teach  you 
the  truth '  (Dhamma).  And  Yasa,  the  noble  youth,  when  he  heard  that 
there  was  no  distress,  and  that  there  was  no  danger,  became  glad  and 
joyful ;  and  he  put  off  his  gilt  slippers,  and  went  to  the  place  where  the 
Blessed  One  was ;  having  approached  him  and  having  respectfully  saluted 
the  Blessed  One,  he  sat  down  near  him.  Then  the  Blessed  One  preached  to 
him  in  due  course  :  that  is  to  say,  he  talked  about  the  merits  obtained  by 
almsgiving,  about  the  duties  of  morality,  about  heaven,  about  the  evils,  the 
vanity,  and  the  sinfulness  of  desires,  and  about  the  blessings  of  the  abandon- 
ment of  desire. 

"  When  the  Blessed  One  saw  that  the  mind  of  Yasa,  the  noble  j'outh, 
was  prepared,  impressible,  free  from  obstacles,  elated,  and  believing,  then  he 
preached  what  is  the  principal  doctrine  of  the  Buddhas,  namely,  Suffering, 
the  cause  of  suffering,  the  cessation  of  suffering,  the  Path."  So  Yasa  became 
a  convert  and  subsequently  a  monk ;  and  his  father  also  received  the  truth, 


,7o  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 


which  fact  is  thus  elaborately  expressed  :  "  The  treasurer,  the  householder, 
having  seen  the  truth,  having  mastered  the  truth,  having  penetrated  the 
truth,  having  overcome  uncertainty,  having  dispelled  all  doubts,  having  gained 
full  knowledge,  dependent  on  nobody  else  for  the  knowledge  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Teacher,  said  to  the  Blessed  One  :  '  Glorious  Lord!  Glorious  Lord!  just 
as  if  one  should  set  up,  Lord,  what  had  been  overturned,  or  should  reveal 
what  had  been  hidden,  or  should  point  out  the  way  to  one  who  had  lost  his 
way,  or  should  bring  a  lamp  into  the  darkness,  thus  has  the  Blessed  One 
preached  the  doctrine  in  many  ways.  I  take  my  refuge  in  the  Blessed  One, 
and  in  the  Truth,  and  in  the  Order  of  the  monks ;  may  the  Blessed  One 
receive  me  from  this  day  forth  while  my  life  lasts,  as  a  disciple  who  has 
taken  his  refuge  in  him."  These  are  typical  stories  ;  whether  it  is  that  there 
was  not  much  necessity  for  adaptation  to  the  individual  cases,  or  that  such 
individual  touches  have  been  lost  by  the  narration,  we  find  little  but  general 
teaching.  There  is  one  simple  consistent  teaching,  one  refuge  for  all  who 
would  attain  full  knowledge, — to  join  the  Order  of  monks. 

Something  like  the  Socratic  method  is  not  infrequently  made  use  of 
when  an  argument  is  held  with  a  learned  person.  Thus,  in  arguing  with 
socratic  Brahmans,  Buddha  says  :  "Is  Brahma  in  possession  of  wives  and 
method.  wealth,  or  is  he  not  ?  " — "  He  is  not."  "  Is  his  mind  full  of  anger, 
or  free  from  anger  ?  " — "  Free  from  anger."  "  Is  his  mind  full  of  malice,  or 
free  from  malice  ? " — "  Free  from  malice."  "  Is  his  mind  depraved,  or 
pure  ?  " — "  It  is  pure."  "  Has  he  self-mastery,  or  has  he  not  ?  " — "  He  has." 
"  Now,  what  think  you,  are  Brahmans  versed  in  the  Vedas  in  the  possession 
of  wives  and  wealth,  or  are  they  not  ?  " — "  They  are."  And  so  on  through 
all  the  questions ;  leading  to  the  triumphant  reply :  "  Can  there  then  be 
agreement  and  likeness  between  the  Brahmans  with  their  wives  and 
property,  and  Brahma  who  has  none  of  these  things  ?  " 

It  is  noteworthy  how  frequently  parables  and  similes  are  made  use  of 
in  the  higher  Buddhist  teaching.     Here  is  an  instance. 

"  Just  as  when  a  hen  has  eight  or  ten  or  twelve  eggs,  and  the  hen  has 
properly  brooded  over  them,  properly  sat  upon  them,  properly  sat  herself 
Parables  rounc^  them,  however  much  such  a  wish  may  arise  in  her  heart  as 
this,  "  Oh,  would  that  my  little  chickens  should  break  open  the 
egg-shell  with  the  points  of  their  claws,  or  with  their  beaks,  and  come  forth 
into  the  light  in  safety  !  "  yet  all  the  while  those  little  chickens  are  sure  to 
break  the  egg-shell  with  the  points  of  their  claws,  or  with  their  beaks,  and 
to  come  forth  into  the  light  in  safety.  Just  even  so,  a  brother  thus  endowed 
with  fifteenfold  determination  is  sure  to  come  forth  into  the  light,  sure  to 
reach  up  to  the  higher  wisdom,  sure  to  attain  to  the  supreme  security." 
The  lesson  is,  that  the  result  is  quite  certain,  however  much  doubt  the  hen 
or  the  believer  may  have  about  it.     (S.E.  xi.) 

In  one  place  Buddha  says :  "  I  shall  show  you  a  parable  ;  by  a  parable 
many  a  wise  man  perceives  the  meaning  of  what  is  being  said."  His  own 
preaching  is  compared  to  the  physician's  work,  drawing  poisoned  arrows 
from  wounds,  and  overcoming  the  venom  by  remedies.    Like  the  lotus  flower, 


LIFE    OF  BUDDHA.  271 


raising  its  head  in  the  lake,  unaffected  by  the  water,  so  the  Buddhas  are 
unaffected  by  the  world's  impurity.  One  of  the  most  elaborate  parables  is 
the  following,  part  of  which  we  quote.  "  As  when,  0  disciples,  in  the 
forest,  on  a  mountain  slope,  there  lies  a  great-  tract  of  lowland  and  water, 
where  a  great  herd  of  deer  lives,  and  there  comes  a  man  who  desires  hurt, 
distress,  and  danger  for  the  deer ;  who  covers  over  and  shuts  up  the  path 
which  is  safe,  good,  and  pleasant  to  take,  and  opens  up  a  fresh  path,  a  swampy 
path,  a  marshy  track  :  thenceforward  the  great  herd  of  deer  incurs  hurt 
and  danger,  and  diminishes.  But  now,  0  disciples,  if  a  man  comes,  who 
desires  prosperity,  welfare,  and  safety  for  this  great  herd  of  deer  :  who 
clears  and  opens  up  the  path  which  is  safe,  good,  and  pleasant  to  take,  and 
!  does  away  with  the  false  path,  and  abolishes  the  swampy  path,  the  marshy 
I  track,  thenceforth  will  the  great  herd  of  deer  thrive,  grow,  and  increase.  I 
j  have  spoken  to  you,  0  disciples,  in  a  parable,  to  make  known  my  meaning. 
i  But  the  meaning  is  this.  The  great  lowland  and  the  water,  0  disciples,  are 
pleasures.  The  great  herds  of  deer  are  living  men.  The  man  who  devises 
hurt,  distress,  and  ruin,  is  Mara,  the  evil  one.  The  false  path  is  the  eight- 
fold false  path,  false  faith,  false  resolve,  false  speech,  false  action,  false 
living,  false  effort,  false  thought,  false  self-concentration.  The  swampy 
way  is  pleasure  and  desire.  The  swampy  track  is  ignorance.  The  man 
who  devises  prosperity,  welfare,  salvation,  is  the  Perfect  One,  the  holy 
supreme  Buddha.  The  safe  good  way  in  which  it  is  well  to  walk,  is  the 
eightfold  path,"  etc.  "  Everything  that  a  master  who  seeks  the  salvation 
of  his  disciples,  who  pities  them,  must  do  out  of  pity  for  them,  that  have 
I  done  for  you."  (0.)  Fables,  too,  were  not  infrequently  introduced  into 
Buddha's  discourses. 

THE  BOOK  OF   THE   GREAT  DECEASE. 

"We  now  come  to  the  record  of  Buddha's  death  and  the  events  im- 
mediately preceding  it,  contained  in  the  "  Book  of  the  Great  Decease," 
which  has  been  compared  to  a  gospel.  This  book  comes  to  us  apparently 
from  the  latter  end  of  the  fourth  or  beginning  of  the  third  century  B.C.,  about 
a  hundred  years  after  Buddha's  death.  The  author  is  unknown.  The  date 
of  Buddha's  death  cannot  be  determined  from  it,  but  he  appears  to  have 
been  about  eighty  years  of  age,  and  to  have  exercised  his  public  mission  for 
about  forty-four  years.  He  is  represented  as  journeying  from  Rajagaha, 
the  capital  of  Magadha,  to  Pataliputta  (Patna),  the  new  capital,  whose  future 
greatness  he  prophesies.  The  narrative  throughout  contains  summaries  of 
discourses  and  directions  which  Buddha  had  probably  given  on  previous 
dates.  Journejung  on,  he  was  attacked  by  a  severe  illness,  which  Buddha 
he  subdued  temporarily  by  great  resolution,  having  a  strong  pr^gensa[or 
desire  to  give  a  farewell  address  to  the  Order.  He  asserts  to  discourse. 
Ananda  that  he  has  kept  back  nothing,  and  he  no  longer  wished  to  lead 
the  brotherhood  or  thought  that  the  Order  was  dependent  upon  him.  "  I 
too,  0  Ananda,  am  now  grown  old  and  full  of  years,  my  journey  is  drawing 


-7- 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS, 


to  its  close,  I  have  reached  my  sum  of  days,  I  am  turning  eighty  years  of 
age ;  and  just  as  a  worn-out  cart,  Ananda,  can  only  with  much  additional 
care  be  made  to  move  along,  so,  methinks,  the  body  of  the  Enlightened  One 
can  only  be  kept  going  with  much  additional  care."  He  advised  his  people 
to  be  a  refuge  to  themselves,  and  not  look  for  any  other,  and  above  all,  be 


COLOSSAL    FIGUIiE    OF    BUDDHA,    CEYLON. 

anxious  to  learn.  The  tempter  Mara  came  to  him,  suggesting  that  he 
ms  last  should  voluntarily  die  at  once,  as  all  his  objects  were  accom- 
.  temptation.  piished  ;  he  however  still  elected  to  live  three  months.  And  the 
narrative  goes  on :  "  Thus  the  Blessed  One  deliberately  and  consciously 
rejected  the  rest  of  his  allotted  sum  of  life,  and  on  his  rejecting  it  there 
arose  a  mighty  earthquake,  awful  and  terrible,  and  the  thunders  of  heaven 


LIFE    OF  BUDDHA.  273 


burst  forth,  and  when  the  Blessed    One  beheld  this,  he  broke  out  into  this 
liynin  of  exultation  : — 

'  His  sum  of  life  the  sage  renounced, 
The  course  of  life  immeasurable  or  small ; 
With  inward  joy  and  calm,  he  broke, 
Like  coat  of  mail,  his  life's  own  cause.'  " 

He  then  gave  a  summary  of  his  most  essential  teachings  to  the  assembled 
Msciples,  and  concluded  thus  : — ■ 

"  My  age  is  now  full  ripe,  my  life  draws  to  its  close  : 
I  leave  you,  I  depart,  relying  on  myself  alone  ! 
Be  earnest  then,  0  brethren  !  holy,  full  of  thought ! 
Be  steadfast  in  resolve !     Keep  watch  o'er  your  own  hearts ! 
Who  wearies  not,  but  holds  fast  to  this  truth  and  law, 
Shall  cross  this  sea  of  life,  shall  make  an  end  of  grief." 

After  still  a  few  days'  journeying,  Buddha  was  seized  with  dysentery 
ittended  with  sharp  pain,  which  he  bore  without  complaint.  At  last  he 
irrived  at  Kusinara  where  he  died,  even  in  his  last  hours  convert- 
ng  new  disciples.  His  last  words  were,  "  Behold  now,  brethren, 
i  exhort  you,  saying,  Decay  is  inherent  in  all  component  things.  Work 
kit  your  salvation  with  diligence."  His  death  was  followed  by  earthquakes 
[nd  thunders,  and  Brahma,  the  Supreme  Deity  or  First  Cause,  is  represented 
s  uttering  some  of  the  most  characteristic  Buddhist  doctrines,  while  his 
renerable  disciple  Anuruddha  spoke  thus : — 

"  When  he  who  from  all  craving  want  was  free, 
Who  to  Nirvana's  tranquil  state  had  reached, 
When  the  great  sage  finished  his  span  of  life, 
No  gasping  struggle  vexed  that  steadfast  heart. 

All  resolute,  and  with  unshaken  mind, 
He  calmly  triumphed  o'er  the  pain  of  death. 
E'en  as  a  bright  flame  dies  away,  so  was 
His  last  deliverance  from  the  bonds  of  life  ! " 

His  funeral  was  celebrated  by  the  nobles  of  Kusinara  with  the  honours 
ue  to  a  king  of  kings,  wrapping  his  body  in  five  hundred  alternate  layers 
cotton  wool  and  new  cloth,  enclosing  it  in  two  iron  vessels,  and  finally 
©mating  it  on  a  funeral  pile  made  of  perfumes.  Finally,  the  legend  says 
at  neither  soot  nor  ash  was  left,  but  only  the  bones.  Then  the  relics  were 
vided  into  eight  portions,  over  each  of  which  a  mound  was  erected  by  the 
spective  groups  who  had  claimed  and  obtained  them. 


THE    ROYAL    MONASTERY    AT    MANDAT  AY. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
C!)f  BtititiMst  JBoctrines,  tfof  Artier  anti  £>arrrtj  Books. 

Reaction  from  Brahmanism— Suffering  and  ignorance— The  Eternal  Immutable— Vanity  of  earthly 
things— The  causal  nexus— Human  responsibility— Punishment  of  evil— Being  and  causality— 
The  soul — Nirvana— Moral  precepts— Negative  morality— Benevolence— Beneficence  ^Self-dis- 
cipline -Temptation— Mara— The  struggle  and  victory  of  the  soul — States  of  abstraction— 
The  four  grades  of  attainment— The  person  of  Buddha— The  Buddhist  Scriptures  The  Dham- 
mapada— The  Buddhist  order— The  Mahavagga— Fortnightly  meetings— Confession  and 
penance— Strict  regulations— Profession  of  faith— Not  a  body  corporate— No  head  after 
Buddha— Assemblies  or  Councils— Limitations  on  admission— Form  of  reception— The  four 
resources— The  four  prohibitions— Quitting  the  order— Its  advantages— No  silver  or  gold- 
Seemly  outward  appearance —Companionship — Tutelage — Recitations  and  discussions— Retire- 
ment and  love  of  nature— Few  ceremonies — Reverence  and  Buddha — Regard  for  holy  places 
—The  confessional— The  Kullavagga — Offences  and  penances— The  Pavaranaor  invitation— The 
nuns  or  sisters — The  laity. 

THE  BUDDHIST  DOCTRINES. 

IT  is  one  of  the  strangest  phenomena,  that  the  system  holding   itself 
forth  so  prominently  as  the  bringer  of  happiness  and  extinguisher  of 
suffering  should  be  fitly  called  a  philosophy  of  pessimism,  of  negation,  of! 

_     u        agnosticism.     Yet  it  was  a  natural  reaction  from  the  Brahman 
Reaction       °  . 

from  assumption  of  knowing  everything,  and  that  everything  would 
be  right  if  its  management  were  committed  to  Brahmans.  In 
only  one  direction  did  the  Buddhists  claim  to  attain  knowledge,  that  was 
the  path  by  which  to  attain  deliverance  from  suffering,  and  ultimate  Nir- 
vana. The  kernel  of  this  doctrine  we  have  already  given  (p.  258).  The 
suffering  which  Buddha  bewails   is  not  merely  active  pain  and  misery,  but 

also  the  want  of  control  which  our  self  has  over  the  bodv  and 
Suffering  .  J   . 

and        consciousness.     .Everything,  too,  is  non-permanent,  and  that  is  a 

lce-  sorrow  ;  consequently  a  man  is  not  sure  of  himself,  and  cannot 

say,  "  That  is  mine,  that  is  I,  that  is  myself."     The  root  cause  of  this  is 

271 


THE   BUDDHIST  DOCTRINES.  275 


ignorance  ;  but  while  we  might  agree  with  the  Buddhists  that  ignorance  lies 
at  the  root  of  much  if  not  of  all  evil,  the  Buddhists  have  their  own  inter- 
pretation of  what  ignorance  constitutes  this  great  evil;  it  is  the  ignorance 
of  their  four  sacred  truths,  and  these  truths  contain  no  allusion  to  any 
notion  of  nihilism,  to  the  Nothing  and  nothingness  as  the  supreme  attain- 
ment, which  is  sometimes  represented  as  the  essential  of  Buddhist  pessi- 
mism. Far  from  being  of  this  nature,  Buddhism  has  a  positive  if  limited 
philosophy,  and  elevates  its  gaze  to  the  highest  and  most  permanent 
existence,  regarding  the  Eternal  Immutable,  supremely  free  and 
happy.  There  is  the  only  refuge  of  man  from  suffering,  where  Eternal 
birth  and  death,  change  and  decay  have  no  dominion.  Man  mmutable- 
must  seek  deliverance  from  the  mutable,  and  return  to  the  Immutable  : 
whether  that  may  lead  to  eternal  existence  or  not,  is  left  undetermined. 
Buddha  never  pretended  to  know  ;  rather  he  left  it  to  be  inferred  that  he 
did  not  know.  His  object  was  gained,  as  well  as  the  happiness  of  his 
followers  in  this  world,  when  they  had  attained  "  deliverance,"  release  from 
desire,  union  with  the  Immutable. 

Never  has  the  vanity  of  earthly  things,  so  succinctly  expressed  by  the 
Old  Testament  Preacher,  been  so  elaborately  set  forth  as  in  the  Buddhist 
books.  Listen  to  its  sad  strain.  "  The  pilgrimage  of  beings,  Vanit  of 
0  disciples,  has  its  beginning  in  eternity.  No  opening  can  be  earthly 
discovered,  from  which  proceeding,  creatures,  mazed  in  ignor-  ings' 
ance,  fettered  by  a  thirst  for  being,  stray  and  wander.  What  think  ye,  0 
disciples,  whether  is  more,  the  water  which  is  in  the  four  great  oceans,  or 
the  tears  which  have  flowed  from  you  and  been  shed  by  you,  while  ye 
strayed  and  wandered  on  this  long  pilgrimage,  and  sorrowed  and  wept, 
because  that  was  your  portion  that  ye  abhorred,  and  that  which  ye  loved 
was  not  your  portion  ?  A  mother's  death,  a  father's  death,  a  brother's 
death,  a  sister's  death,  a  son's  death,  a  daughter's  death,  the  loss  of  rela- 
tions, the  loss  of  property,  all  this  have  ye  experienced  through  long  ages  ; 
jand  while  ye  experienced  this  through  long  ages  more  tears  have  flowed 
from  you  and  have  been  shed  by  you,  while  ye  strayed  and  wandered 
on  this  long  pilgrimage,  and  sorrowed  and  wept,  because  that  was  your 
portion  which  ye  abhorred  and  that  which  ye  loved  was  not  your  portion, 
than  all  the  water  which  is  in  the  four  great  oceans."  (0.)  And  so  on 
through  the  whole  range  of  mortal  affairs. 

The  Dhammapada,  that  notable  collection  of  Buddhist  apophthegms 
proverbs,  and  similes,  which  existed  before  the  second  council*  (377  B.C.), 
ontains  some  of  the  most  pithy  sayings  of  melancholy.  "  Man  gathers 
lowers ;  his  heart  is  set  on  pleasure.  Death  comes  upon  him,  like  the 
loods  of  water  on  a  village,  and  sweeps  him  away."  "  How  can  ye  be 
;ay?  How  can  ye  indulge  desire '?  Evermore  the  flames  burn.  Darkness 
urrouncls  you:  will  ye  not  seek  the  light?"  "Look  upon  the  world  as  a 
rabble  ;  look  upon  it  as  a  mirage."  "  There  is  no  satisfying  lusts,  even  by 
>.  shower  of  gold  pieces."  "  Let  no  man  love  anything  ;  loss  of  the  beloved 
s  evil.      Those   who   love  nothing,   and  hate  nothing,    have   no   fetters." 


276 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


"  From  love  comes  grief  ;  from  love  comes  fear."  Yet  in  association  with 
these  sad  views  throughout  we  have  the  joyful  standard  raised  aloft.  He 
who  has  learnt  the  sacred  truths  of  Buddhism  has  overcome  these  evils  and 
entered  into  joy.  "  Tho  virtuous  man  is  happy  in  this  world,  and  he  is 
happy  in  the  next  ;  he  is  happy  in  both.  He  is  happy  when  he  thinks  of 
the  good  he  has  done;  he  is  still  more  happy  when  going  on  the  good 
path."  "  Earnest  among  the  thoughtless,  awake  among  the  sleepers,  the  wise 
man  advances  like  a  racer,  leaving  behind  the  track."  "  Let  no  man  think 
light ly  of  good,  saying  in  his  heart,  it  will  not  come  nigh  unto  me.  Even 
by  the  falling  of  water-drops  a  waterpot  is  filled  ;  the  wise  man  becomes 
full  of  good,  even  if  he  gather  it  little  by  little."  "  Let  us  live  happily, 
free  from  greed  among  the  greedy."  "  His  good  works  receive  him  who 
has  done  good,  and  has  gone  from  this  world  to  the  other  ;  as  kinsmen 
receive  a  friend  on  his  return." 

We  cannot  fully  expound  what  is  known  as  the  causal  nexus  in  Budd- 
hism, but  this  in  itself  has  never  been  taught  to  the  masses,  and  was  only  for 

The  causal  the  more  intellectual ;  while  to  western  minds  it  is  confused  and 
nexus,  inconclusive  and  more  or  less  self-contradictory.  We  find  that 
Buddhism,  like  most  other  human  systems,  has  failed  to  express,  though  it  has 
verged  near  to  the  core  of,  philosophical  questions.  What  is  certain  is,  that 
the  early  Buddhists  regarded  the  consciousness  as  the  sole  continuing  thing, 
while  at  death  the  body,  sensations  and  perceptions  vanish ;  and  this  con- 
sciousness was  connected  with  a  sort  of  spirit-stuff  or  element,  undemon- 
strable,  everlasting,  all-illuminating ;  it  passes  over  at  death  to  become 
associated  with  the  germ  of  a  new  material  being  to  be  born  again.  The 
succession  of  re-births  must  continue  until  the  being  attains  "  deliverance," 
as  made  known  by  Buddhism. 

Although  expressed  in  a  widely  different  form  from  our  own,  we  see 
throughout  Buddhism  an  assertion  of  human   responsibility   which  tends 

Human  re-  *n  tne  nignest  degree  to  morality.  However  much  we  may  be 
sponsibmty.  conditioned  by  our  previous  state  as  by  our  environment,  we 
are  always  affected  by  our  own  actions.  As  explicitly  as  in  the  Christian 
Bible,  we  find  stated  that  "  not  in  the  heavens,  not  in  the  midst  of  the 
sea,  not  if  thou  hidest  thyself  away  in  the  clefts  of  the  mountains,  wilt  thou 
find  a  place  on  earth  where  thou  canst  escape  the  fruit  of  thy  evil  actions  " 

Punishment  (Dhammapada  v.  127).  Even  when  the  way  of  deliverance 
of  evn.  nas  i3egn  attained,  a  man  will  still  suffer  punishment  for  evil- 
doing  not  yet  expiated.  Thus,  a  robber  and  murderer  who  became  a 
Buddhist  was  violently  attacked  when  he  went  to  collect  alms  ;  and 
Buddha  tells  him  he  was  now  receiving  the  penalty  for  evil  deeds  for 
which  otherwise  he  would  have  had  to  suffer  thousands  of  years  in  hell. 
A  judgment  scene  is  depicted,  in  which  the  wicked  man  is  brought  up 
from  hell  before  King  Yama,  who  inquires  of  him  whether  he  did  not  see 
on  earth  the  five  visions  of  human  weakness  and  suffering,— the  child,  the 
old  man,  the  sick  man,  the  criminal  under  punishment,  and  the  dead  man. 
He   is  further  asked  whether  he  did  not  consider  that  he  was  not  exempt 


THE   BUDDHIST  DOCTRINES.  2yy 


from  old  age  and  death,  and  ought  to  do  good  in  thought,  word,  and  deed. 
Confessing  that  he  had  neglected  it,  he  is  told  that  he  alone  is  responsible, 
and  must  gather  the  fruit.  The  warders  of  hell  take  him  away  and  subject 
him  to  the  severest  physical  torments,  ending  in  death  only  when  his  guilt 
is  fully  expiated. 

One  aspect  of  the  Buddhist  doctrine  of  causality  is  well  illustrated  by 
the  following.  "  Whoever  perceives  in  truth  and  wisdom  how  things 
originate  in  the  world,  in  his  eyes  there  is  no  '  it  is  not '  in  Bein  and 
this  world.  Whoever  perceives  in  truth  and  wisdom  how  things  causality, 
pass  away  in  this  world,  in  his  eyes  there  is  no  'it  is '  in  this  world.  .  .  . 
I  Sorrow  alone  arises  where  anything  arises  ;  sorrow  passes  away  where  any- 
i  thing  passes  away.  '  Everything  is  ' ;  this  is  the  one  extreme  :  '  everything 
is  not,'  this  is  the  other  extreme.  The  Perfect  One,  remaining  far  from 
both  these  extremes,  proclaims  the  truth  in  the  middle.  '  From  ignorance 
come  conformations  (sankharas),' "  forms  of  being  determining  their  own 
successions  and  successive  forms.  There  is  no  thought  of  an  independent 
matter  apart  from  an  existence  or  being.  Every  perception,  every  con- 
dition, bodily  or  spiritual,  is  one  of  these  sankharas,  and  all  are  transitory, 
all  under  the  control  of  causality.  Beyond  this  Buddhism  does  not  attempt 
to  go  ;  it  does  not  know  the  Eternal,  or  how  the  world  was  created,  or 
whether  it  is  everlasting  or  finite. 

Buddhism  even  does  not  allow  that  there  is  a  soul  distinct  from  the 
body.  Practically  it  only  recognises  the  combined  being  that  is  seen  or 
is  conscious  of  itself,  and  that  suffers ;  and  it  has  no  explanation 
beyond.  Reduced  to  its  lowest  term,  Buddhism  recognises 
simply  that  suffering  is  going  on,  or  keeps  coming  and  going ;  without 
defining  any  permanent  soul  that  suffers.  All  on  this  earth  is  under  the 
dominion  of  causality. 

The  state  of  Nirvana,  Buddha  held,  may  be  entered  upon  before  the 
death  of  the  body,  and  therefore  it  is  not  identical  with  annihilation,  as  has 

often  been  represented.     Although  its  meaning  is  extinction,  it    „. 

.  on  Nirvana, 

is  the  extinction  of  desire,  of  suffering,  of  error,  of  ignorance  ; 

and  it  is  termed  the  eternal  state.  What  that  eternal  state  is,  early  Budd- 
hism in  no  way  determines.  Hence  the  Nirvana  may  perhaps  best  be 
regarded  as  the  perfection  which  the  Buddhist  attains  in  this  life.  "  What 
is  to  be  extinguished  has  been  extinguished,  the  fire  of  lust,  hatred,  be- 
wilderment." In  this  state  the  devout  disciple  says,  "  I  long  not  for  death, 
I  long  not  for  life ;  I  wait  till  mine  hour  come,  like  a  servant  who  awaiteth 
his  reward."  Yet  the  Buddhist  may  truly  be  said  to  anticipate  extinction 
of  the  consciousness  on  dying.  Yet  even  that  is  consistent  in  his  eyes  with 
an  imagined  completion  of  his  being,  which  no  terms  applicable  to  earthly 
things  can  possibly  describe.  And  those  who  wished  to  cherish  a  hope  of 
continual  existence  and  perfect  happiness  were  permitted  to  do  so. 

The  moral  system  taught  by  Buddha  as  obligatory  upon  his  followers 
can  be  separated  from  the  system  and  rules  of  his  monastic  order.  It  is 
not  a  little  curious  to  find  moral  precepts  at  that  early  time  not  based  upon 


J7S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

obedience  to  a  Supreme  Buler  of  the  world,  or  a  Creator,  and  consequently 
Moral  not  based  upon  any  duty  of  human  beings  to  obey  a  Supreme 
precepts.  Ruler.  In  fact  this  moral  law  is  entirely  utilitarian,  taking  its 
stand  solely  upon  benefits  obtainable  by  the  doer,  or  punishments  to  be 
incurred  by  him.  Further  than  this,  that  we  hear  of  no  one  being  repelled 
by  Buddha  who  sought  to  learn  the  truth,  it  does  not  appear  that  Buddhism 
concerned  itself  with  the  mass  of  mankind  even  so  far  as  to  give  precepts 
available  for  them  all,  or  to  preach  deliverance  to  them  all.  It  is  evident 
that  this  has  not  hindered  the  very  wide  spread  of  the  society  ;  and  the 
declaration  that  they  had  a  message  only  for  those  who  recognised  their  evil 
state  and  desired  deliverance  no  doubt  acted  as  a  stimulus  to  the  outer 
masses  so  far  as  they  were  in  an  intellectual  state  capable  of  aspiring  after 
something  better.  But  Buddhism  did  not  lay  itself  out  to  tell  all  people  that 
they  ought  to  do  or  to  be  so-and-so  every  day,  always,  everywhere.  Only 
when  they  sought  discipleship,  lay  or  mendicant,  did  Buddhism  furnish  them 
with  a  code  of  observance,  which  included  moral  duties,  undertaken  for 
the  purpose  of  elevating  their  own  state.  Thus  "  He  who  speaks  or  acts 
with  impure  thoughts,  him  sorrow  follows,  as  the  wheel  follows  the  foot  of 
the  draught  horse.  He  who  speaks  or  acts  with  pure  thought,  him  joy 
follows,  like  his  shadow,  which  does  not  leave  him." 

The  third  to  the  sixth  portions  of  the  noble  eightfold  path  more 
specially  concern  morals.  The  first  and  second,  correct  views,  free  from 
superstition  or  delusion,  and  right  aims  or  correct  thoughts,  worthy  of  an 
intelligent  man,  are  specially  intellectual.  The  third,  right  speech,  per- 
fectly truthful,  as  well  as  kindly  ;  the  fourth,  right  conduct,  pure,  honest, 
peaceable ;  the  fifth,  a  right  mode  of  gaining  a  livelihood,  doing  harm  to 
no  living  thing;  and  the  sixth,  right  effort,  self-control,  self- training,  embrace 
the  sum  of  Buddhist  morals.  The  seventh  and  eighth,  mindfulness  and 
contemplation,  are  again  purely  inward.  The  whole  moral  code  may  thus 
be  expressed  as  uprightness  in  word,  deed,  and  thought;  but  the  great 
importance  of  wisdom  as  the  crown  of  uprightness  is  fully  expressed. 

A  great  portion  of  the  Buddhist  morality,  however,  was  negative, 
made  up  of  prohibitions.  Five  special  hindrances,  veils,  or  entanglements 
Negative  are  specified,  which  must  be  mastered,  namely,  lustful  desire, 
morality.  ma]ice?  sloth,  self-righteousness  or  pride,  and  doubt.  Five  main 
commands  are  often  repeated.  The  Buddhist  must  (1)  kill  no  living  thing, 
(2)  not  steal,  (3)  live  chastely,  (4)  speak  no  untruth,  (5)  not  drink  intoxica- 
ting drinks.  But  in  the  rules  for  the  monks,  we  find  such  positive  additions 
as  the  following :— "  The  cudgel  and  the  sword  he  lays  aside  ;  and  full  of 
modesty  and  pity,  he  is  compassionate  and  kind  to  all  creatures  that  have 
life.  What  he  hears  here,  he  repeats  not  elsewhere  to  raise  a  quarrel.  .  .  . 
He  lives  as  a  binder-together  of  those  who  are  divided,  an  encourager  of 
those  who  are  friends,  a  peacemaker,  a  lover  of  peace.  .  .  .  Whatever 
word  is  humane,  pleasant  to  the  ear,  lovely,  reaching  to  the  heart,  urbane, 
pleasing  to  the  people,  such  are  the  words  he  speaks.  .  .  .  Putting  away 
ioolish  talk,   he  abstains  from   vain  conversation.     In  season  he   speaks; 


THE   BUDDHIST  DOCTRINES.  279 


lie  speaks  that  which  is  ;  he  speaks  fact  .  .  .  that  which  redounds  to 
profit,  is  well  defined,  and  is  full  of  wisdom.  He  refrains  from  injuring 
any  herb  or  any  creature.  He  takes  but  one  meal  a  day.  He  abstains  from 
dancing,  singing,  music  and  theatrical  shows"  (S.  E.  xi.). 

It  cannot  be  said  that  the  Christian  virtue  of  love  is  taught  by  Buddhism. 
There  is  sometimes  some  approach  to  it,  but  it  is  not  clear.  The  virtue 
enjoined  by  Buddhism  is  rather  the  extinction  of  hating  than 

•  Bgd.6  volsncG 

positive  love.  Thus,  "  He  who  holds  back  rising  anger  like  a 
rolling  chariot,  him  I  call  a  real  driver.  .  .  .  Let  a  man  overcome  anger 
by  not  becoming  angry  ;  let  a  man  overcome  evil  by  good  ;  let  him  over- 
come the  greedy  by  liberality,  the  liar  by  truth."  "  Enmity  never  comes  to 
an  end  through  enmity  here  below  ;  it  comes  to  an  end  by  non-enmity ; 
this  has  been  the  rule  from  all  eternity."  A  notable  story  is  found  in  the 
iMahavagga,  which  illustrates  this  last  doctrine.  But  the  benevolence 
which  an  carry  Buddhist  felt  was  far  removed  from  Christian  benevolence. 
His  bod}r,  which  might  be  hurt  by  others,  was  not  really  himself;  so  he  felt 
no  bitter  resentment  at  anything  done  to  it.  "  Those  who  cause  me  pain 
jand  those  who  cause  me  joy,  to  all  I  am  alike,  and  affection  and  hatred  I 
know  not.  In  joy  or  sorrow  I  remain  unmoved  ;  in  honour  and  dishonour 
(throughout  I  am  alike."  This  benevolence  was  not  a  spontaneous  sympathy 
rising  in  the  good  man's  heart,  but  a  result  of  meditation  and  intentional 
mental  exercise  ;  and  this  benevolence,  radiating  from  him,  is  said  to  exert 
a  kind  of  magical  influence,  bringing  about  harmonious  relations  between 
Buddhists  and  all  people  and  even  animals. 

But  what  of  beneficence,  so  highly  esteemed  in  Christianity  ?  To  out- 
ward appearance,  it  was  just  as  highly  esteemed  in  early  Buddhism  ;  but  the 
iforms  of  its  exercise  were  different.   From  all  that  we  can  gather, 

BGllGfi.CGHC6 

>oor  people,  in  the  sense  of  those  wanting  daily  food  or  means  to 
ret  it,  were  by  no  means  abundant  at  that  time  in  India ;  and  the  higher 
modes  of  Christian  beneficence  Avere  not  yet  dreamt  of.  Joining  the 
Buddhist  order  itself  gave  rise  to  the  very  practical  step  of  renunciation  ; 
but  in  the  case  of  those  who  were  already  married  and  had  families  it 
released  the  adherents  from  their  family  responsibilities  and  cares.  This 
renunciation  can  scarcely  be  called  beneficence,  for  it  was  not  done  in  order 
:hat  other  persons  might  be  benefited.  Practically  the  chief  beneficence  ex- 
3rcised  by  Buddhists  was  by  the  lay  adherents,  who  wrere  expected  to  show 
iberality  to  all  individual  monks  and  to  the  Order  generally.  This  benefi- 
cence was  for  the  sake  of  their  religious  profession,  however,  and  can  hardly 
be  called  pure  beneficence.  And  all  through  early  Buddhism  the  special  vir- 
tue of  beneficence  is  overshadowed  by  the  broader  and  deeper  necessity  for 
renouncing  every  worldly  possession  ;  even  lay  adherents  were  not  to  count 
(things  their  own,  by  which  they  might  confer  on  the  Order  needed  benefits. 
In  some  of  the  narratives  a  little  later  than  the  earliest,  the  giving  away 
)f  wife  and  children  is  represented  as  of  no  moment  compared  with  winning 
the  Bucldhahood.  We  see  clearly  that  it  was  not  by  means  of  beneficence 
that  the  character  advocated  by  Buddhism  was  to  be  acquired. 


2  So  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

That  discipline  was  essentially  internal.    "  Rouse  thyself  by  thyself,  ex- 
amine thyself  by  thyself,    .    .    .    curb  thyself  as  the  merchant  curbs  a  good 
seif-disci.   horse.     .     .     .     Cut  off  the  five  senses,  leave  the  five,  rise  above 

piine.  t}ie  nve  ...  In  the  body  restraint  is  good,  good  is  restraint 
in  speech,  in  thought  restraint  is  good,  good  is  restraint  in  all  things" 
(S.E.  x.,  Dhammapada).  Everything  is  to  be  done  with  a  self-conscious 
effort,  and  watchfulness.  Self-examination  is  to  be  practised  after  every 
contact  with  the  world,  after  every  begging  excursion ;  and  all  emotions  or 
desires,  which  are  stigmatised  as  evil  and  treacherous,  are  to  be  suppressed. 
In  no  religion  is  it  more  sternly  insisted  on  that  the  character  is  the  inner 
self.  "All  that  we  are  is  the  result  of  what  we  have  thought ;  it  is  founded 
on  our  thoughts,  it  is  made  up  of  our  ^thoughts,"  says  the  first  verse  of  the 
Dhammapada. 

Temptation  to  evil  is  associated  with  a  personal  spirit  or  essence  called 

Mara,  not  believed  to  be  the  originator  of  evil  and  sorrow — for  onHhat  point 

Temptation,  Buddhism  had  no  belief — but  the  chief  tempter  to  evil  in  thought, 

Mara.  word}  anci  deed.  He,  like  Yama  in  the  Brahman  system,  is  Death 
or  the  King  of  Death,  and  so  is  king  of  all  the  pleasures  of  this  world.  The 
foundation  of  the  Buddhist  Order  is  a  deadly  blow  at  this  kingdom,  and  con- 
sequently the  Buddhists  are  objects  of  his  continual  attack.  He  offers  Buddha 
himself  the  rule  over  the  whole  earth,  if  he  will  renounce  his  spiritual  mission. 
He  is  tempted  by  Mara's  daughters,  Desire,  Unrest,  and  Pleasure,  and  resists 
their  temptations.  In  all  the  narratives  addressed  to  the  people  generally, 
Mara  appears  as  a  real  personage,  not  everlasting,  but  capable  of  attacking 
every  one.  The  higher  Buddhist  philosophy  sees  Mara  in  everything  which 
is  subject  to  change.  "  Wherever  there  is  an  eye  and  form,  wherever  there 
is  an  ear  and  sound,  wherever  there  is  thinking  and  thought,  there  is  Mara, 
there  is  sorrow."  (0.)  But  in  the  details  relating  to  the  tempter,  as  given 
by  the  Buddhist  books,  we  find  nothing  grand,  nothing  great  even  in  evil. 
The  attacks  made  upon  Buddha  and  his  followers  are  comparatively  simple, 
and  are  easily  foiled.  Buddha  was,  it  is  related,  tempted  with  a  kingdom 
in  order  that  he  might  do  what  he  asserted  to  be  possible,  "  rule  as  a  king  in 
righteousness,  without  killing  or  causing  to  be  killed,  without  practising 
oppression  or  permitting  oppression  to  be  practised,  without  suffering  pain  or 
inflicting  pain  on  another,"  and  he  is  told  that  he  could  turn  the  Himalayas 
into  gold  if  he  chose.  Buddha  answers:  "What  would  it  profit  a  wise  man  if 
he  possessed  even  a  mountain  of  silver  or  of  gold  ?  He  who  has  comprehended 
sorrow,  whence  it  springs,  how  can  he  bend  himself  to  desire  ?  He  who 
knows  that  earthly  existence  is  a  fetter  in  this  world,  let  him  practise  that 
which  sets  him  free  therefrom."  Then  Mara,  the  Evil  one,  said,  "  The 
Exalted  One  knows  me,  the  Perfect  One  knows  me,"  and  disconcerted  and 
disheartened  he  rose  and  went  away.  Other  narratives  represent  Mara  as 
constantly  watching  the  avenues  of  the  senses  that  he  ma}'  gain  access  to 
the  mind  ;  and  this  continual  siege  is  only  to  be  met  by  continual  watch- 
fulness, which  will  at  last  make  Mara  give  up  the  hopeless  task. 

Dr.  Oldenberg  graphically  describes  the  struggle  between  the  individual 


7  HE   BUDDHIST  DOCTRINES. 


281 


soul  and  the  sorrow-producing  chain  of  suffering,  and  the  tempter  Mara, 

as  pictured  by  the  early  Buddhists.     "The  struggle  is  neither 

slight  nor  brief.      From  that  moment  forward,  when  first  the  and  victory 

conviction  dawns  upon  a  soul,  that  this  battle  must  be  fought, 

that  there  is  a  deliverance  which  can  be  gained— from  that  first  beginning  of 

the  struggle  up  to  the  final  victory,  countless  ages  of  the  world  pass  away. 

Earth  worlds  and  heavenly  worlds,  and  worlds  of  hells  also,  pass  away  as  they 

have  arisen  and  passed  away  from  all  eternity.     Gods  and  men,  all  animated 

beings,  come  and  go,  die  and  are  born  again,  and  amid  this  endless  tide  of  all 

things,  the  beings  who  are  seeking  deliverance,  now  advancing  and  victorious, 

and  anon  driven  back,  press  on  to  their  goal.     The  path  reaches  be}rond  the 


CASKET    CONTAINING    BUDDHA'S    TOOTH,    IN    THE    TEMPLE    OF    DALADA    MALIGAWA,    KANDY,    CEYLON. 

ange  of  the  eye,  but  it  has  an  end.  After  countless  wanderings  through 
worlds  and  ages  the  goal  at  last  appears  before  the  wanderer's  gaze.  And  in 
his  sense  of  victory  there  is  mingled  a  feeling  of  pride  for  the  victory  won 
by  his  own  power.  The  Buddhist  has  no  god  to  thank,  as  he  had  previously 
Ino  god  to  invoke  during  his  struggle.  The  gods  bow  before  him,  not  he 
before  the  gods." 

The   place   of  prayer   in   other   religions    is  in    Buddhism   taken   by 
(abstraction,   meditation,   withdrawal  as  far  as  possible  from  the  world  of 
sense.     How  far  this  may  proceed  by  an  artificial  system  we  may    states  of 
see  later.      Some  portions  of  the   Buddhist   scriptures   describe  abstraction, 
methods    of  producing   self-concentration  ;     and  frequently  they  approach 
pathological  or  morbid  conditions.     It  is  no  wonder  that  hallucinations  of 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  senses  should  arise  in  men  who  have  torn  themselves  from  every  home 
tie,  and  devoted  themselves  to  homelessness  and  abstraction.  But  heavenly- 
visions,  heavenly  sounds,  forms  of  supernatural  beings  are  only  rarely  seen  ; 
rather  the  condition  commonly  attained  was  that  known  as  clairvoyant,  in 
which  the  spirit  was  believed  to  be  peculiarly  refined,  pure,  pliant,  and  firm. 
Then  the  monks  imagined  they  saw  the  past  clearly,  even  their  own  past 
existences,  saw  into  the  thoughts  of  others,  acquired  miraculous  powers,  be- 
came invisible  and  again  appeared  on  earth.  Many  of  these  may  be  paralleled 
by  various  accounts  in  the  Bible  ;  but  there  are  no  parallel  results  flowing 
from  them. 

Among   the    monks   no   gradation   was  at  first  recognised  except  the 

higher  order  of  those  who  had  attained  deliverance ;  but  later  four  grades 

The  four    were  acknowledged :  (1)  the  lowest,  those  who  had  attained  the 

grades  of    path,  and  were  not  liable  to  re-birth  in  the  lower  worlds  (hells, 

'  world   of  animals,  spirit  worlds) ;  (2)  those  who  return  once  only 

to  this  world— these  have  destroyed  desire,  hatred,  and  frivolity  ;  (3)  the  n'on- 

returning,  who  only  enter  the  higher  worlds  of  the  gods,  and  these  attain 

Nirvana  ;  (4)  the  Saints  (Arhats).     But  these  grades  did  not  give  those  who 

had  attained  them  any  special  place  in  the  Order. 

A  special  grade  was  occupied  by  those  who  gained  participation  in  the 
Buddhahood  by  their  own  inherent  force,  having  won  the  knowledge  bring- 
ing deliverance  by  their  own  exertions.  They  were  believed  to  have  lived 
chiefly  in  the  ages  previous  to  Buddha  himself ;  but  they  were  not  equal  to 
the  "universal  Buddhas  "  of  whom  Gautama  was  one. 

The  position  claimed  by  and  assigned  to  Buddha  is  peculiar  in  that 
he  had  no  special  commission  from  a  supreme  Being,  and  did  not  put 
The  person  himself  forward  as  the  representative  of  the  invisible  powers, 
of  Buddha.  He  was  simply,  in  the  present  order  of  things,  the  first  who  had 
obtained  universal  Buddhahood.  He  taught  to  others  the  truths  that  he 
had  himself  discovered.  He  was  their  helper,  but  it  was  by  their  own 
effort  and  meditation  that  it  could  really  be  received  by  them.  And  yet 
the  claims  attributed  to  Buddha  are  nothing  less  than  omniscience  and 
perfection.  He  says  :  "I  have  overcome  all  foes ;  I  am  all-wise  ;  I  am  free 
from  stains  in  every  way ;  I  have  left  everything ;  and  have  obtained 
emancipation  by  the  destruction  of  desire.  Having  myself  gained  know- 
ledge, whom  should  I  call  my  master  ?  I  have  no  teacher  ;  no  one  is  equal 
to  me ;  in  the  world  of  men  and  of  gods  no  being  is  like  me.  I  am  the 
Holy  One  in  this  world,  I  am  the  highest  teacher,  I  alone  am  the  perfect 
Buddha ;  I  have  gained  coolness  by  the  extinction  of  all  passion,  and  have 
obtained  Nirvana."  (Mahavagga,  S.E.  xiii.)  "  He  appears  in  the  world  for 
salvation  to  many  people,  for  joy  to  many  people,  out  of  compassion  for  the 
world,  for  the  blessing,  the  salvation,  the  joy  of  gods  and  men."  But 
Buddha  is  by  no  means  represented  as  the  sole  person  who  has  attained 
Buddahood.  Many  Buddhas  had  been  before  him  and  would  come  after 
him ;  but  they  were  supposed  all  to  be  born  in  Eastern  India,  and  to  be  all 
of  the  Brahman  or  soldier  (Kshatriya)  castes ;  and  their  teaching  prevailed 


'THE  BUDDHIST  DOCTRINES.  283 

i  for  longer  or  shorter  periods,  after  which  faith  vanished  for  a  time  in  the 
,  earth.     Thus  we  see  that  Buddha  was  the  starter  of  the  new  religious  life,, 
and  essential  to  it ;  but  by  no  means  a  god,  or  a  heaven-sent  messenger. 

THE  BUDDHIST  SCRIPTURES. 

Those  which  are  pre-eminently  worthy  of  this  designation,  as  being  the 
i  oldest  and  purest,  are  the  Pali  books  preserved  by  the  Ceylonese  Buddhists. 
[  They  are  arranged  in  three  collections  or  "  Baskets  "  (pitakas).  The  first,  or 
Vinaya-pitaka,  includes  books  containing  regulations  for  the  external  life  of 
the  order  of  monks.  The  second,  or  Sutta-pitaka,  contains  a  number  of 
miscellaneous  works,  each  composed  of  suttas  or  short  pithy  sentences,  some 
relating  sayings  of  Buddha,  others  legends  and  stories  of  the  preceding 
Buddhas.  The  third  contains  various  disquisitions,  an  enumeration  of  the 
conditions  of  life,  etc. 

The  most  interesting  of  all  these,  and  the  most  deserving  of  attention 
for  its  literary  excellence,  is  the  Dhammapada,  or  Path  of  Virtue  (or  Foot- 
step of  the  Law),  from  which  we  have  already  quoted.  The  word  The  D&am- 
subsequently  came  to  mean  generally  "  a  religious  sentence."  Its  maPada- 
date,  like  that  of  the  rest  of  the  scriptures,  is  stated  by  the  Buddhists  to  be 
fixed  by  the  first  Council  of  the  Church  immediately  after  the  death  of 
Buddha ;  what  appears  to  be  certain  is  that  this  book  existed  before  Asoka's. 
council,  about  b.c.  242,  after  which  date  it  was  introduced  into  Ceylon  by 
Mahinda,  Asoka's  son.  And  we  may  take  the  Dhammapada  as  having  been 
believed  to  have  been  personally  uttered  by  Buddha.  Even  if  he  did  not 
compose  it  (which  there  is  ^nothing  to  prove  positively),  it  was  composed 
soon  after  his  death,  by  some  one  or  more  persons  whose  genius  rose  as 
high  as  his.  A  point  of  great  importance  in  judging  of  this  whole  canon  is 
that  it  contains  no  mention  of  Asoka's  council,  but  does  mention  the  first 
and  second  councils  (of  Eajagaha  and  Vesali),  and  describes  them  at  the 
end  of  the  Kullavagga. 

We  will  now  give  some  further  extracts  from  the  Dhammapada,  to 

Ijillustrate  its  literary  character,  apart  from  the  special  points  we  have  already 

j  drawn  attention  to.      Sometimes  we  find  in  it  dogmatic  teaching  quite 

t  straightforwardly  put,  thus  :  "  He  who  wishes  to  put  on  the  yellow  dress 

:! without  having  cleansed  himself  from  sin,  who  disregards  also  temperance 

and  truth,  is  unworthy  of  the  yellow  dress."     "  By  oneself  the  evil  is  done, 

by  oneself  one  suffers ;   by  oneself  evil  is  left  undone,  by  oneself  one  is 

purified.    Purity  and  impurity  belong  to  oneself,  no  one  can  purify  another." 

"  That  deed  is  not  well  done  of  which  a  man  must  repent,  and  the  reward 

of  which  he  receives  gladly  and  cheerfully."     "Do  not  speak  harshly  to 

anybody ;   those  who  are  spoken  to  will  answer  thee  in  the  same  way." 

Here  we  have  the  Eastern  representative  of  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon. 

How  much  wisdom  is  to  be  found  in  the  following :  "Let  the  wise  man 
guard  his  thoughts,  for  they  are  very  difficult  to  perceive,  very  artful,  and 
they  rush  wherever  they  list."  "  The  fool  who  knows  his  foolishness  is 
wise,  at  least  so  far.     But  a  fool  who  thinks  himself  wise,  he  is  called  a  fool 


284  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


indeed."  "  One's  own  self  conquered  is  better  than  all  other  people."  Here 
is  a  condensed  censure  of  asceticism  :  "  Not  nakedness,  not  platted  hair,  not 
dirt,  not  fasting,  or  lying  on  the  earth,  not  rubbing  with  dust,  not  sitting 
motionless,  can  purify  a  mortal  who  has  not  overcome  desires." 

The  following  is  a  varied  selection  of  these  gems.  "  Bad  deeds,  and 
deeds  hurtful  to  ourselves,  are  easy  to  do ;  what  is  beneficial  and  good,  that 
is  very  difficult  to  do."  "  This  world  is  dark,  few  only  can  see  here ;  a  few 
only  go  to  heaven,  like  birds  escaped  from  the  net."  "  Health  is  the  greatest 
of  gifts,  contentedness  the  best  riches ;  trust  is  the  best  of  relationships, 
Nirvana  the  highest  happiness."  "  If  any  thing  is  to  be  done,  let  a  man  do 
it,  let  him  attack  it  vigorously.  A  careless  pilgrim  only  scatters  the  dust 
of  his  passions  more  widely."  Similes  of  great  aptness  or  beauty  abound. 
"  As  the  bee  collects  nectar  and  departs  without  injuring  the  flower,  or  its 
colour  or  scent,  so  let  a  sage  dwell  in  his  village."  "  Like  a  beautiful 
flower,  full  of  colour,  but  without  scent,  are  the  fine  but  fruitless  words  of 
him  who  does  not  act  accordingly."  "  There  is  no  fire  like  passion,  there  is 
no  shark  like  hatred,  there  is  no  snare  like  folly,  there  is  no  torrent  like 
greed."  "  The  fault  of  others  is  easily  perceived,  but  that  of  oneself  is 
difficult  to  perceive ;  a  man  winnows  his  neighbour's  faults  like  chaff,  but 
his  own  fault  he  hides,  as  a  cheat  hides  the  bad  die  from  the  gambler." 
"  If  a  fool  be  associated  with  a  wise  man  even  all  his  life,  he  will  perceive 
the  truth  as  little  as  a  spoon  perceives  the  taste  of  soup." 

It  is  natural  to  find  in  these  pithy  sayings  the  pervading  truth  of  the 
universality  of  suffering  and  the  vanity  of  life.  "  Before  long,  alas !  this 
body  will  lie  on  the  earth,  despised,  without  understanding,  like  a  useless 
log."  "As  a  cowherd  with  his  staff  drives  his  cows  into  the  stable,  so  do 
Age  and  Death  drive  the  life  of  men."  Old  age  is  thus  depicted  :  "Look  at 
this  dressed-up  lump,  covered  with  wounds,  joined  together,  sickly,  full  of 
many  thoughts,  which  has  no  strength,  no  hold.  This  body  is  wasted,  full 
of  sickness  and  frail ;  this  heap  of  corruption  breaks  to  pieces,  life  indeed 
ends  in  death."  We  are  told  to  "look  upon  this  world  as  a  bubble,  as  a 
mirage."  But  watchfulness  and  the  true  knowledge  preserves  a  man  in 
safety.  One  of  the  later  sentences  gives  a  fine  picture  of  a  stoic.  "  Him  I 
call  indeed  a  Brahman  who,  though  he  has  committed  no  offence,  endures 
reproach,  bonds,  and  stripes,  who  has  endurance  for  his  force,  and  strength 
for  his  army."  Indeed  the  whole  section  on  the  true  Brahman  is  fine :  he 
is  tolerant  with  the  intolerant,  mild  with  faultfinders,  free  from  passion 
among  the  passionate,  is  thoughtful,  guileless,  free  from  doubts,  free  from 
attachment,  and  content. 

THE  BUDDHIST  ORDER. 

Some  attention  must  now  be  given  to  the  great  Order  of  mendicants 
or  monks  which  perpetuated  Buddha's  influence  and  extended  his  teaching. 
Very  early  in  Buddha's  career  they  became  an  organised  Brotherhood  ;  and 
a  formal  system  of  admission  and  rules  of  conduct  were  framed  as  need 
arose.      At  first   candidates   who   professed    belief  in    this  doctrine  were 


THE  BUDDHIST  DOCTRINES.  285 


dimply  admitted  by  the  great  teacher,  but  it  is  a  natural  development  that 
this  should  be  delegated  to  others  as  the  Order  grew.  The  Tne 
lYTahavagga,  one  of  the  oldest  Pali  books,  contains  the  records  Manavagga. 
>)f  these  events,  and  of  the  regulations  imposed  on  the  Order,  preceded  by 
x  narrative  embodying  many  of  the  early  events  in  Buddha's  preaching, 
ncluding  not  a  few  marvels  and  miracles.  Soon  it  became  customary  to 
kold  meetings  of  the  Order  twice  a  month,  at  the  periods  of  full  Fortnightly 
,nd  new  moon,   already    sacred    periods   in  India,  observed   by   meetin&s- 

rahmans  with  ceremonies  of  long  standing.     The  special  purpose  of  these 

uddhist  meetings  was  the  confession  of  faults  one  to  another  and  the 
cceptance  of  the   due  penance.     A  list  of  common  or  possible  confession 
ffences  was  drawn  up,  and  read  out  at  each  meeting,    every and  penance- 

ember  present  being  called  upon  to  answer  three  times  as  to  his  innocence 
,)f  each  offence.  Among  these  offences  are  some  which  show  how  strictly 
rom  the  first  Buddhist  monks  were  regulated.     Even  in  building      strict 

hut  it  must  be  of  prescribed  measurement ;  no  extra  robes  must  regulations. 

e  kept ;  no  rug  or  mat  with  silk  in  it  must  be  used  by  a  monk,  and  a  rug 
nust  last  six  years  ;  spare  bowls  must  not  be  possessed ;  no  monk  must 
mcroach  on  the  hospitality  already  given  to  another ;  no  monk  might  take 
nore  than  one  meal  at  a  public  rest-house. 

The  members  of  the  Order  had  to  go  into  the  neighbourhood  of  houses 
jompletely  clad,  clean,  with  downcast  eye,  making  but  little  noise,  not 
waying  the  limbs  about  with  excited  gestures.  Their  heads  must  be  un- 
;overed.  Various  observances  are  connected  with  taking  the  food  given  to 
ihem.  They  were  not  to  preach  the  Buddhist  doctrine  to  persons  in 
inseemly  attitudes,  nor  to  any  one  sitting. 

After  Buddha's  death  a  different  system  of  receiving  monks  of  course 

I  rose.     The  following  is  the  profession  of  faith  which  early  became  pre- 
'alent : 
"  To  Buddha  will  I  look  in  faith ;  he,  the  Exalted,  is  the  holy,  supreme 
Juddha,  the  knowing,  the   instructed,  the  blessed,  who  knows  Profession  of 
he  worlds,  the  Supreme  One,  who  yoketh  men  like  an  ox,  the       f£Uth- 
teacher  of  gods  and  men,  the  exalted  Buddha. 

"  To  the  doctrine  will  I  look  in  faith  ;  well  preached  is  the  doctrine  by 
he  Exalted  One.  It  has  become  apparent ;  it  needs  no  time  ;  it  says  'Come 
md  see '  ;  it  leads  to  welfare  ;  it  is  realised  by  the  wise  in  their  own  hearts. 
"  To  the  Order  will  I  look  in  faith  ;  in  right  behaviour  lives  the  Order 
)f  disciples  of  the  Exalted  One  ;  in  proper,  honest,  just  behaviour  lives  the 
)rder  of  the  disciples  of  the  Exalted  One,  the  four  couples,  the  eight  classes 
>f  believers  ;  that  is  the  Order  of  the  disciples  of  the  Exalted  One,  worthy 
o  have  men  lift  their  hands  before  them  in  reverence,  the  highest  place 
n  the  world,  in  which  man  may  do  good. 

11  In  the  precepts  of  rectitude  will  I  walk,  which  the  holy  love,  which 
ire  uninfringed,  unviolated,  unmixed,  uncoloured,  free,  praised  by  the^wise 
\nd  not  counterfeit,  which  lead  on  to  concentration." 

Although  we  have  spoken  of  the  Buddhist  Order,  somewhat  as  if  it 


286  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

were  a  body  corporate,  it  never  became  strictly  so.  No  central  authority  or 
Not  a  body  representative  council  was  ever  constituted ;  no  person  was 
corporate,  deputed  by  the  founder  of  the  religion  to  represent  him  after 
his  death.  And  indeed  mankind  had  not  then  arrived  at  the  conception 
of  a  Pope,  or  a  general  authority  exercising  sway  through  widely  different 
No  bead  after an^  separate  regions.  The  only  device  that  then  occurred  to 
Buddba.  ^ie  m0nks  was  to  attribute  every  new  regulation  which  they 
wished  to  enforce,  to  Buddha  himself.  He  was  the  one  person  to  whom 
authority  was  conceded  ;  and  in  so  far  as  his  authority  was  acknowledged, 
his  supposed  behests  were  likely  to  be  obeyed.  The  only  other  way  of 
Assemblies  or  imposing  new  regulations  was  by  means  of  assemblies  or  councils 
councils.  0f  monks,  but  though  sometimes  spoken  of  as  general  councils 
as  of  a  Church,  they  were  only  assemblies  of  monks  at  a  particular  centre 
at  one  time,  not  called  from  all  Buddhist  centres,  and  not  representative. 
Probably  the  first  of  these,  said  to  have  been  held  at  Rajagaha  immediately 
after  Buddha's  death,  included  the  most  prominent  and  revered  of  his 
followers ;  but  there  was  no  way  of  imposing  its  decisions  on  those  who 
were  not  present,  except  by  a  purely  intangible  influence.  The  same  was 
the  case  with  the  later  councils.  No  doubt  they  were  assembled  because 
evils  had  arisen,  or  questions  required  decision.  But  the  more  Buddhism 
spread,  the  more  independent  spirits  entered  its  ranks,  the  more  difficult 
was  it  to  heal  divisions  or  to  prevent  divergences  of  doctrine  and  practice 
from  arising.  And  this  went  on,  antagonised  only  by  the  cohesion  pro- 
duced by  the  sacred  books,  the  devotion  and  reverence  for  Buddha,  the 
greater  or  less  consciousness  of  a  common  interest  to  advance  and  a  common 
battle  to  fight.  Hence  it  was  that,  as  its  founder  predicted,  Buddhism  was 
destined  to  die  in  India,  and  to  maintain  itself  in  other  countries  in  widely 
different  forms  from  those  in  which  it  had  originated. 

At  first  no  limitations  were  imposed  as  to  admission  to  the  Order  ;  any 

applicant  was  received.     But  it  was  soon  necessary  to  lay  down  certain 

Limitations  ru^es  °f  exclusion.     Criminals,    those   afflicted   with   serious  de- 

to         formities,  soldiers  and  servants  of  kings,  debtors  and  slaves,  and 

sons  whose  parents  refused  their  consent,  were  thus  excluded. 

No  youth  might  enter  the  first  stage  till  twelve  years  old,  or  might  be  fully 

received  as  a  monk  till  twenty.     Two  stages  were  marked,  the  preliminary 

reception  or  outgoing  from  lay  life  or  from  another  sect  of  ascetics,   and 

the  complete  entry  (Upasampacla)  into  the  Order.     The  latter  was  conferred 

Form  of     at  a  general  meeting  (Samgha)  of  monks  in  any  place,  a  resolu- 

reception.    tjon  askjng  for  ^  being  proposed,    and   any  one  who  objected 

being  required  to  declare  his  objection.     The  petitioner  was  asked  if  he  had 

certain  diseases,  if  he  was  a  freeman,  if  he  had  no  debts,  if  he  had  a  proper 

alms-bowl  and  robes,  if  his  parents  consented,  if  .he  was  in  the  royal  service, 

etc.     He  had  further  to  offer  some    experienced  monk  as  his  sponsor  or 

Tbe  four    teacher.     He  was  then  proposed  for  formal  reception  ;  and  if  no 

resources.   monk  objected,  he  was  declared  to  be  received.     He  was  next 

formally  told  what  were  the  four  resources  of  the  Order,  (1)  morsels  of  food 


THE   BUDDHIST  DOCTRINES.  287 


given  in  alms,  (2)  a  robe  made  of  rags  taken  from  a  dust  heap,  (.;i)  dwelling 
I at  tlie  foot  of  a  tree,  (4)  the  filthiest  liquid  for  medicine.     All  other  food, 
drink,  shelter,  and  clothing  were  to  be  regarded  as  extra  allowances.     After 
K  this,  four  great  prohibitions  were  communicated:  (1)  the  command     The  four 
j  to  live  a  chaste  life,  (2)  not  to  take  even  a  blade  of  grass  that  had  prohibitions, 
not  been  given  to  him,  (3)  not  to  take  the  life  of  even  the  minutest  creature, 
(4)  not  to  boast  that  he  possessed  any  superhuman  perfection.     Thus  the 
whole  reception  was  confined  to  declarations  on  the  part  of  both  the  can- 
didate and  the  assembly.     Nothing  like  prayer,  special  initiation,  or  confer- 
ment of  power  Avas  included. 

It  followed  that  it  was  equally  easy  to  leave  the   Order.     This  was 
.a  direct  consequence  of  Buddha's  teaching,  which  was  only  open   to  those 
who   voluntarily   received    it.     Perhaps   no  Order  ever  held   its  Quitting  the 
members  so  lightly;    and  in   this  lay  one  of  the  secrets  of  its      order. 
strength.     The  monks  were  bound  to  lead  a  very  temperate  life,  but  their 
subsistence  was  sure  so  long  as  the  Order  had  any  repute  ;  the  thoughts  to 
which  they  were  exhorted  chimed  in  with  their  own  natural  pre-        Its 
possessions,  and  an  undoubted  position  of  respect  and  influence  advantages, 
was  occupied  by  every  monk.     Then  again,  while  not  coercing  any  one  to 
stay  (a  monk  might  leave  on  simply  declaring  that  he  wished  to  return  to 
relatives,  or  home,  or  a  worldly  life),  the  Order  had  a  considerable  hold  on 
him  by  reason  of  the  censure  and  the  exclusion  which  it  might  pronounce. 
The  breaking  of  any  of  the  great  prohibitions  caused  exclusion,  provided 
■any  monk  took  notice  of  it  and  brought  the  case  before  an  assembly.     So 
the  double  mode — forcible  exclusion,   and   voluntary  retirement — were  in 
•easy  operation,   and    thus    the  Order,    retaining  only  voluntary  and  well- 

I  behaved  members,  was  strong. 
In  one  thing  Buddhist  monks  differed  from  many  other  Orders :  they 
were  strictly  forbidden  to  acceptor  possess  silver  or  gold,  or  even  to  treasure 
them  for  the  Order.     Thus  they  were  kept  far  from  "  the  root  of  No  silver  or 
all  evil."     If  a  monk  nevertheless  accepted  such  a  gift,  he  was       sol± 
compelled  to  hand  it  over  to  some  lay  adherent  in  the  neighbourhood,  who 
was  to  purchase  with  it  butter,  oil,  or  honey,  for  the  use  of  the  monks, 
the  guilty  receiver  excepted.     Or  again  the  gold  or  silver  might  be  cast 
away.     Such  a  severe  restriction  was  steadfastly  maintained  for  centuries. 

Another  distinction  of  the  Buddhist  monks  from  other  Orders,  in  India 
and  elsewhere,  was  in  the  seemliness  of  their  outward  appearance.  Far 
from  cultivating  dirt  or  unseemliness  in  any  form,  they  were     Seemly 

scrupulously  careful  about  bathing,  the  care  of  the  body,  ventila-    outward 

i-i  i-  -i      •         .       t       1,1  mi-  appearance, 

tion,  and   other   things  conducive  to   health.       iheir  garments, 

though  they  might  be  very  poor,  were  to  be  seemly  and  decent,  and   it 

was  not  forbidden  to  accept  a  sufficiency  of  food  and  clothing  from  any 

lay  adherent.     The  whole  picture  of  the  Buddhist  monks  of  early  times  is 

a  remarkable  one  in  its  preservation  of  the   medium  between  asceticism 

and  excess,  a  resolute  choice   which  has  no  doubt  preserved  it  from  the 

extremes  of  Hindu  asceticism,  though  it  has  not  always  kept  it  equally  free 


,8S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


from  excesses  of  other   kinds.     Shelter  was  always  obtainable  and  allow- 
able  and  even  comfortable  quarters  were  not  disdained.     Everything  was, 
•'  -  far  as  known,  conducted  on  sanitary  principles,  in  many  points  reminding 
of  the  domestic  legislation  of  the  Jews.     The  seniors  and.  teachers  were 
cially  revered  and  well  attended  to,  their  pupils  and  the  novices  who 
were  their  woteaes  being  expected  to  travel  ahead  of  them  and 

Companion-  ""^  J  ,.,11  j.i_    •  -1    ,       -, 

snip.       prepare  quarters  for  them  when  on  their  journeys,   and  to  do 

every  kindly  office  for  them.  Solitude  in  fact  was  discouraged.  We  every- 
where hear  of  groups  of  monks  residing  together,  helping  one  another  in 
difficulties  sickness,  or  temptation,  and  looking  after  one  another's  spiritual 
welfare.  For  five  years  after  his  admission  to  the  Order  each  monk  had  to 
be  under  the  tutelage  of  two  monks  of  ten  years'  standing  whom 
Tutelage.  ^e  wag  tQ  accompaily  and  attend  upon,  and  from  whom  he  was 
to  receive  instruction.  Where  many  monks  resided  together,  offices  became 
somewhat  subdivided,  but  only  in  relation  to  domestic  matters  ;  thus  different 
individuals  were  charged  with  the  distribution  of  fruit,  of  rice,  the  care  ot 
the  sleeping  and  assembly  rooms,  etc. 

It  is  noteworthy  how  little  importance  the  Buddhist  monks  attached 
to   labour  apart  from  absolute  necessities.     Like   the  strict  Brahmans,  to 
whom  the  recitation  of  the  Vedas  was  all-important,  the  monks 
Recitations  ^     r(je(j  ^e  repetition  of  Buddha's  sayings  and  discourses  and 
discussions.  ^  raies  of  the  Order  as  essential.     But  this  was  varied  with 
discussions  on  points  of  difficulty  or  the  fuller  exposition  of  the  leading 
doctrines  :  "  He  who  abides  in  the  Order  talks  not  of  many  topics  and  talks 
not  of  vulgar  things.     He  expounds  the  word  himself,  or  stirs  up  another 
to  its  exposition,  or  he  esteems  even  sacred  silence  not  lightly."   (0.)     On 
the  whole  we  have  a  picture  of  an  Order  living  in  the  world,  yet  not  of  the 
world  almost  daily  contemplating  the  turmoil  and  distractions  of  a  suffer- 
ing changeful  life,  yet  never  taking  part  in  its  affairs ;  a  standing  witness 
to  self-seeking  quarrelling  people  that  something  existed  far  better  than 
their  life  that  passions  could  be  quelled,  that  there  was  a  life  which  gave 
relief  from  sorrows  and  produced  a  philosophic  calm.     Perhaps 
and  love  of  in  this  life  too  there  was  more  pure  love  of  nature  than  was  always 
acknowledged ;  and  the  rule  as  to  sparing  life  was  certainly  in 
accord  with  this.     Some  of  their  poets  have  beautifully  expressed  this  love 
of  nature.     "  The  broad  heart-cheering  expanses,  crowned  by  Jcareri  forests, 
those  lovely  regions,  where  elephants  raise  their  voices,  the  rocks,  make  me 
glad.     Where  the  rain  rushes,  those  lovely  abodes,  the  mountains  where 
sages  walk,  where  the  peacock's  cry  resounds,  the  rocks,  make  me  glad. 
There  is  it  good  for  me  to  be,  the  friend  of  abstraction,  who  is  struggling 
for  salvation.     There  is  it  good  for  me  to  be,  the  monk,  who  pursues  the 
true  good,  who  is  struggling  for  salvation."  (0.) 

The  fortnightly  meetings  already  referred  to  (p.  285)  were  almost  the 
only  regular  assemblies  of  Buddhists,   and  confession  and  questioning  of 
Few       one  another  was  almost  the  only  religious  form.     We  must  con- 
ceremonies.  stantly  keep  in  mind  the  burdensome  and  expensive  nature  of 


THE  BUDDHIST  DOCTRINES. 


2  8< ) 


the  Brahman  observances,  and  likewise  the  authority  which  the  Brahmans 
claimed  over  all  kinds  of  concerns  of  other  people.  Thus  the  contrast  to 
the  latter  was  very  evident  in  Buddhism :  little  ceremony,  retired  life, 
modest  demeanour,  pure  living,  no  profession  of  supernatural  power,  no 
assumption  of  authority.  Herein  was  a  great  part  of  its  strength.  It  is 
surely  one  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  in  the  world  that  a  religion 
— if  it  can  be  truly  called  a  religion, — which  professes  no  knowledge  and 
inculcates  no  worship  of  a  god,  and  which  is  not  bound  in  reverence  to  a 
supernatural  Person,  should  have  obtained  sway  over  one- third  of  Reverence  to 
the  population  of  the  globe.     Buddha,  it  is  true,  is  ever  held  in    Buddha. 


WORSHIPPERS    BEFORE    THE    ENTRANCE    TO    THE    SHRINE    OF    THE    TOOTH,    CEYLON. 

reverence,  but  he  is  not  believed  in  as  existing  ;  he  is  in  Nirvana,  but 
whether  Nirvana  is  a  state  of  present  existence  or  not  is  doubtful,  and  thus 
there  is  no  prayer  to  Buddha,  no  answer  to  prayer  by  Buddha;  yet  his 
memory  is  fresh,  his  name  is  sanctified,  his  teaching  is  influential  as  ever. 

The  only  thing  in  early  Buddhism  approaching  the  pilgrimages  ami 
acts  of  worship  in  other  religions,  is  the  holding  in  reverence  of  the  four 
notable  places  in  Buddha's  life :    his  birthplace,  the  spot  where  Regard  for 
he  attained  knowledge  and  perfect   insight,  the  place  where  he  holy  Places- 
started  the  kingdom  of  righteousness,  and  the  place  of  his  death.     Those 
who  died  while  journeying  to  these  places  were  promised  that  their  re-birth 

u 


29o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Bhould    be  in   heaven.     The  care  of  Buddha's  relics,  the  building  of  monu- 

bs  to  contain  them,  and   the  holding  of  festivals  in  their  honour  were 
entirely  left  to  lay  members. 

Perhaps  the  institution  most  nearly  parallel  with  the  Buddhist 
assemblies  is  the  class-meeting  among  the  Methodists  as  instituted  by  John 
The  Wesley.  The  "  leader  "  of  the  meeting  was  the  monk  of  longest 
confessional  standing  in  the  district,  and  every  member  of  the  Order  was  to 
be  present,  even  if  ill,  unless  he  were  able  to  send  by  another  monk  his 
assurance  of  freedom  from  the  faults  which  the  sacred  form  (Pattimokkha, 
the  words  of  disburdenment)  inquired  into.  No  woman,  no  lay  member, 
no  novice,  might  take  part  in  or  be  present  at  this  solemnity.  Three 
times  every  question  must  be  put,  and  silence  was  an  assertion  of  purity. 
In  later  times  it  was  held  necessary  that  every  monk  should  have  previously 
confessed  his  fault  and  done  the  appropriate  penance  (unless  it  were  one  for 
which  exclusion  was  the  punishment);  and  it  was  the  duty  of  any  brother 
who  knew  of  an  offence  committed  by  another  to  demand  his  confession 
and  performance  of  penance. 

A  full  procedure  (contained  in  the  Kullavagga)  gradually  grew  up  to 
meet  all  cases  of  transgression.  Buddhist  monks,  like  other  human  beings, 
■me  proved  themselves  liable  to  err,  and  we  find  recitals  such  as  this 
Kioiavag-ga.  a^  the  beginning  of  various  sections  of  the  Kullavagga  :  "  Now  at 
that  time  the  venerable  Seyyasaka  was  stupid,  and  indiscreet,  and  full  of 
faults,  and  devoid  of  merit,  and  was  living  in  lay  society  in  unlawful  associa- 
tion with  the  world,  so  much  so  that  the  monks  were  worn  out  with  placing 
him  on  probation  and  with  throwing  him  back  to  the  beginning  of  his 
probationary  term,"  etc.  (S.  E.  xvii.)  The  various  narrations  show  that 
offences  and  some  monks  at  times  were  guilty  of  almost  every  kind  of  offence 
penances.  or  frivolity,  and  so  regulations  for  warning,  punishing,  or  ex- 
clnding  them  were  devised.  If  an  individual,  even  a  lay  person,  had  been 
offended  or  put  clown,  his  pardon  had  to  be  asked.  Suspension  was  the 
punishment  for  not  acknowledging  and  not  atoning  for  an  offence.  How 
severe  this  " cutting "  could  be,  is  shown  by  the  following  recital:  "And 
the  monks  did  no  reverence  to  him,  rose  not  from  their  seats  to  welcome 
him,  rendered  him  not  service,  offered  him  not  salutation,  paid  not  respect 
to  him,  offered  him  not  hospitality,  nor  esteemed  him,  nor  honoured  him, 
nor  supported  him."  The  various  penances  and  forms  connected  with  them 
are  too  numerous  for  us  to  attempt  a  further  account  of  them. 

One  other  simple  annual  ceremony  there  was,  known  as  the  Pavarana 
or  invitation.  At  the  end  of  the  rainy  season,  before  commencing  the  season 
The  Pavarana  of  itinerancy,  the  monks  met  in  assembly,  each  sitting  down  on 
;ati01L  the  ground,  raising  his  clasped  hands,  and  inviting  his  brethren 
to  charge  him  with  any  offence  he  might  be  suspected  of,  promising,  if  he 
had  been  guilty,  to  make  atonement.  If  any  monk  happened  to  be  isolated, 
be  could  held  this  service  by  himself. 

1  mis  utterly  devoid  of  show,  of  stately  formality,  of  imposing  accom- 
paniments, was  Buddhism  ;  priestless,  templeless,  agnostic  as  to  the  supreme 


THE  BUDDHIST  DOCTRINES.  291 

Being,  its  undeniable  power  and  influence  drew  to  it  multitudes  of  ad- 
herents ;  and  they  were  not  all  sound  or  docile  fish  that  came  to  the  net. 
Hence  we  early  hear  of  dissensions  in  the  Order,  and  whole  chapters  in  the 
sacred  books  are  devoted  to  their  consideration.  There  are  procedures  for 
settling  disputes,  for  dealing  with  charges  against  the  innocent,  the  insane, 
etc.  ;  and  when  peaceable  reconciliation  proved  impossible,  matters  were  to 
be  decided  by  a  vote  of  the  majority,  unless  the  subject  was  too  trivial,  or  a 
vote  would  lead  to  an  open  schism. 

The  "  nuns,"  or  "  sisters,"  of  Buddhism  were  regarded  as  constituting 
a  separate  Order,  with  their  own  fortnightly  assemblies,  yet  in  complete 
subordination  to  the  monks,  so  that  none  of  the  higher  cere-  The  nuns,  or 
monies  were  complete  without  the  co-operation  of  monks.  Every  si3ters- 
sister  had  to  bow  reverently,  rise,  and  raise  her  clasped  hands  before  every 
monk,  however  newly  admitted.  Both  the  confession  meetings  and  the 
preaching  of  the  true  Buddhist  doctrine  had  to  be  conducted  for  them  by 
the  monks  ;  and  the  nuns,  after  having  held  their  own  annual  meeting, 
had  to  send  to  the  corresponding  meeting  of  monks  asking  them  if  they 
had  any  fault  to  reprehend  in  them.  They  were  forbidden  to  revile  or 
scold  monks,  or  to  accuse  them.  Ordination  of  the  sisters,  penances  for 
transgressions,  settlement  of  disputes,  all  had  to  be  performed  or  arranged 
by  the  monks.  Every  fortnight  the  sisterhood  had  to  obtain  audience  of 
a  monk  who  had  been  appointed  by  his  assembly  to  instruct  and  admonish 
them ;  but  he  was  strictly  forbidden  to  enter  their  abode,  or  to  journey  or 
have  any  intimate  companionship  with  them.  No  sister  might  live  alone, 
or  in  a  forest ;  they  lived  within  the  walls  of  towns  and  villages,  and  never 
seem  to  have  been  at  all  comparable  in  numbers  or  influence  to  the  monks. 
Indeed,  it  would  have  been  against  the  spirit  of  the  Buddhist  system  that 
they  should  be  so;  for  it  could  only  exist  by  the  keeping  up  of  family 
life,  the  provision  of  food  and  dwelling-places,  which  could  not  be  continued 
[if  women  made  a  practice  of  living  in  nun-like  separation. 

The  relations  between  the  Order  and  the  laity  were  unlike  those  of 
almost  every  other  church.  Lay  believers  must  have  been  very  numerous, 
to  admit  of  the  support  of  such  large  numbers  of  monks,  and  the 
extensive  dedication  of  parks  and  buildings  to  their  use  ;  but  the 
monks  never  thought  it  necessary  to  institute  a  formal  method  of  admitting: 
lay  adherents,  nor  to  keep  a  roll  of  them.  Practically  in  each  district  the 
followers  of  Buddha  were  well  known,  and  it  was  not  desirable  to  exclude 
any  one  from  the  class  of  givers  without  some  potent  reason.  It  was  usual 
however  for  a  declaration  to  be  made  to  a  monk  by  believers,  that  they 
took  refuge  in  Buddha,  in  the  Doctrine,  and  in  the  Order  ;  but  a  monk 
might  recognise  a  beneficent  person  as  a  lay  believer  before  such  profession. 
Instruction  in  the  doctrines  of  Buddha  would  be  readily  given  to  any  person 
who  offered  hospitality  to  the  monks,  and  as  readily  withdrawn  from  any 
one  who  maligned  or  insulted  them.  A  serious  offence  was  visited  by 
withdrawal  of  the  alms-bowl,  and  refusal  of  hospitality;  but  such  mild 
excommunication  would  probably  be  quite  in  accordance  with  the  desire 


.92  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


of  any  cue  who  could  speak  ill  of  the  Order.  The  monks  showed  consider- 
able readiness  to  re-admit  any  one  who  apologised  for  his  fault  and  became 
reconciled  to  them.  Beyond  tins  they  did  not  greatly  concern  themselves 
with  the  private  life  of  the  laity.  Their  true  church  consisted  of  the 
Order  ;  the  rest  of  mankind  was  scarcely  within  measurable  distance  of  bliss. 
And  their  moral  state  was  but  faintly  cared  for.  It  is  true  that  an  eight- 
fold abstinence  was  enjoined  on  them,  including  abstinence  from  killing 
animals,  stealing,  lying,  drinking  intoxicating  liquors,  unchastity,  eating 
after  mid-day,  and  from  perfumes  and  garlands  ;  and  they  must  sleep  on  hard 
beds  on  the  ground.  General  meetings  of  believers  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  held,  nor  were  they  admitted  to  meetings  of  the  monks.  But  praises 
and  promises  of  bliss  were  freely  bestowed  after  this  fashion:  "  To  give 
houses  to  the  Order,  wherein  in  safety  and  in  peace  to  meditate  and  think 
at  ease,  the  Buddha  calls  the  best  of  gifts.  Therefore  let  a  wise  man,  who 
understands  what  is  best  for  himself,  build  beautiful  houses,  and  receive 
into  them  knowers  of  the  doctrine.  Let  him  with  cheerful  mind  give  food 
to  them,  and  drink,  raiment  and  dwelling-places,  to  the  upright  in  heart. 
Then  shall  they  preach  to  him  the  doctrine  which  drives  away  all  suffering ; 
if  he  apprehends  that  doctrine  here  below,  he  goes  sinless  into  Nirvana." 
Naturally  there  was  sometimes  a  tendency  for  monks  to  exact  too  much, 
and  the  sacred  books  exhibit  a  stern  repression  of  such  practices,  together 
with  considerable  sensitiveness  as  to  the  opinion  of  the  lay-believers. 

AVe  may  here  briefly  refer  to  the  modern  doctrine  termed  "  Esoteric 
Buddhism,"  which  finds  favour  with  some  persons  in  our  own  land.  In  the 
Esoteric  Book  of  the  Great  Decease,  Buddha  expressly  disclaims  any  secret 
Buddhism,  doctrine  of  this  kind.  Modern  Esoteric  Buddhism  should  rather 
be  called  a  form  of  Theosophy,  which  takes  hold  of  some  points  in  Budd- 
hism, especially  that  of  transmigration  or  reincarnation,  and  expresses  the 
belief  that  souls  become  reincarnated  in  successive  bodies,  without  remem- 
bering what  took  place  in  a  previous  state  of  existence  ;  the  successive  lives 
being  separated  from  one  another  by  "  intervals  of  spiritual  consciousness 
on  a  plane  of  nature  wholly  imperceptible  to  ordinary  senses."  During  this 
stage,  the  lower  passions  of  earth  are  forgotten  and  the  higher  alone  enjoyed ; 
and  the  vividness  of  this  joy  will  depend  on  the  impulse  and  intensity  of 
previous  upward  aspirations.  Reincarnation,  when  this  impulse  is  ex- 
hausted, provides  an  appropriate  punishment  for  ordinary  evil  doing. 

The  word  "  karma,"  or  "  doing,"  is  very  important  in  Esoteric  Budd- 
hism :  it  is  explained  as  the  law  of  cause  and  effect  in  the  moral  world.  It 
Karm  determines,  according  to  fixed  consequences,  the  state  and  con- 
dition in  which  reincarnations  take  place ;  on  earth  good  karma 
may  be  laid  up,  and  bad  karma  worked  out  by  suffering.  Finally,  the 
individual  returns  no  more  to  earth-life  ;  and  the  spiritual  state  becomes 
permanent  and  exalted.  A  further  doctrine  is,  that,  concurrent  with  the 
physical  existence,  the  human  ego  is  capable  of  existence  and  of  conscious- 
ness in  a  non-physical  state.  But  all  these  ideas  are  quite  unprovable  by 
ordinary  methods  of  proof.     (See  A.  P.  Sinnett,  "  Esoteric  Buddhism.") 


BURMESE    BUDDHIST    PRIEST    AND    PUPILS. 


CHAPTER    VII. 
iHofcent  95utmi)tsfm.   #> 

Missionary  religions — Buddhism  many-sided — The  first  Buddhist  councils — King  Asoka— The  third 
council — Asoka's  edicts— Divergence  of  tranches — The  fourth  (Kanishka's)  council — Fa-hien — 
Siladitya's  council— His  good  deeds— Huen-Siang — Decline  of  Indian  Buddhism— Its  causes— The 
Greater  and  the  Lesser  Vehicles— Wide  range  of  Buddhism— Number  of  Buddhists  Singhalese 
Buddhism— Gradual  modification — Images  of  Buddha — Viharas  in  Ceylon— Cave  temples — Wor- 
ship of  the  laity — Worship  of  the  Bo-tree— Dagobas— Relics  of  Buddha— Impressions  of  Buddha's 
foot— Vassa  and  public  readings— The  Pirit  ceremony — Buddhist  monks  in  Ceylon— Schools — 
Services  of  monks  in  illness — Burmese  Buddhism — Burmese  monastery  schools — Novices— A 
Burmese  monastery — The  Phon-gyees— Life  of  a  monk— Monastery  buildings— Burmese  pagodas 
— The  great  Rangoon  temple — Pagahn— Burmese  worship — Images  of  Buddha— Pagoda  feasts — 
Nat  worship —Animism— Funerals  of  laity— Funerals  of  monks— Siamese  Buddhism— Siamese 
temples— Newborn  children— Reformed  sects  in  Siam. 

AS  a  missionary  religion,  Buddhism l  is  only  comparable  with.  Mahomet- 
anism  and  Christianity.  No  other  religions  have  set  themselves  to 
conquer  many  races  outside  their  original  home  ;  no  others  have  Missionary 
achieved  so  much  peacefully.  Hinduism  professedly  restricts  re^ff10113- 
itself  to  the  Hindus,  though  it  has  displayed  great  powers  of  absorbing 
aboriginal  races  into  itself.  Buddhism,  Mahometanism,  and  Christianity 
are  for  all  people  who  will  receive  them ;  and  their  followers  have  proved 
their  faith  by  their  missionary  efforts. 

Sir  Monier- Williams,  in  his  recent  work  on  Buddhism,  well  expresses 
the  great  variety  of  aspects  under  which  it  is  necessary  to  study  Buddhism. 
In  various  countries  and  periods,  "  its  teaching  has  become  both  Buddhism 
negative   and   positive,  agnostic  and   gnostic.      It  passes  from  many-sided- 
apparent  atheism  and  materialism  to  theism,  polytheism,  and  spiritualism. 

1  See   Spence   Hardy's  "  Eastern  Monaohism  "  and   "  Manual    of    Buddhism  "  ;    Sir   Monier- 
Williams's  "Buddhism";  "The  Burman,"  by  Shway  Yoe  (Mr.  Scott),  (B.)  ;  Alabaster's  "Wheel  of 

the  Law." 


2g4  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


It  is,  under  one  aspect,  mere  pessimism  ;  under  another,  pure  philanthropy  ; 
under  another,  monastic  communism;  under  another,  high  morality;  under 
another,  a  variety  of  materialistic  philosoplry;  under  another,  simple  de- 
monology;  under  another,  a  mere  farrago  of  superstitions,  including 
necromancy,  witchcraft,  idolatry,  and  fetishism.  In  some  form  or  other  it 
may  be  held  with  almost  any  religion,  and  embraces  something  from  almost 
every  creed." 

At  the  first  Buddhist  Council,  held  at  Rajagriha,  after  the  death  of 
Gautama,  the  teachings  of  the  Enlightened  One  were  sung  in  three  di- 
visions, namely,  the  Sutras,  or  Suttas,  or  words  of  Buddha  to  his  disciples ; 
the  Vinay  a,  or  discipline  of  the  Order,  and  the  Dharma,  or  doctrine ; 
BuddMst    forming  together  the  Tripitakas,  or  three  baskets  or  collections. 
councils,     j^  hundred   years  later,  a  second  council,  held  at  Vesali,  con- 
demned the  system  of  indulgences  which  had  arisen,  and  led  to  the  splitting 
of  Buddhism  into  two  parties,  who  afterwards  gave  rise  to  as  many  as 
eighteen  sects.      But   these   controversies    did   not   hinder   the   spread   of 
Buddhism  in  Northern  India.      About  the  middle  of  the  third 
century  B.C.,  Asoka,  the  king  of  Magadha,  or  Behar,  grandson  of 
Chandragupta  (Greek  Sandrokottos),  founder  of  the  kingdom,  and  noted  for 
his  connexion  with  Alexander  the  Great  and  Seleucus,  became  a  sort  of 
second  founder  of  Buddhism.     He  founded  so  many  monasteries  that  his 
kingdom  received  the  name  of  Land  of  the  Monasteries  (Vihara  or  Behar). 
The  third   He  made  it  the  religion  of  the  State,  and  held  at  Patna  the  third 
council.     Buddhist  council  in  244  B.C.,  which  rectified  the  doctrines  and 
canon  of  Buddhism.     Asoka  subsequently  did  much  to  spread  the  Order  by 
sending  out  missionaries;  and  he  inculcated  its  principles  by  having  them 
cut  upon  rocks  and  pillars,  and  in  caves,  through  a  wide  extent  of  India.    A 
number  of  these  still  exist.     The  form  which  the  Buddhist  scriptures  took 
under  his  influence,  in  the  dialect  of  his  time  and  country,  has  been  the 
basis  of  the  manuscripts  preserved  in  Ceylon,  in  what  is  now  known  as 
the  Pali  language.     In  every  way  Asoka  showed  himself  to  be  one  of  the 
most  enlightened  of  religious  monarchs ;  and  he  in  no  way  sought  to  make 
his  views  triumph  by  force.      His  missionaries  were  directed  to  mingle 
Asoka's     equally  with  all  ranks  of  unbelievers,  and  to  "  teach  better  things." 
edicts.      His  edicts  include  the  prohibition  of  the  slaughter  of  animals  for 
food  or  sacrifice,  the  statement  of  the  happiness  to  be  found  in  virtue  and 
the  contrast  of  the  transitory  glory  of  this  world  with  the  reward  beyond  it, 
the  inculcation  of  the  doctrine  that  the  teaching  of  Buddhist  doctrine  and 
virtue  to  others  constitutes  the  greatest  of  charitable  gifts,  an  order  for  the 
provision  of  medical  aid  for  men  and  animals,  the  appointment  of  guardians 
of  morality,  etc. 

From  the  time  of  Asoka  we  may  date  the  divergence  of  Buddhism  into 

its  varied  national  forms;  henceforth  it  is  only  possible  to  treat  the  subject 

Divergence  cither  by  the  comparative  method  or  by  referring  in  turn  to  the 

.ranches,  development  of  each  main  branch.     Space  will  only  permit  us 

to  treat  each  very  briefly.     The  fourth  great  Buddhist  council,  held  under 


MODERN  BUDDHISM.  295 

Kanishka,  who  reigned  from  Kashmir  widely  over  north-western  India,  in 
the  first  century  a.d.,  drew  up  three  commentaries  on  Buddhism,  7^^^^ 
which  were  the  basis  for  the  Tibetan  scriptures.     This  council  in-  (Kanisnka's) 
dicates  that  Buddhism  was  firmly  and  widely  established  in  India, 
and  up  to  at  least  a.d.  800  it  continued  widely  prevalent  there,  though  Brah- 
manism  was  never  suppressed,  and  in  fact  it  was  gradually  absorbing  many 
Buddhist  ideas,  and  preparing,  when  that  operation  was  completed,  to  take 
its  place  entirely.     In  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  a.d.,  Fa-hien,  a 
Chinese  Buddhist,  visiting  India,  found  Buddhist  monks  and  Brah-     ^ 
man  priests  equally  honoured,  and  Buddhist  religious  houses  side  by 
side  with  Hindu  temples.    In  the  seventh  century  the  Buddhists  were  being 
outnumbered  by  the  Hindus,  although  there  were  still  powerful  Buddhist 
monarchs  and  states  in  India.     At  this  period  Siladitya  appears  as  a  great 
patron-king,  who  in  634  held  another  great  council  at  Kanauj  on  snaditya's 
the  Ganges;   but  the  progress  of  Brahmanism  was  manifest  in     councU- 
the  discussions  which  took  place  at  this  council  between  Buddhists  and 
Brahmans,  and  by  the  worship  of  the  sun  god  and  of  Siva  on  days  succeed- 
ing  the  inauguration  of  a   statue  of  Buddha.       The   divergences    among 
followers  of  Buddha  were  seen  in  the  disputes  which  took  place  between 
the  advocates  of  the  Northern  and  the  Southern  Canons,  or  the  greater  and 
lesser  "  Vehicles"  of  the  law.     Siladitya  was  further  notable  for     msgood 
his  public  distribution  of  his  treasures  and  jewels  every  five  years,      deeds- 
after  which  he  put  on  a  beggar's  rags  ;  thus  he  celebrated  Buddha's  Great 
Renunciation.      Near  Gaya  he  supported  the  vast  monastery  of  Nalunda, 
where  it  is  said  that  ten  thousand   Buddhist  monks  and  novices  pursued 
their   studies   and   devotions ;    but   Gaya   was   already   a   great   centre   of 
Hinduism.    Huen-Siang,  who  travelled  from  China  through  India  „ 

&?  .  .    Huen  Siang. 

in  the  seventh  century,  found  Brahmanism  gaining  ground,  though 
Buddhism  still  flourished  in  Southern  India.     Some  of  the  Hindu  reformers 
persecuted  it,  as  already  related.    It  was  still  comparatively  strong   Decline  of 
in  Orissa  and  Kashmir  in  the  11th  century,  and  Magadha  con-     Indian 

,  _,     .  -,.  .  .,     ,       ^r   ,  ,  J  '  ,.,  -.      r  Buddhism, 

tmued  Buddhist  until  the  Mohammedan  conquest  at  the  end  01 

the   twelfth  century.      After   that,  Buddhism  was   practically  extinct   in 
India. 

Why  was  this  ?  Partly  because,  as  we  have  already  pointed  out, 
Hinduism  seized  upon  the  more  valuable  doctrines  of  Buddhism,  and  com- 
bined them  with  the  stronger  and  more  popular  elements  of  its  courseg 
own  faith  and  ritual.  Buddhism,  too,  did  not  set  itself  to  ex- 
tinguish Brahmanism  ;  that  would  have  been  contrary  to  its  principles ; 
and  its  composure  and  extinction  of  desires  was  not  calculated  to  put  down 
any  active  opposition.  Moreover,  the  Buddhists'  celibacy  contradicted  one 
of  the  great  instincts  of  humanity  ;  and  we  must  allow  for  the  full  effect 
of  their  ignoring  the  existence  of  God,  of  their  denial  of  revelation,  and 
of  the  efficacy  of  prayer  and  priesthood.  Again,  and  perhaps  chiefly, 
Buddhism  left  too  little  for  the  lay  adherent  to  do.  Those  only  were  true 
Buddhists  who  became  monks ;  the  Church  outside  was  not  defined  ;  almost 


2g6  THE    WORLDS  RELIGIONS. 


its  only  privilege  was  to  wait  on  and  feed  the  monks;  consequently, 
Vishnuism  and  Sivaism,  in  which  the  people  had  a  most  important  part  to 
play,  most  special  ends  to  gain,  and  a  most  vital  interest,  conquered  the 
affections  and  devotion  of  the  masses  of  India. 

It  is  in  Ceylon,  Burmah,  and  Siam  that  the  nearest  resemblance  to 

primitive  Buddhism  is  to  be  found  at  the  present  day.     These  countries 

adhere  to  the  canon  of  scriptures,  as  given  in  preceding  chapters, 

andtheLessercalled  by  the  Northern  Buddhists  the  "Lesser  Vehicle,"  in  de- 

vemcies.  precjat  j011i  Mahinda,  the  son  of  king  Asoka,  was  the  great  apostle 
of  Buddhism  in  Ceylon ;  and  now  it  has  a  history  of  over  two  thousand 
years.  The  canon  was  first  translated  into  Singhalese  and  then  translated 
back  into  Pali  by  Buddaghosa  in  the  fifth  century,  since  which  the  texts 
have  remained  practically  unchanged  in  Pali,  not  very  different  from  the 
language  of  Asoka's  day  and  kingdom.  They  have  been  translated  into 
modem  Singhalese,  and  commented  upon  at  great  length. 

The  council  held  by  Kanishka  was  the  starting-point  of  the  Northern 
Canon,  often  called  the  "  Greater  Vehicle "  (Mahayana),  written  in  Sanskrit. 
There  are  nine  principal  books  of  these  scriptures,  of  which  the  best  known 
are  the  "  Lotus  of  the  true  Law,"  and  the  "  Legendary  Life  of  Buddha." 
All  of  them  were  translated  into  Tibetan ;  and  a  large  number  of  com- 
mentaries upon  them  were  written.  It  is  upon  this  "Greater  Vehicle"  that 
the  Buddhism  of  Nepaul,  Tibet,  China,  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  and  Japan  is 
founded  ;  but  these  all  differ  considerably  from  one  another.  Extending 
over  so  wide  and  so  populous  an  area  of  the  earth's  surface,  Buddhism  has 

wide  range  been  described  as  being  the  religion  professed  by  more  persons 
of  Buddhism,  faan  any  other,  and  has  sometimes  been  credited  with  five  hundred 
millions  of  adherents.  The  mistake  that  is  made  in  such  a  calculation  is 
evident  when  we  remember  that  in  China,  where  the  greatest  number  of 
nominal  Buddhists  exists,  a  vast  proportion  of  the  population  profess  Con- 
fucianism, Taoism,  and  Buddhism  equally  or  indifferently  ;  and  the  study  of 
our  chapters  on  the  former  will  have  shown  how  deep  a  hold  Confucianism, 
ancestor  worship,  and  the  varied  forms  of  Taoism,  have  upon  the  Chinese. 

Number  of  If  they  were  called  upon  to  exclude  one  of  their  religions,  it  is 

Buddmsts.  aimost  certain  that  Buddhism  would  be  excluded.  It  is  very 
doubtful  if  it  is  proper  to  reckon  so  many  as  a  hundred  millions  of  Chinese 
as  Buddhists.  Again,  we  have  seen  that  Shintoism  prevails  in  Japan,  where, 
nevertheless,  many  people  generally  show  some  adhesion  to  Buddhism. 
Buddhism,  essentially,  has  no  lay  standard  of  adherence,  since  the  true 
Buddhists  are  the  monks  only.  Sir  Monier- Williams  reckons  the  number  of 
Buddhists  at  one  hundred  millions  ;  Dr.  Happer,  an  experienced  American 
missionary  in  China,  estimates  that  there  are  only  twenty  millions  of  real 
Buddhist  believers  in  China,  and  a  total  of  seventy-two  and  a  half  millions 
in  Asia.  But  it  is  a  very  doubtful  thing  to  attempt  to  reckon  the  numbers 
of  adherents  of  a  religion,  and  especially  such  a  religion  as  Buddhism.  It 
is  certainly  one  of  the  four  most  prevalent  religions  in  the  world. 


MODERN  BUDDHISM. 


'97 


SINGHALESE  BUDDHISM. 

Great  indeed  is  the  contrast  between  modern  Buddhism,  with  its  elabo- 
rate organisation,  its  wealthy  monasteries,  its  considerable  ritual,  its  image 
worship  and  deifications,  and   the  simplicity  of  its   early  state     Gradual 
as  we  have  sketched  it.     No  doubt  this  has  come  to  pass  by  a  modification, 
gradual  process  of  adaptation  to  those  instincts  and  desires  of  the  masses  of 
the  people  which  have  compelled  recognition  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe  and 
in  almost  all  religions,  together  with  the  regard  which  grew  around  Gautama 
as  a  perfect  man  ;  and  from  the  first,  great  importance  seems  to  have  been 
attached  to  his  relics.    Yet  it  was  long  before  images  of  him  came   images  of 
into  general  use.     In  Ceylon  these  are  called  "Pilamas,"  meaning    Buddha- 
counterpart  or  likeness.     They  had  become  numerous  in  the  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth  centuries  a.d.,  some  being  over  twenty  feet  high  and  resplendent 


1ft.  *9S 


A    BURMESE    FUNERAL    PROCESSION. 


with  jewels.     "  The  viharas  in  which  the  images  are  deposited,"  says  Spence- 
Hardy,  "  are  generally,  in  Ceylon,  permanent  erections,  the  walls  vmaras  in 
being  plastered  and  the  roof  covered  with  tiles,  even  when  the     Ceylon, 
dwellings  of  the  priests  are  mean  and  temporary.     Near  the  entrance  are 
frequently  seen  four  figures    in   rilievo,   representing    the   guardians   and 
champions  of  the  temple.      Surrounding  the  sanctum  there  is  usually  a 
narrow  room,  in  which  are  images  and  paintings ;  but  in  many  instances  it 
is  dark.     Opposite  the  door  of  entrance  there  is  another  door,  protected  by 
screen,  and  when  this  is  withdrawn  an  image  of  Buddha  is  seen,  occupy- 
ing nearly  the  whole  of  the  apartment,  with  a  table  or  altar  before  it,  upon 
which  flowers  are  placed.     Like  the  temples  of  the  Greeks,  the  walls  are 
covered  with  paintings  ;  the  style  at  present  adopted  in  Ceylon  greatly  re- 
sembling, in  its  general  appearance,  that  which  is  presented  in  the  tombs 
and  temples  of  Egypt.     The  story  most  commonly  illustrates  some  passages 


298  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


in  i  lie  life  of  Buddha,  or  in  the  births  he  received  as  Bodhi-sat.  The  viharas 
are  not  unfrequently  built  upon  rocks  or  in  other  romantic  situations.  The 
courl  around  is  planted  with  the  trees  that  bear  the  flowers  most  usually 
offered.  Some  of  the  most  celebrated  viharas  are  caves,  in  part  natural, 
with  excavations  carried  further  into  the  rock.  The  images  of  Buddha  are 
sometimes  recumbent,  at  other  times  upright,  or  in  a  sitting  posture,  either 
in  the  act  of  contemplation,  or  with  the  hand  uplifted  in  the  act  of  giving 
instruction.  At  Cotta,  near  Colombo,  there  is  a  recumbent  image  forty-two 
feet  in  length.  Upon  the  altar,  in  addition  to  the  flowers,  there  are  fre- 
quently smaller  images  either  of  marble  or  metal.  In  the  shape  of  the 
images,  each  nation  appears  to  have  adopted  its  own  style  of  beauty,  those 
of  Ceylon  resembling  a  well-proportioned  native  of  the  island,  whilst  those 
of  China  present  an  appearance  of  obesity  that  would  be  regarded  as  any- 
fching  but  divine  by  a  Hindu.  The  images  made  in  Siam  are  of  a  more 
attenuated  figure,  and  comport  better  with  our  idea  of  the  ascetic." 

The  cave  temple  at  Damballa  is  one  of  the  most  perfect.  One  of  its 
halls  contains  a  gigantic  recumbent  figure  of  Buddha  in  the  solid  rock 
forty-seven  feet  long  ;  at  its  feet  stands  an  attendant,  and  opposite 
'to  the  face  is  a  statue  of  Vishnu,  who  is  supposed  to  have  assisted 
at  the  building  ;  another  has  more  than  fifty  figures  of  Buddha,  and  statues 
of  several  Brahmanic  devas,  Vishnu,  Natha,  etc.  There  is  a  handsome 
dagoba  in  this  vihara,  the  spire  nearly  touching  the  roof.  The  whole 
interior — rock,  wall,  and  statues — is  painted  in  brilliant  colours,  yellow 
predominating.  These,  and  other  cave  temples  in  Ceylon  show  that  they 
were  constructed  through  the  same  impulse  and  in  the  same  art  epoch  with 
those  at  Ajunta  and  Ellora.  No  recent  vihara  of  importance  has  been 
erected  in  Ceylon. 

The  laity,  on  entering  a  vihara,  bend  the  body  or  prostrate  themselves 
before  the  image  of  Buddha  with  palms  touching  each  other  and  thumbs 
worship  of  touching  the  forehead.  They  next  repeat  the  threefold  formula 
the  laity.  0f  taking  refuge,  or  they  take  upon  themselves  a  certain  number 
of  the  ten  obligations.  Some  flowers  and  a  little  rice  are  then  placed  upon 
the  altar,  and  a  few  coppers  are  cast  into  a  vessel.  No  form  of  prayer  is 
used,  and  to  all  appearance  there  is  no  feeling  concerned  in  the  worship, 
which  is  a  matter  of  course  and  convention,  with  a  desire  of  gaining  some 
boon.  Buddha,  the  Doctrine,  and  the  Order,  appear  in  Ceylon  to  be 
almost  co-equally  invoked  for  protection.  The  protection  of  Buddha  is  to 
be  obtained  by  listening  to  the  scriptures  or  keeping  the  precepts,  and  thus 
the  evil  consequences  of  demerit  are  overcome.  The  protection  of  the 
Order  is  gained  by  a  small  gift.  The  protection  of  the  three  takes  away  the 
fear  of  successive  existences,  mental  fear,  bodily  pain,  and  the  misery  of  the 
four  hdls.  Buddha  will  not  protect  one  who  refrains  from  worship  when 
near  a  dagoba  or  other  sacred  place,  or  covers  himself  with  his  garment,  an 
umbrella,  etc.,  when  in  sight  of  an  image  of  Buddha.  The  Doctrine  will 
not  protect  one  who  refuses  to  listen  to  the  reading  of  the  scriptures  when 
called  upon,  or  who  listens  irreverently  or  does  not  keep  the  precepts.     The 


MODERN  BUDDHISM.  299 

Order  will  not  protect  one  who  sits  near  a  priest  without  permission,  who 
reads  the  precepts  without  being  appointed,  or  argues  against  a  priest,  or 
has  his  shoulders  covered  or  holds  an  umbrella  up  when  near  a  priest,  or 
who  remains  seated  when  riding  in  any  vehicle  near  a  priest.  Many 
notable  legends  attest  the  importance  of  these  statements. 

The  worship  of  the  Bo-tree  (Pipul,  or  sacred  fig)  under  which  Gautama 
was  accustomed  to  sit  is  no  doubt  very  ancient,  and   in   the   court-yard 
of  most  viharas  in  Ceylon  there  is  one,  said  to  be  derived  from  worship  of 
the  original  one  brought  to  the  island  in  the  fourth  century  b.o.  the  Botree- 
Usually  one  was  planted  on  the  mound  under  which  the  ashes  of  Kandyan 
chiefs  and  priests  were  placed. 

The  dagoba  next  claims  attention,  but  this  word  appears  in  another 
guise,  as  "  pagoda  "  ;  it  is  derived  from  "  da,"  an  osseous  relic,  and  "  geba," 
the  womb,  meaning  the  shrine  of  an  osseous  relic.  The  word 
f  tope,"  otherwise  "  stupa,"  a  relic,  is  used  for  the  same  buildings. 
It  is  a  circular  building  of  stone,  built  on  a  natural  or  artificial  elevation,  and 
its  summit  is  crowned  with  a  hemispherical  cupola,  formerly  terminated  by 
I  spires.  One  of  the  great  dagobas  in  Ceylon,  at  Anuradhapura,  was  originally 
405  feet  high,  but  is  now  not  more  than  230  feet;  another,  formerly  315 
feet,  is  now  not  more  than  269  feet.  All  are  built  of  brick  and  covered  with 
:  a  preparation  of  lime,  of  a  pure  white,  and  capable  of  high  polish,  so  that 
when  perfect  the  building  resembled  a  crystal  dome.  At  various  periods  in 
modern  times  these  dagobas  have  been  opened.  One,  opened  in  1820  in 
Ceylon,  contained  in  the  interior  a  small  square  compartment  of  brickwork, 
set  exactly  towards  the  cardinal  points.  In  the  centre,  directly  under  the 
apex,  was  a  hollow  stone  vase  with  a  cover,  containing  a  small  piece  of 
bone,  with  some  thin  pieces  of  plate-gold,  a  few  rings,  pearls,  and  Relics  of 
beads,  a  few  clay  images  of  the  sacred  naga,  or  snake-god,  and  Bu<*dha. 
two  lamps.  Such  relics  are  either  supposed  to  have  been  those  of  Buddha 
himself  or  of  some  Buddhist  saint,  and  many  miracles  are  ascribed  to  their 
virtues.  The  most  celebrated  relic  of  Buddha  now  existing  is  in  Ceylon, 
namely,  the  dalada,  or  left  canine  tooth,  a  piece  of  discoloured  ivory  two 
inches  long  (much  too  long  for  a  human  tooth).  This  is  preserved  in  a 
small  chamber  in  the  vihara  attached  to  the  old  palace  of  the  Kandyan 
kings,  enclosed  in  nine  successive  bell-shaped  golden  and  jewelled  cases,  each 
locked,  and  the  key  kept  by  a  separate  official.  On  the  walls  of  the  corridor 
•of  entrance  are  coloured  frescoes  of  the  eight  principal  hells  of  Buddhism,  in 
which  evildoers  are  represented  being  torn  asunder  by  red-hot  tongs,  or  sawn 
in  two,  or  crushed  between  rocks,  or  fixed  on  red-hot  spikes.  Thus  does  the 
spirit  of  gentle  Buddhism  find  place  for  practical  threats  of  horrible  torture. 

Next  to  the  relics  in  regard  are  impressions  of  Buddha's  foot.     The 

most  celebrated  is  on  Adam's  Peak  in  Ceylon,   annually  visited  _ 

•>         '  •*  Impressions 

|by  100,000  pilgrims.      It  is  a  depression  or  excavation  over  five  of  Buddha's 
Ifeet  long,  and  three-quarters  of  a  yard  wide.      Representations 
!of  it  are  divided    into   108  compartments,   each    containing    a  design  or 
figure,  with  a  wheel  in  the  centre. 


3oo  THE    IVOR  ID'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  Vassa,  or  residence  in  a  fixed  abode  during  the  rainy  season,  cele- 
brated by  reading  the  Buddhist  scriptures  to  the  people,  is  well  kept  up  in 
Ceylon.     The  reading  takes  place  in  a  temporary  building  of 
public      pyramidal  form,  with  successive  platforms,  built  near  a  vihara.    In 

readings.  ^  centre  is  an  elevated  platform  for  the  monks,  and  the  people 
sit  around  on  mats.  Lamps  and  lanterns  of  great  variety  and  gay  colour 
are  held  by  the  people  in  their  hands  or  on  their  heads  during  the  reading. 
Sometimes  the  scene  is  a  very  attractive  one.  "  The  females  are  arrayed  in 
their  gayest  attire,  their  hair  being  combed  back  from  the  forehead  and 
neatly  done  up  in  a  knot,  fastened  with  silver  pins  and  small  ornamental 
combs.  The  usual  dress  of  the  men  is  of  white  cotton.  Flags  and 
streamers,  figured  handkerchiefs  and  shawls,  float  from  every  convenient 
receptacle.  At  intervals,  tom-toms  are  beaten ;  the  rude  trumpet  sends 
forth  its  screams  ;  and  the  din  of  the  music,  the  murmur  of  the  people's 
voices,  the  firing  of  musketry  and  jinjalls,  and  the  glare  of  the  lamps,  pro- 
duce an  effect  not  much  in  consonance  with  an  act  of  worship  "  (Hardy). 
Usually  only  the  Pali  text  is  read,  so  that  the  people  do  not  understand  a 
word,  and  many  fall  asleep  or  chew  betel.  Whenever  the  name  of  Buddha 
is  repeated  by  the  reader,  the  people  call  out  simultaneously  "Sadhu,"  an 
exclamation  of  ]oy.  In  many  ways  these  readings  are  observed  as  festival 
occasions  ;  they  take  place  at  each  change  of  the  moon,  or  four  times  in  the 
lunar  month.  Great  merit  is  said  to  accrue  to  all  hearers  who  keep  the 
eight  precepts  upon  these  service  days.  It  is  not  proper  to  trade  or  to 
make  trade  calculations  on  them,  still  less  to  injure  any  one. 

Another  of  the  ceremonies   in  which   the  laity  have  a  share  is  the 
';  Pint,"  or  reading  certain  portions  of  the  scriptures  as  an  exorcism  against 

TnePirit    demons,  i.e.,  really  malignant   spirits  who  were  formerly  men. 

ceremony.  Certain  portions  of  the  scriptures  are  supposed  to  avail  specially 
in  this  work,  and  these  are  collectively  termed  the  Pirit.  One  of  these 
contains  the  following:  "All  spirits  here  assembled,  those,  of  earth  and 
those  of  air,  let  all  such  be  joyful  ;  let  them  listen  attentively  to  my  words. 
Therefore  hear  me,  0  ye  spirits  ;  be  friendly  to  the  race  of  men  ;  for  day 
and  night  they  bring  you  their  offerings  ;  therefore  keep  diligent  watch  over 
them.  Ye  spirits  here  assembled,  those  of  earth  and  those  of  air,  let  us 
bow  before  Buddha,  let  us  bow  before  the  Law,  let  us  bow  before  the 
Order."  The  recitation  of  the  Pirit  on  a  great  occasion  continues  without 
interruption  through  seven  days  and  nights,  relays  of  priests  being  engaged, 
with  many  attendant  circumstances  of  festivity. 

We  now  pass  to  the  Buddhist  order  of  monks  in  Ceylon,  "  priests  "  as 
they  call  themselves  now-a-days.     "  In  nearly  all  the  villages  and  towns  Of 

BuddWst    Ceylon/'  says  Hardy,  "  that  are  inhabited  by  the  Singhalese  or 

monks  in   Kandyans,  the  priests  of  Buddha  are  frequently  seen,  as  they 

have  to  receive  their  food  by  taking  the  alms-bowl  from  house  to 

bouse.     They  usually  walk  along  the  road  at  a  measured  pace,  without 

taking  much  notice  of  what  passes  around.     They  have  no  covering  for  the 

head,  and  arc  generally  barefooted.     In  the  right  hand  they  carry  a  fan,  in 


MODERN  BUDDHISM. 


shape  not  much  unlike  a  hand-screen,  which  they  hold  up  before  the  face 
when  in  the  presence  of  women,  that  the  entrance  of  evil  thoughts  into  the 
mind  may  be  prevented.  The  bowl  is  slung  from  the  neck,  and  is  covered 
by  the  robe,  except  at  the  time  when  alms  are  received."     There  are  several 


ON    THE   SACRED   PLATFORM   OF   THE   RANGOON   PAGODA. 

thousands  of  these  living  as  celibates  in  simple  leaf-huts  or  in  viharas  ;  they 
follow  substantially  the  rules  given  in  the  last  chapter.  Their  countenances 
are  usually  less  intelligent-looking  than  those  of  the  common  people,  with  an 
appearance  of  great  vacancy  approaching  imbecility  ;  a  few  rise  above  this 


T,02 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


state,  but  it  is  only  the  natural  physical  result  of  the  kind  of  meditation  and 
rote-worship  in  which  they  engage.  Yet  the  populace  regard  them  as  a 
kind  of  inferior  Buddhas,  and  pay  them  great  deference.  In  their  dress  they 
repeat  that  attributed  to  Buddha;  it  is  assimilated  to  a  yellow  garment  of 
rags,  by  the  pieces  being  torn  and  sewn  together  again.  The  left  shoulder 
is  usually  covered,  the  right  bare.  There  is  generally  a  school  attached  to 
the  vihara,  in  which  boys  are  taught  to  read,  recite,  and  write, 
this  last  being  first  effected  on  sand  with  the  finger.  A  large 
portion  of  the  books  read  relate  to  Buddhism.  Latterly  the  Ceylon 
Buddhists  have  established  a  college  at  Colombo  for  the  study  of  Sanskrit, 
Pali,  and  Singhalese.  Each  vihara  has  a  head,  and  frequently  possesses 
considerable  landed  property,  but  there  is  no  organised  hierarchy.  One  of 
the  most  important  services  rendered  by  the  Buddhists  has  been  in  their 
maintenance  of  schools;  the  pupils  in  general  become  qualified  to  enter 
upon  the  Buddhistic  novitiate  at  once,  and  the  ceremony  of  initiation  is  a 
very  simple  one. 

Notwithstanding    the   limited    sacerdotal    functions    assigned   to    the 
monks,  they  are  to  a  certain  extent  recognised  in  birth  and  marriage  cere- 
.  monies,  especially  in  fixing  auspicious  days  for  weddings.     In 

monks  case  of  illness,  a  monk  is  sent  for,  an  offering  of  flowers,  oil,  and 
food  being  at  the  same  time  forwarded.  A  temporary  audience- 
place  is  fitted  up  close  to  the  house,  and  here  the  monk  reads  from  the 
scripture  for  six  hours  to  the  relatives  and  friends,  and,  if  possible,  the  sick 
man  also.  Offerings  are  again  given  to  the  priest,  who  finally  says,  "  By 
reverence  do  the  wise  secure  health,  by  almsgiving  do  they  lay  up  treasures 
for  themselves."  If  he  appears  about  to  die,  the  monk  recites  the  formula 
of  profession  of  Buddhism,  the  five  prohibitions  (p.  278), -and  the  four 
earnest  reflections.  As  a  rule,  in  Ceylon,  the  dead  are  buried;  but  the 
l><»dies  of  monks  are  burnt  under  decorated  canopies,  which  are  left  to 
moulder  away. 

11  l  TRME8E  B  UDDHISM. 

A  very  vivid  picture  of  Buddhism  in  Burmah  has  been  given  by  Mr. 

Scott    in    his    fascinating   book,    "  The   Burman,"    published    under    the 

Bu  pseudonym  of  "  Shway  Yoe.;'     Every  boy  goes  to  the  monaster; 

monastery  school  from  the  age  of  eight,  and  is  taught  to  read  and  write,  the 

chief  part  of  the  teaching  consisting  of  Buddhistic  formulas  anc 

precepts ;  and,  until  the  English  took  possession  of  the  country,  every  bo] 

took  the  yellow  robe  at  the  close  of  his  schooling,  although  he  might  retain 

it.  bul  for  a  short  time  ;  and  as  yet  comparatively  few  have  thrown  off  the 

conventional  mode  of  education  in  favour  of  the  Government  schools.     Oi 

Novices     entermg  the  Order  as  a  novice,  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  more, 

there  is   an   elaborate    ceremony,  corresponding  to  baptism,  at 

which  the  youth  receives  a  new  name,  showing  that  it  is  now  possible  foi 

him  to  escape  from  suffering;  but  this  is  again  lost  when  or  if  he  returns 

to  the  world,  though  having  borne  it  enables  him  to  add  to  his  merits  by 


MODERN  BUDDHISM. 


3°5 


good  works.     The  ceremony  includes  the  putting  off  ol  fine  clothes,  the 

j  shaving  of  the  head,  reciting  a  Pali  prayer  to  be  admitted  to  the  Order  as  a 
novice,  that  he  may  walk  steadily  in  the  path  to  perfection,  and  finally 

,  attain  to  the  blessed  state  of  "  Neh'ban,".  as  Nirvana  comes  to  be  rendered 
in  Burmese,  and  the  reception  of  the  yellow  robes  and  the  begging-pot  from 

j  the  chief  or  abbot  of  the  monastery.  Finally,  there  is  a  feast  at  the  parent's 
house.     The  stay  of  the  novice  in  the  monastery  is  not  usually  long,  some- 

I  times  even  only  one  day,  but  usually  at  least  through  one  rainy  season,  or 
"Wah  (Vassa,  sometimes  called  Lent  by  Europeans).     Those  who  resolve  to 

I  adopt  the  religious  life  enter  upon  advanced  studies  of  Buddhist  writings; 
but  many  things  hinder  the  novice,  especially  the  duty  of  attending  on  the 

[monks,  begging,  carrying  umbrellas  or  books  for  his  seniors.  In  Lower 
Burmah  the  parents  sometimes  send  food  regularly  for  their  son,  but  this- 
would  not  be  allowed  in  Upper  Burmah. 

In  a  Burmese  monastery  the  whole 
community  is  roused  a  little  before  day- 
light, awakened  by  a  big  bell,  a  Burmese 
and  after  washing,  each  brother  monastery, 
recites  a  few  formulas,  one  of  which  is 
"  How  great  a  favour  has  the  Lord  Bu- 
ddha bestowed  upon  me  in  manifesting 
to  me  his  law,  through  the  observance  of 
which  I  may  escape  hell  and  secure  my 
salvation."  The  entire  brotherhood  as- 
semble round  the  image  of  Buddha,  recite 
the  morning  service,  and  then  perform 
various  domestic  duties,  the  elder  onty 
meditating.  A.  slight  meal  and  an  hour's 
tudy  are  followed  by  the  procession  of 
all  the  monks  through  the  town,  to 
receive  food  in  the  alms-bowl.  On  their 
•eturn  a  portion  is  offered  to  Buddha's  image,  and  then  breakfast  is  taken. 
Strictly  it  ought  to  consist  of  the  morning's  gift,  not  specially  dressed ; 
)ut  usually  this  is  now  given  to  the  scholars  or  any  chance  wanderers, 
svhile  a  tasty  meal  is  prepared  for  the  monks.  Visits  of  courtesy  or 
lonour  fill  up  part  of  the  day,  at  which  great  ceremony  is  observed,  the 
3onversation,  according  to  Shway  Yoe,  coming  round  to  the  merit  of  alms- 
giving. After  a  light  meal  at  noon,  all  return  to  work,  some  teaching,  others 
studying  the  Buddhist  books,  overseeing  the  writers  who  copy  manuscripts  ; 
3ut  the  work  of  many  is  merely  meditation,  repeating  the  formulas  of  the 
)rder,  "  while,  throughout  all,  sounds  the  din  of  the  schoolroom,  where  the 
mpils  are  shouting  out  their  tasks  at  the  top  of  their  voices.  The  novices 
tnd  monks  may  take  a  stroll  in  the  evening,  but  at  sunset  all  are  summoned 
)ack,  and  the  scholars  recite  the  whole  or  part  of  their  day's  work  to  the 
ibbot.     So  the  evening  passes  till  8.30  or  9,  when  all  assemble  for  devotion, 


BUKMFSE    IMAGE    OF    GAUTAMA. 


)efore  the  image  of  Buddha.    Then  a  novice  loudly  proclaims  the  hour,  day, 


3o4  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


and  year  ;  all  bow  before  Buddha  thrice,  and  similarly  before  the  abbot, 
and  then  retire.  The  testimony  of  Shway  Yoe  is,  that  "  the  effect  of  such  a 
school,  presided  over  by  an  abbot  of  intelligence  and  earnestness,  must  in- 
fallibly work  for  the  good  of  all  connected  with  it,  and  especially  so  in  the 
case  of  an  impulsive  impressionable  people  like  the  Burmese.  As  long  as 
all  the  men  of  the  country  pass  through  the  monasteries,  the  teachings  of 
western  missionaries  can  have  but  little  power  to  shake  the  hold  of 
Buddhism  on  the  people/' 

Among  those  who  are  fully  recognised  as  monks,  the  Phon-gyee  of 
••great  glory"  is  distinguished,  having  been  at  least  ten  years  a  monk,  and 
■me  Phon-  having  proved  himself  steadfast  and  self-denying.  From  this 
£yees-  class  the  Sayah  (head  or  abbot)  is  chosen.  Beyond  these  is  re- 
cognised the  Provincial,  overseeing  a  number  of  monasteries  in  a  district 
and  the  Sadaw,  or  royal  teacher,  of  whom  there  are  eight,  forming  a  sort  of 
supreme  Burmese  religious  board.  It  is  always  possible  to  leave  the 
monastery,  in  which  point  Buddhist  monasteries  differ  from  most  others. 

The  life  of  a  monk  is  an  ideal  one  in  many  respects  ;  food  is  supplied 
to  him  ;  he  has  no  sermons  to  prepare  ;  he  has  few  outside  religious  rites  to 
Life  of  a  attend ;  and  if  he  observes  the  cardinal  precepts  of  Buddhism, 
monk.  jie  -g  continually  accumulating  merit.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
admission  or  routine  of  the  full  monkhood  which  is  not  in  essence  con- 
tained in  our  chapters.  Discipline  is  strictly  maintained,  the  breaking  of 
the  prime  commands  being  severely  punished;  unfrocking,  expulsion,  pos- 
sibly stoning,  are  penalties  sufficiently  heavy.  The  condition  of  an  ex- 
pelled monk  is  pitiable  :  "  no  one  may  speak  to  him ;  no  monk  will  take 
alms  from  him  ;  he  can  neither  buy  nor  sell ;  he  is  not  allowed  even  to 
draw  water  from  a  well."  If  there  is  evil  living  or  neglect  of  religious 
duty  in  a  neighbourhood,  the  brethren  invert  their  alms-bowls  and  cease 
to  go  out  begging.  This  is  felt  to  be  so  grave  a  censure  that  it  does  not 
fail  to  influence  the  most  hardened  in  a  very  short  time,  yet  laxities  are 
not  unknown.  Some  monks  will  receive  money  or  gold,  or  will  adopt  cir- 
cuitous methods  of  getting  what  they  desire.  So  far  has  this  proceeded 
that  an  active  sect  has  arisen  in  lower  Burmah  to  restore  and  maintain  the 
true  austerities  and  ordinances  of  Buddhism,  and  it  has  gained  many  ad- 
herents among  laity  as  well  as  monks.  On  the  whole,  the  monks  are  greatly 
reverenced  by  the  people,  who  make  obeisance  when  they  pass,  the  women 
kneeling  down  by  the  roadside  in  Upper  Burmah.  The  oldest  layman 
terms  himself  the  disciple  of  the  youngest  monk,  whose  commonest  actions 
are  spoken  of  in  magniloquent  language. 

The  monastery  is  an  essential  accompaniment  of  the  Burmese  village, 
away  from  bustle,  surrounded  by  fine  trees.  Usually  it  is  built  of  teak, 
Monastery  sometimes  of  brick.  All  are  oblong,  and  one  storey  high,  the  living 
tidings.  rooms  being  raised  eight  or  ten  feet  on  pillars.  The  woodwork 
is  ornamented  with  varied  carving  of  figures  and  scroll-work  ;  the  roofs 
appear  as  if  constituting  successive  storeys — three  five,  or,  seven.  The  main 
hall  is  divided  into  two  portions — one  for  the  scholars  and  a  higher  one  for 


FUNERAL    PYRE    OF    A    BURMESE    PHON-GYEE. 
305 


3o6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

(  he  reception  of  visitors.  At  the  back  of  this,  against  the  wall,  are  images  of 
Buddha  on  a  sort  of  altar,  with  candles,  flowers,  praying  flags,  etc.  Near 
t  his  are  various  treasures,  books,  manuscripts,  chests,  models  of  monasteries 
and  pagodas,  etc.  This  hall  is  also  used  as  the  sleeping  place  of  the  monks. 
Sometimes  a  number  of  these  buildings  are  contained  within  one  enclosure. 
The  most  gorgeous  group  of  monastic  buildings  in  the  world  probably 
is  the  Itoyal  Monastery  outside  Mandalay.  "  Every  building  in  it  is  magni- 
ficent ;  every  inch  carved  with  the  ingenuity  of  a  Chinese  toy,  the  whole 
ablaze  with  gold  leaf  and  a  mosaic  of  fragments  of  looking-glass.  .  .  . 
The  interior  is  no  less  elaborate.  The  wood-carving  is  particularly  fine." 
But  this  is  only  one  among  many.  The  whole  space  between  Mandalay  Hill 
and  the  city  is  full  of  monasteries,  some  with  excellent  libraries  of  palm-leaf 
books;  while  in  Lower  Burmah  many  do  not  possess  even  a  complete  copy  of 
the  three  chief  books  of  the  " Lesser  Vehicle."  It  being  the  special  privilege 
of  the  lay  believers  to  build  and  support  monasteries,  plenty  of  scope  for  such 
philanthropy  is  always  allowed  ;  but  many  monasteries  have  a  good  deal  of 
cash  laid  away.  The  Burmese  are  taxed  most  seriously  by  Buddhism,  for 
abundant  almsgiving  must  be  supplemented  by  regular  worship  at  the 
pagodas. 

The  pagodas  of  Burmah  are  still  more  numerous  than  the  monasteries,  old 
crumbling  ones  beside  new  glittering  buildings,  as  in  India,  with  very  many 
Burmese  imaginary  relics  of  Buddha  or  other  saints.  All  these  buildings 
pagodas.  ^ne  Burmese  call  Z  ay  dee,  the  offering  place,  or  place  of  prayer ; 
while  the  more  notable  pagodas  are  termed  Payahs.  A  relic  or  sacred  object 
is  buried  or  enclosed  in  each ;  without  it  no  "  htee,"  or  umbrella,  could 
crown  its  spire.  Often  these  include  golden  images  of  Buddha  with  the 
hooded  snake.  They  are  based  on  the  primitive  mound  plan,  combined  with 
the  lotus,  extended  in  many  cases  into  an  inverted  bell  with  a  spire.  They 
are  all  made  of  sun-dried  brick,  very  liable  to  decay,  and  only  a  few  are 
renewed  or  made  substantial  enough  for  permanence.  Some  of  the  pagodas 
are  surrounded  at  the  base  by  a  circle  of  smaller  pagodas,  each  enshrining 
an  image  of  Buddha. 

The  most  magnificent  Buddhist  temple  is  that  at  Rangoon,  the  Shway 

Dagohn  Payah,  containing,  it  is  said,  eight  hairs  of  Gautama  Buddha,  beside 

The  great   rencs  °f  tne  three  Buddhas  who  preceded  him.     It  stands  upon  a 

temple11    ^U&e  mouncl  of  tw0  terraces,  the  upper  166  feet  above  the  ground 

outside,  and  in  extent  900  feet  by  685.     The  long  flights  of  steps 

by  which  the  ascent  is  made   are  covered  by  long  ranges  of  handsome  teak 

roofs,  with  frescoes  showing  scenes  in  Buddha's  disciples'  lives,  and  horrible 

scenes  of  the  torments  of  the  wicked  in  hell.     From  the  centre  of  the  upper 

terrace  rises  the  solid  octagonal  brick  payah,  370  feet  high,  abundantly 

gill .    At  the  top  is  the  htee,  or  gilt  umbrella  of  iron  work  of  many  rings,  each 

with  many  jewelled  bells  of  gold  and  silver,  tinkling  with  every  movement 

of  the  air.     Four  chapels  at  the  foot  of  the  pagoda  have  colossal  sitting 

figures  of  Buddha,  with  hundreds  of  smaller  ones  in  every  style  and  posture, 

surrounding  or  even  fixed  upon  them.     The  decorations  and  carvings  upon 


MODERN  BUDDHISM.  307 

and  around  these  are  elaborate  beyond  description ;  the  multitudes  of  bells  of 
all  sizes,  from  the  great  one  of  42  tons  downwards,  deserve  special  mention. 
The  great  bell  was  carried  off  by  the  English  after  the  second  Burmese  war, 
but  by  accident  it  capsized  and  lay  at  the  bottom  of  the  Rangoon  river,  and 
the  English  failed  to  raise  it.  The  Burmese  begged  to  be  allowed  to  try, 
and  with  primitive  appliances  and  great  perseverance  succeeded  in  raising  it, 
and  so  got  it  back  again,  to  the  great  triumph  of  Buddhists ;  and  indeed  the 
carrying  off  of  religious  emblems  or  property  of  any  kind  from  a  conquered 
people  is  a  feat  no  Englishman  has  reason  to  be  proud  of.  The  original 
temple,  27  feet  high,  has  been  again  and  again  encased  with  bricks  rendering 
it  larger  and  taller,  and  has  thus  attained  its  present  height,  and  it  is 
periodically  regilt ;  also  the  faithful  are  never  tired  of  climbing  as  high  as 
they  can,  and  fixing  squares  of  gold  leaf  upon  it.  u  Lepers  and  cripples  and 
nuns  in  their  white  robes  line  the  steps  and  cry  out  in  piteous  tones  for 
alms.  Round  the  platform  itself  are  sellers  of  candles  and  coloured  tapers, 
Chinese  incense  sticks,  and  prayer  flags,  along  with  abundance  of  gold  leaf. 
Numbers  of  young  girls  sit  about  with  flowers,  especially  of  the  lotus,  and 
meats  of  different  kinds  for  offerings.  The  platform  is  never  deserted. 
Even  long  after  midnight  the  voice  of  the  worshipper  may  be  heard  in  the 
night  air,  chanting  in  solemn  monotone  his  pious  aspirations,  while  on  a 
duty  day,  and  especially  on  a  feast  day,  the  laughing,  joyous  crowd  of  men 
and  maidens,  in  their  gay  national  dress,  makes  the  platform  of  the  Shway 
Dagohn  one  of  the  finest  sights  in  the  world."     (B.) 

The  Shway  Maw-Daw,  the  lotus-shrine  of  Pegu ;  the  depository  of  the 
sacred  hair  at  Prome,  and  the  great  temple  at  Mandalay,  are  among  the 
more  remarkable  temples  in  Burmah.  But  we  must  not  omit  to 
mention  the  great  collection  of  pagodas  at  Pagahn,  the  deserted 
capital  on  the  Irrawaddy,  extending  for  eight  miles  along  the  bank  and  for 
two  miles  inland.  Colonel  Yule,  in  his  "  Mission  to  Ava,"  has  described 
them  in  detail.  Some  are  cruciform  vaulted  temples,  with  great  galleries 
and  transepts,  and  remind  visitors  of  old-world  cathedrals  ;  others  have 
minarets,  pyramids  of  fretwork ;  some  are  like  huge  bulbous  mushrooms. 
It  is  said  that  there  are  nearly  ten  thousand  more  or  less  complete,  but  ruin 
is  on  many,  and  jungle-bushes  have  overgrown  them.  Very  many  contain 
colossal  figures  of  Buddha  and  sculptured  groups.  Again,  Shway  Goo,  an 
island  between  Mandalay  and  Bhamo,  is  a  great  centre  of  temples,  having 
nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine. 

Thus  we  may  gather  some  faint  idea  how  deeply  the  belief  in  securing 
merit  by  building  a  pagoda  has  entered  into  the  nature  of  the  Burmese ; 
but,  says  Shway  Yoe,  they  are  not  idolaters  ;  they  worship  neither  Burmese 
relics  nor  images.  The  pagoda  and  the  figure  only  furnish  a  worshiP- 
fitting  place  to  praise  the  great  Buddha  and  to  resolve  to  imitate  his  charity 
and  sinless  life.  No  actual  prayers  are  offered  to  them ;  simple  praises 
!  learnt  at  the  monastery  school,  or  special  forms  made  by  the  worshipper  are 
repeated,  and  their  character  is  similar  to  those  we  have  already  given 
samples  of.     They  are  not  merely  addressed  to  the  image,  but  also  to  the 


3o8  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


entire  building,  and  may  be  repeated  anywhere,  at  a  distance  from  it. 
Pilgrims  to  the  Rangoon  temple  prostrate  themselves  now  and  again,  from 
the  time  the}'  catch  sight  of  the  spire,  repeating  simple  formula  or  Pali 
mces  of  which  they  may  or  may  not  know  the  meaning.  Many  of  them 
have  little  paper  prayer  flags  in  various  fanciful  shapes,  having  written  in 
ihe  centre  some  pious  sentence  in  Pali  or  Burmese.  These  are  laid  on  the 
shrine,  and  add  to  the  merit  of  the  worshipper,  as  do  the  candles,  lamps, 
flowers,  incense-sticks,  etc.,  which  are  offered.  "  The  worshippers,  if  they 
are  men,  squat  down,  resting  the  body  on  their  heels.  The  body  is  bent 
a  little  forward,  and  the  hands  are  joined  together  and  raised  to  the 
forehead.  The  women  kneel  down  altogether,  and  take  especial  care  to 
cover  up  their  feet.  All  are  of  course  barefooted.  Before  commencing  the 
repetition  of  the  formula?,  three  prostrations  are  made  with  the  forehead  to 
the  ground.  It  is  usual  to  hold  some  offering  between  the  hands  during 
worship,  and  this  is  afterwards  reverently  deposited  on  the  altar. 

Strange  to  say,  the  Burmese  have  but  little  idea  of  perpetuating  their 
images  of  Buddha;  few  are  of  marble  or  brass;  most  are  of  short-lived  brick, 
images  of  mortar,  and  wood.  The  utmost  period  for  which  they  could 
Buddha,  endure  would  be  as  nothing  in  comparison  with  the  countless 
future  ages.  Their  variety  too  is  not  great ;  they  are  either  standing  in 
the  preaching  attitude,  sitting  cross-legged,  or  recumbent  and  representing 
the  approach  of  death.  The  erect  figures  are  usually  very  large  ;  these  are 
common  in  Upper  Burmah,  some  forty  feet  high ;  many  have  been  and  are 
frequently  gilt.  In  Lower  Burmah  the  whole  of  the  receptacles  near  the 
shrines  are  crammed  full  of  little  images  of  all  kinds.  Only  a  few  great 
images  are  carved  or  placed  in  the  open. 

The  ignorant  in  some  cases  ascribe  miracles  to  particular  images  or 
relics,  but  all  enlightened  Buddhists  strongly  repudiate  those  beliefs,  and 
only  unprincipled  monks  can  now  and  then  be  got  to  propagate  them. 
There  is  one  noteworthy  marble  Buddha  at  the  foot  of  Mandalay  Hill, 
twenty-five  feet  high,  carved  out  of  one  block,  scores  of  tons  in  weight. 
Another  on  the  top  of  the  hill  has  gold  leaf  only  on  the  eyeballs,  and  its 
ant  renewal  by  the  faithful  causes  the  pupils  to  protrude  frightfully. 
( )ther  notable  images  are  formed  of  bricks  laid  against  rock  surfaces.  Many 
are  deserted,  marks  of  past  populations,  still  reverenced  by  the  chance 
visitor,  but  regarded  more  with  curiosity  than  adoration. 

The  pagoda  feasts  are  the  great  holidays  of  the  Burmese,  each  shrine 
having  its  own  day,  and  they  considerably  resemble  the  great  fairs  of 
Pagoda  medieval  Europe,  a  few  minutes  spent  at  the  shrine,  reciting 
3ts-  sentences  in  praise  of  Buddha,  sufficing  for  the  devotions  of  most 
of  the  visitors,  while  a  few  listen  to  the  reading  and  expounding  of  the 
Bacred  books  by  t  he  head  of  the  monastery.  The  four  feast  days  every  month  ' 
are  also  well  observed,  and  have  in  general  been  made  to  coincide  with 
Sunday  in  Lower  Burmah  since  the  British  occupation  ;  but  there  is  much 
variation  in  the  strictness  with  which  the  day  is  kept.  The  three  months 
of  Wah    corresponding  to  Vassa)  are  kept  as  a  sort  of  Lent,  without  fasting, 


MODERN  BUDDHISM. 


309 


but  with  special  observance  of  religious  duties,  and  absence  of  feasts  and 
marriages.  Often  the  richer  people  get  monks  to  expound  the  law  in  their 
houses,  and  invite  their  friends  to  hear  them.  The  end  of  this  season  is 
celebrated  by  a  carnival,  including  in  Rangoon  much  feasting  and  even 
plays  in  the  monasteries  and  grand  illuminations. 

Notwithstanding  the  firm  hold  which  Buddhism  has  upon  the  Burmese, 
they  still  propitiate  the  nature-spirits  or  nats,  as  if  Buddhism  were  unknown. 
The  word  "  nat  "  in  Burmese  has  two  distinct  meanings,  one  kind 


of  nats  being  the  inhabitants  of  the  six  inferior  heavens,  the  devas, 


Nat  worship. 


ENTRANCE    TO    THE    SHWAT    DAGOIIX,    HANGOOX. 


transferred  from  the  Vedic  mythology,  and  the  other  the  spirits  of  the  air, 
water,  and  forest.  The  last  are  most  diligently  propitiated,  for  fear  of  the 
harm  they  may  do,  at  a  little  shrine  at  the  end  of  each  village.  Sometimes, 
it  is  a  mere  bamboo  cage  with  a  gaudy  image  or  images  of  a  fetish-like 
ugliness,  to  which  offerings  are  made  by  the  villagers.  In  fact,  the  whole 
category  of  local  spirits,  disease  spirits,  demons,  omens,  and  magic- workers  is 
to  be  found  in  considerable  force  in  Burmah,  though  greatly  frowned  upon 
by  the  Buddhist  priests.  Lucky  and  unlucky  days,  days  proper  for  special 
things  or  improper  for  others,  have  also  very  great  influence  in  Burmese  life, 
and  in  them  the  astrologers  find  great  profit.     So  that  concurrently  with 


3io  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  more  advanced  notions  of  Buddhism,  there  may  be  found  in  Burmah 
practically  the  whole  round  of  primitive  notions  about  the  spirit 
sm'  world.  The  butterfly  spirit  is  the  Burmese  idea  of  the  essential 
spirit  of  human  life,  which  may  wander  in  dreams,  be  charmed  or  afflicted 
by  demons  and  wizards,  be  preserved  by  witch-doctors,  and  which  finally 
departs  at  death. 

Marriage  in  Burmah  is  not  a  religious  ceremony,  being  contrary  to  the 
celibate  ideas  of  the  monks  ;  but  in  burials  the  latter  are  largely  concerned. 
Funerals  They  are  summoned  to  stay  in  the  house  of  death  as  a  protection 
of  laity.  from  evii  spirits  ;  they  deliver  addresses  on  the  vanity  of  human 
i  lesires  and  the  uncertaint}"  and  wretchedness  of  life  ;  they  receive  large  alms, 
determining  the  extent  of  their  services,  and  at  the  grave  they  recite  the 
five  commandments  and  the  ten  good  works,  and  various  sentences  in  Pali. 
"When  they  are  leaving  with  their  alms,  the  chief  mourner  pours  water  on 
to  the  ground  and  says,  "  May  the  deceased  and  all  present  share  the  merit 
of  the  offerings  made  and  the  ceremonies  now  proceeding,"  that  the  earth 
may  remember  it  when  men  forget.  For  a  week  after,  feasting  and  mourn- 
ing go  on  in  most  cases,  the  monks  receiving  offerings,  reciting  Pali  sentences, 
driving  off  evil  spirits,  and  purifying  the  house.  Many  people  in  Burmah 
are  still  cremated. 

The  funeral  of  a  monk  is  very  different.  When  he  dies,  he  simply 
returns  to  one  of  the  various  heavens,  and  his  funeral  is  called  "Phongyee 
Funerals  bvan,"  the  return  of  the  great  glory.  A  notable  monk  has  a 
of  monks.  funerai  that  is  attended  by  people  from  all  around.  After  elaborate 
preparations,  the  body  is  enclosed  in  a  gorgeous  sarcophagus,  painted  with 
religious  subjects  and  variously  decked.  It  lies  in  state  for  months  under 
an  open  teak  building  called  a  "  monastery  for  the  dead,"  hung  with  gift- 
paintings  of  all  kinds  of  subjects  and  various  other  gifts,  and  is  visited  by 
streams  of  pilgrims,  who  say  their  religious  sentences,  make  offerings  of 
flowers  and  fruit,  and  give  contributions  towards  the  final  ceremony.  This 
is  the  erection  and  burning  of  the  funeral  pyre :  an  elaborately  decorated 
seven-roofed  building,  with  a  spire  rising  to  seventy  feet,  is  erected  in  a 
space  cleared  of  jungle  ;  the  funeral  car,  previous  to  the  coffin  being  placed 
upon  it,  is  the  subject  of  a  prolonged  "tug  of  war,"  the  victory  of  those  who 
are  privileged  to  drag  the  car  bringing  abundant  merit  to  them  and  being 
highly  prized.  The  coffin  is  at  last  dragged  to  the  pyre  and  lifted  to  its 
platform,  beneath  which  an  abundant  supply  of  combustibles  is  heaped. 
Finally  the  whole  is  lighted  by  rockets  fired  from  a  distance.  The  bones 
of  the  deceased  are  gathered  up  and  buried  near  the  pagoda.  Unlike  other 
Buddhist  countries,  a  shrine  or  pagoda  is  not  erected  over  the  dead  in 
Burmah. 

SIAMESE  BUDDHISM. 

After  this  account  of  Burmese  Buddhism  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  say 
much  of  its  Siamese  form,  which  is  very  similar.  The  Siamese  monks, 
though  their  monasteries  are  sometimes  elaborate  buildings,  only  remain  in 


MODERN  BUDDHISM.  31* 

theni  during  the  rainy  season.  Tlie  sacred  footprint  of  Buddha,  five  feet 
long  by  two  broad,  known  as  the  Phra  Bat,  is  greatly  venerated,  and  has  a 
shrine  erected  over  it,  at  which  valuable  gifts  are  offered.  There  is  no  real 
likeness  to  a  foot,  and  the  cavity  has  scarcely  any  markings  on  it ;  but  it 
is  venerated  as  a  genuine  relic.  There  are  plenty  of  markings  on  the 
supposed  genuine  copies  of  it,  divided  into  108  compartments,  with  figures 
having  an  elaborate  symbolic  relationship  to  Buddhism.  On  the  whole,  it 
may  be  said  that  Buddhism  is  more  strictly  observed  in  Siam  than  in 
Burmah. 

The  great  temple,  "  Wat  Poh,"  in  Bangkok,  contains  an  enormous  gilt 
figure  of  the  dying  Buddha,  about  160  feet  long,  constructed  of  bricks, 
lacquered  and  heavily  gilt.  The  huge  foot-soles  are  inlaid  with  Siamese 
mother-of-pearl  figures  illustrating  stories  of  Buddha's  life.  The  temples, 
floor  is  of  tesselated  marble.  Another  great  temple, — the  "Wat  Chang/' 
or  Elephant  Temple, — has  a  lofty  spire  with  external  decoration  in  remark- 
able patterns  which  at  a  distance  look  like  mosaics  of  precious  stones,  but 
are  in  truth  nothing  but  a  mixture  of  broken  glass,  crockery,  and  shells.  A 
representation  of  the  three-headed  elephant  is  prominently  placed  on  each 
of  the  four  facades  of  this  temple. 

Cremation  is  the  usual  mode  of  disposing  of  the  dead.  Priests  pray 
day  and  night  in  the  house  until  the  body  is  removed  to  the  temple-grounds. 
The  interval  between  death  and  burial  varies  according  to  the 

1  o  1  iip       Cremation. 

rank  and  wealth  ot  the  family  ;  it  may  even  be  protracted  tor 
months,   during  which  the    prayers  go  on  continuously,  the  coffin  being 
covered  with  flowers.     But  the  devouring  of  bodies  by  vultures  and  dogs  is 
not  at  all  uncommon. 

The  Laos  believe  that  children  are  the  offspring  of  the  spirits ;  and 
when  newly  born,  they  are  placed  on  the  top  of  the  ladder  leading  to  the 
house,  and  the  spirits  are  called  to  take  away  the  child  at  once  or  Newborn 
not  to  molest  it  afterwards.  Various  offerings  to  the  spirits  are  children, 
made ;  and  on  the  second  day  the  child  is  considered  out  of  their  power, 
and  is  nominally  sold  to  some  relative  for  a  trifle,  it  being  supposed  that  the 
spirits  would  not  take  what  has  been  thus  sold. 

The  Siamese  as  a  rule  have  but  one  wife.  The  Buddhist  priests  are 
called  in  to  the  marriage  ceremony,  read  an  extract  from  their  scriptures, 
and  pray  for  a  blessing  on  the  pair,  who  are  then  sprinkled  with  holy  water. 
After  further  prayers  and  feasting  the  marriage  is  complete. 

It  is  significant  of  possibilities  of  Buddhist  revival,  that  in  Siam  in 
recent  years  free  Buddhist  churches  have  arisen,  rejecting  the  miraculous 
and  mythical  elements,  and  recurring  to  the  pure  moral  teachings  Reformed 
of  the  founder.  The  late  king  gave  a  powerful  support  to  these  sects  m  Siam* 
churches  and  their  efforts.  His  foreign  minister,  Chao  Phya  Phraklang, 
wrote  "  a  book  explaining  many  things,"  showing  that  much  of  the  popular 
mythology  was  not  essential  to  Buddhism,  although  he  retained  the  belief 
in  Buddha  having  visited  the  heavens  and  taught  the  angels.  He  may  be 
called  a  Buddhist  rationalist,  teaching  a  universal  morality.    Having  studied 


312 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Christianity  very  carefully,  lie  rejected  it,  terming  it  "  a  foolish  religion." 
His  book,  as  translated  by  Mr.  Alabaster,  is  worth  reading  as  a  specimen 
of  the  keen  criticism  Christian  missionaries  encounter  from  educated 
Buddhists.  A  brief  quotation  from  a  passage  relating  to  the  future  state 
will  be  found  of  interest.  "  We  observe  that  some  die  young,  others  live  to 
old  age  ;  some  are  born  great,  others  not ;  some  rich,  others  poor  ;  some 
beautiful,  others  ugly ;  some  never  suffer  illness,  others  are  continually  ill, 
or  blind,  or  deaf,  or  deformed,  or  mad.  If  we  say  that  God  made  these, 
we  must  regard  Him  as  unjust,  partial,  and  ever  changing  ;  making  those 
suffer  who  have  never  done  anything  to  deserve  suffering,  and  not  giving 
to  men  in  general  that  average  of  good  and  bad  fortune  which  attends  even 
the  speculations  of  the  gambler.  But  if  we  believe  in  the  interchange  and 
succession  of  life  throughout  all  beings  (i.e.,  the  transmigration  of  souls), 
and  that  good  and  evil  arise  from  ourselves,  and  are  the  effects  of  merit  and 
demerit,  we  have  some  grounds  for  belief. 

"Those  who  believe  that  after  death  the  soul  passes  to  hell  or  heaven  for 
ever,  have  no  proof  that  there  is  no  return  thence.  Certainly  it  would  be  a 
most  excellent  thing  to  go  direct  to  heaven  after  death,  without  further 
change,  but  I  am  afraid  that  it  is  not  the  case.  For  the  believers  in  it,  who 
have  not  perfectly  purified  their  hearts,  and  prepared  themselves  for  that 
most  excellent  place,  where  there  is  no  being  born,  growing  old,  and  dying, 
will  still  have  then  souls  contaminated  with  uneradicated  evil. 
How  is  it  possible  that  those  who  have  not  cleared  away  the  evil  disposition 
from  their  soul  should  attain  the  most  excellent  heaven,  and  live  eternally 
with  God  the  Creator  ?  And  of  those  who  are  to  remain  in  hell  for  ever, 
many  have  made  merit  and  done  much  good.  Shall  that  be  altogether 
lost  ?  " 


PAGODA    AT    PAG  iIIN. 


THE    THREE    PRECIOUS    ONES    (CHINESE    BUDDHISM). 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

iiflofceru  SuDft&fein*    H. 

Tibetan  Buddhism— Tibetan  Scriptures— Worship  of  the  Triad— The  Bodhi-satvas— Maitreya— The 
Dhyani-Buddhas — Buddhist  heavens — The  Lamas — The  Grand  Lama— History  of  Tibetan 
Buddhism — The  Mongol  emperors — The  Dalai  and  Panchen  Lamas — Succession  of  Grand  Lamas 
— Great  monasteries — The  Vatican  of  Buddhism — Interview  with  Grand  Lama— Tashi  Lunpo— 
Praying-  by  machinery — Prayer  cylinders — Prayer  walls  and  flags — Daily  worship  of  monks — 
Festivals — Fasts — The  Papal  domain  of  Buddhism— Chinese  Buddhism — Introduction  of  Buddhism 
to  China — Chinese  life  of  Buddha — Mythical  details — Buddhist  patriarchs — The  Buddhist  books 
translated— Opposition  of  Confucianists — Bodhidharma — The  Mongol  emperors  -  Modern  dis- 
couragement— Present  state— Temples — Images  in  the  halls — Realism  of  images— Kwan-yin— 
Anntabha — Halls  of  500  saints — Tien-tai — Schools  of  Chinese  Buddhism — The  Lin-tsi — Monasteries 
and  monks — Ascetics — Nunneries— Popular  aspect — Buddhist  calendar — Influence  of  Buddhism 
on  China — The  Do-Nothing  Sect— Japanese  Buddhism — The  Shin-Shin. 


TIBETAN  BUDDHISM. 

THE  Buddhism  of  Tibet  may  be  said  to  pervade  and  dominate  the 
national  life.  The  Buddhist  leaders  practically  rule  and  possess  the 
entire  land,  paying  little  more  than  nominal  allegiance  to  China.1  Their 
hierarchy,  monasteries,  ceremonies,  and  images  are  repeatedly  instanced 
•as  the  most  elaborate  parallel  which  can  be  found  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
system ;  and  it  is  certain  that  Buddhism  in  Tibet  presents  an  almost  com- 
plete contrast  to  the  simplicity  of  Gautama's  Order.  It  did  not  reach  Tibet 
till  the  seventh  century  a.d.,  when  it  had  already  a  history  of  more  than 
•a  thousand  years  behind  it,  and  had  gained  predominance  in  Kashmir  and 
Nepal.  The  Tibetans,  like  other  Mongoloid  peoples,  had  a  Shamanistic 
nature  worship,  with  much  magic  and  sorcery  and  dread  of  spirits  ;  and  it 
is  little  doubtful  that  their  previous  beliefs  largely  influenced  the  modifica- 
tion which  Buddhism  underwent. 

1  See  Sir  Monier-Willianis's  "  Buddhism  "— Edkins's  "  Chinese  Buddhism  "  and  "  Religion  in 
China '' — Beal's  "  Chinese  Buddhism." 

813 


,,4  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


We  will  first  give  some  notion  of  the  developments  which  the  central 
doctrines  of  Buddhism  underwent  in  the  Tibetan  Scriptures.     The  Triad, 

Tibetan     Buddha,  the  Law  or  Doctrine,  and  the  Order  had  already  become 
scriptures,   venerated,  and  we  find  that  Fa-hien  on  his  travels  committed  him- 
self to  the  Order  as  a  sort  of  personality,  invoking  it  by  its  "  dread  and 
worship  of  supernatural  power."     Images  of  Buddha  became  common,  and 
the  Triad.    at  a  iater  period  the  Law  and  the  Order  began  to  be  symbolised 
among  the  northern  peoples.     The  Law  is  now  often  represented  as  a  man 
(a  woman  in  Sikkiin)  with  four  arms,  two  hands  folded  in  worship,  or  raised, 
a  third  holding  a  book  or  a  lotus,  the  fourth  a  rosary  or  a  garland  ;  but 
the  Law  is  in  some  cases  only  represented  by  a  book.     The  Order  is  de- 
picted as  a  man  with  one  hand  holding  a  lotus,  and  the  other  lying  on  his 
knees.    Strangely  enough,  the  order  of  arrangement  of  these  three  represen- 
tative  figures  is  not  uniform. 

The   next   further   development   of    Buddhism   was    connected    with 

Gautama's  Bodhi-satva  state.     Before  he  was  born  on  earth,  he  was  believed 

The  Bodhi-  to  have  last  existed  in  a  state  of  self-enlightened  knowledge  as  a 

satvas.  Bodhi-satva,  and  to  have  voluntarily  chosen  to  become  a  saviour 
of  the  world  before  attaining  the  Nirvana  to  which  he  was  entitled.  He 
le>  1  his  followers  to  look  for  the  advent  of  another  Buddha,  now  a  Bodhi- 
satva,  known  as  Maitreya,  "  the  compassionate  one,"  after  5,000  years,  when 
Gautama  should  have  been  forgotten  and  the  Law  no  longer  obeyed.  At 
.  present  he  is  believed  to  preside  in  the  heaven  of  contented  beings, 

and  to  watch  over  all  Buddhists  and  their  interests.  Inasmuch 
as  he  lives  and  is  the  future  Buddha,  not  merely  one  who  has  passed  away, 
he  has  become  an  object  of  worship  and  prayer.  Huen-Siang  reported  that 
it  was  said,  "  No  words  can  describe  the  personal  beauty  of  Maitreya.  He 
declares  a  law  not  different  from  ours.  His  exquisite  voice  is  soft  and  . 
pure."  And  his  worshippers  look  forward  to  attaining  his  heaven  andi 
listening  to  his  voice. 

Beyond  this,  the  memory  of  the  leading  disciples  of  Buddha  and  those 
who  became  prominent  later  for  their  holy  life,  ability,  or  zeal  in  propa- 
gating the  faith,  was  in  process  of  time  exalted  into  what  could  only  be 

solitary     properly  compared  with  canonisation  or  almost  deification.     Also< 

Buddhas.    an  ^a  grew  Up  t^  ^ere  were  self-dependent  solitary  Buddhas 
and  many  Bodhi-satvas.    The  Great  Vehicle  or  Maha-yana  teaches  that  there] 
will  be  numberless  supreme  Buddhas,  Bodhi-satvas  and  solitary  Buddhas,, 
who  will  attain  their  position  by  their  virtues  and  wisdom  ;  and  these  Bodhi- 
satvas  are  represented  as. enjoying  heaven  indefinitely  without  aiming  atj 
Nirvana.     In  fact,  the  Tibetan  idea  is,  that  these  Buddhas  and  saints  only 
descend  in  their  corporeal  emanations  upon  earth,  much  like  the  avatars  of, 
the  Hindu  gods,  being  incorporate  in  a  succession  of  saints.     Naturally  they* 
are   much  reverenced,  as  they  are  believed  to  raise  their  worshippers  tc 
the  bli.ssful  heaven  where  they  abide.     Thus  did  Buddhism  give  promise 
of  heavens   which   were    attainable,  and  throw  into  the    background  the 
far-distant  Nirvana. 


MODERN  BUDDHISM. 


3*5 


In  the  third  century  three  Boclhi-satvas  were  worshipped  in  Northern 
India  besides  Maitreya,  At  first  protectors  of  Buddha,  they  were  gradually 
credited  with  the  function  of  watching  over  all  Buddhists.  The  first, 
Avalokitesvara,  the  lord  that  looks  down  (with  pity),  is  in  Tibet  regarded 
as  a  sort  of  supreme  spirit,  who,  while  remaining  ever  in  heaven,  becomes 
incarnated  in  successive  Grand  Lamas.  He  presides  over  the  temporal 
well-being  of  all  human  beings,  ghosts,  and  animal  spirits.  He  is  termed 
"  God  of  mercy,"  "  Lord  of  the  world,"  etc.,  and  is  prayed  to  very  frequently 
in  bodily  danger  or  disease,  as  well  as  for  relief  from  future  re-birth.  He 
is  generally  depicted  with  several  faces  and  arms,  the  former  pyramidally 
placed  in  three  tiers,  two  hands  folded  in  adoration  of  Buddha,  and  two 
others  holding  the  lotus  and  the  wheel.  Often  he  greatly  resembles 
Vishnu.  Vajra-pani  (the  thunderbolt-handed)  is  a  sort  of  Buddhist  Siva, 
controlling  and  destroying  evil  spirits ;  while  Manju-sri  (he  of  glorious 
beauty),  is  possibly  a  deification  of  the  Brahman  who  introduced  Buddhism 
into  Nepal. 

Later  still  a  new  mj-stical  worship  arose,  worshipping 
the  Dlryani-Buddhas,  or  Buddhas  existing  in  the  higher 
worlds  of  abstract  meditation,  corresponding  to  The  Dnyani- 
the  earthly  Buddhas  and  representing  them.  Buddhas- 
Each  of  these  was  supposed  to  give  off  a  Dhyani  Bodhi- 
satva,  to  preside  over  and  protect  Buddhism  between  the 
death  of  one  Buddha  and  the  coming  of  the  next ;  and 
before  long,  the  Dhyani-Buddha  corresponding  to  Gautama, 
namely  Amitabha  (diffuser  of  infinite  light),  was  worshipped 
as  a  personal  god.  Some  of  the  Nepalese  Buddhists  de- 
veloped a  still  more  advanced  theory  of  a  primordial  or 
Adi-Buddha,  the  source  of  all  things,  out  of  whom  the 
Dhyani-Buddhas  proceeded,  and  corresponding  to  the 
Hindu  supreme  Brahma.  But  neither  Adi-Buddha  nor 
Amitabha  were  regarded  as  creators  of  the  world  out  of 


TIBETAN  PRAYER 
WHEEL. 


no.hing. 


The  elaborate  descriptions  of  the  twenty-six  successive  Buddhist 
heavens,  in  which  many  of  the  Hindu  gods  were  fabled  to  dwell  and  reign, 
we  cannot  reproduce.  Six  are  inhabited  by  beings  still  liable  to  Buddhist 
sensuous  desires  ;  sixteen  by  those  in  successive  stages  of  abstract  heavens- 
meditation,  called  the  worlds  of  the  Brahma  gods,  and  Brahma  rules  there, 
but  yet  is  greatly  inferior  to  Buddha.  All  these  gods  have  to  pass  into  a 
new  form  of  existence  after  vast  periods  of  time.  Finally,  there  are  four 
heavens  of  formless  beings.  All  their  mythology,  though  departing  enor- 
mously from  primitive  Buddhism,  does  not  violate  the  view  that  Buddhist 
Arhats  (saints)  and  Buddhas  are  ranked  above  all  the  popular  divinities- 
We  need  not  enlarge  upon  other  additions  to  Buddhism  from  Hinduism, 
and  also  from  popular  beliefs  in  demons,  spirits  of  animals,  nature  spirits, 
sorcery,  and  magic.  These  additions  are  abundant,  and  rise  but  little,  if  at 
all,  above  the  corresponding  ideas  and  practices  among  savage  races. 


3i6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


We  shall  not  detail  the  inferior  gradations  of  the  Tibetan  monkhood, 

but  pass  on   at  once   to    the  superior  monks,  who    are   rightfully  termed 

Lamas,  or  superior  teachers,  and  are,  like  European  abbots,  heads 

of  monasteries.     Some  of  these  are  believed  to  be  incarnations  of 

deceased  saints  and  Bodhi-satvas  ;  they  are  consequently  termed  Avatara 

Lamas.     The  lowest  grade  of  these  represents  a  saint  or  the  founder  of  a 

The  Grand  great  monastery  ;  the  second  grade  is  a  living  emanation  of  a 

Lamas.     Bodhi-satva  ;  while  the  highest  or  Grand  Lama  is  an  incarnation 

of  a  supreme  Buddha  or  his  Bodhi-satva  ;  to  them  a  wide  range  of  authority 

is  assigned.     There  is  also  a  female  hierachy  in  the  convents,  with  its  female 

avatars. 

To  understand  the  Tibetan  system,  we  must  sketch  in  brief  its  history. 

The  first  monasteries  were  founded  at  Lhassa  in  honour  of  two  princesses, 

_._.       ,   wives  of  the  Tibetan  king  who  introduced  Buddhism.     In  the 

History  of  ° 

Tibetan  eighth  century  the  translation  of  the  enlarged  (Maha-yana)  canon 
ism.  o£  gU(j(j|1jg^  scriptures  into  Tibetan  was  begun.  It  extended  to 
108  volumes  (forming  the  Kanjur),  and  was  followed  by  225  volumes  of 
commentaries  and  general  literature,  known  as  the  Tanjur.  After  several 
fluctuations,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century  Buddhism  again 
revived,  under  the  influence  of  Atisha  from  Kashmir  and  Brom  Ton,  a 
Tibetan.  Many  monasteries  were  founded  in  that  and  the  next  centuries, 
those  at  Sakya  and  Raseng  being  the  most  important.  Raseng,  founded  by 
Brom  Ton  in  1058,  was  devoted  to  the  strict  rules  of  Buddhism  (the  yellow 
The  Mongol  sect) ;  Sakya  was  more  lax,  and  became  the  headquarters  of  the 
emperors.  j£ec|  gec^  many  0f  -whom  were  married  before  becoming  monks. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  the  power  of  the  Mongols  spread  over  Tibet. 
Kublai  Khan  adopted  Buddhism  and  greatly  favoured  the  Tibet  monks. 
Already  great  authority  had  gathered  round  the  chiefs  of  the  Sakya  and  the 
Raseng  monasteries,  and  Kublai  exerted  his  authority  to  appoint  the  nephew 
of  the  ruler  of  the  Sakya  monastery  to  succeed  his  uncle,  and  made  him  a 
tributary  ruler  over  Tibet.  In  return  for  his  authority,  he  and  his  suc- 
cessors were  required  to  crown  the  Mongol  emperors.  This  first  Grand 
Avatara  Lama,  known  as  Phuspa  Lama,  devised  the  Mongol  alphabet, 
started  a  revision  of  the  Tibetan  Buddhist  texts,  which  prepared  the  way 
for  their  translation  into  Mongolian,  and  founded  many  monasteries.  When 
the  Ming  dynasty  supplanted  the  Mongols  in  China,  they  continued  to 
favour  the  Tibetan  Lamas,  but  raised  three  other  chief  Lamas  to  similar 
rank.  At  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  there  arose  a  reformer,  Tsong 
Kim  pa,  who,  after  studying  the  originals  of  the  Buddhist  scriptures  in  Tibet, 
raised  again  the  standard  of  orthodoxy,  and  gathered  round  him  many  thou- 
sand monks  of  the  strict  yellow  sect;  he  built  and  became  the  first  head  of  a 
great  monastery  at  Galdan,  and  his  followers  built  others.  He  wrote  many 
books,  restored  celibacy,  abolished  many  superstitious  forms  of  worship, 
and  renewed  the  practice  of  retirement  for  meditation  at  a  fixed  season, 
which  had  not  been  kept  up  in  Tibet  owing  to  its  lack  of  a  rainy  season. 
After  his  death  in  1419  (since  celebrated  at  the  Feast  of  Lamps,  as  his 


MODERN  BUDDHISM. 


3i7 


ascension  to  heaven),  he  was  reverenced  as  an  incarnation  of  Amitabha, 

Manju-sri,  or  Vajra-pani,  and  his  image  is  still  seen  in  temples  ofThe  Dalal  and 

the  yellow  sect,  with  those  of  the  Dalai  and  Panchen  Lamas  011  the     Panchen 
...  •  .  Lamas 

right  and  left.    Since  his  time  (though  it  cannot  be  precisely  traced) 

there  has  arisen  the  practice  of  discovering  each  new  incarnation  in  an  infant, 

probably  io  avoid  discussions  and  competition.     At  any  rate,  at  present  there 

are  two  Grand  Lamas  :  one  the  Dalai  or  Ocean  Lama,  at  Lhassa,  the  other 

the  Tashi  or  Panchen  Lama  at  Tashi  Lunpo,  not  far  from  the  British  Indian 

frontier.     The  former  is  believed  to  be  an  incarnation  of  the  Dhyani-Bodhi- 


BUDDHIST    MONASTERY   IN    TIBET. 


satva  Avalokitesvara,  the  latter  of  his  father  or  Dhyani-Buddha,  Amitabha  ; 
but  the  Dalai  Lama  is  by  far  the  most  powerful,  or  rather  his  representa- 
tive, an  elected  chief  Lama  who  attends  to  business,  while  the  Dalai  him- 
self is  supposed  to  be  lost  in  divine  meditation,  and  receives  the  succession  of 
reverence  and  worship  due  to^his  character  and  origin.  There  Grand  Lamas- 
appear  to  have  been  various  modes  of  keeping  up  the  succession,r  viz.,  by 
the  dying  Lama  stating  in  what  family  he  would  again  become  incarnate, 
or  by  consulting  sacred  books  and  soothsayers,  or  by  the  Panchen  Lama 
interpreting  the  traditions  and  discovering  the  new  Dalai  Lama,  and  rice 
versa.    Nowadays  the  Chinese  court  has  a  predominant  influence  in  choosing; 


3>8 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


new  Grand  Lamas.  Yet  all  the  forms  of  divination,  signs,  choice  by  lot, 
etc.  are  gone  through ;  and  similar  proceedings  take  place  in  the  election 
of  all  Lamas  in  whom  saints  are  supposed  to  be  incarnated.  The  same  is 
the  case  in  various  Mongolian  monasteries.  When  the  choice  has  been 
made  the  child  is  brought  before  a  great  assembly  of  the  monks,  and  is 
expected  to  recognise  clothes,  books,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  deceased  Lama, 
and  to  answer  questions  as  to  his  former  life  as  Lama.  Among  the  chief 
Lamas  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Galdan  (where  the  body  of  Tsong  Khapa 
is  said  to  be  still  visible  poised  in  the  air,  and  uncorrupt),  Kurun  in  Mongolia, 
Kuku  in  Tartary,  the  Dharma-rajah  of  Bhutan,  and  the  Grand  Lama  of 
Poking.  The  Dharma-rajah  of  Bhutan,  belonging  to  the  Red  sect,  has  for 
his  titles  :  u  Chief  of  the  realm,  Defender  of  the  Faith,  Equal  to  Sarasvati  in 
learning,  Chief  of  all  the  Buddhas,  Head- expounder  of  the  Shastras,  Caster 
out  of  devils,  Most  learned  in  the  holy  laws,  an  Avatar  of  God,  Absolver  of 
sins,  and  Head  of  the  best  of  all  religions." 

While  in  many  parts  of  northern  Buddhistic  countries  the  monasteries 
are  small  buildings  near  or  combined  with  a  chapel  or  temple,  in  Tibet, 

Great  Mongolia,  and  Ladak  there  are  many  immense  monasteries  or 
monasteries.  Lamasseries,  often  in  retired  and  lofty  situations,  but  also 
aggregated  about  great  centres  such  as  Lhassa  and  Tashi  Lunpo.  About 
500,000  monks  owe  allegiance  to  these  two  capitals,  and  there  are  at  least 
thirty  large  monasteries  in  and  near  Lhassa.  Potala,  on  the  north-west  of 
Lhassa,  has  been  the  abode  of  all  the  Dalai  Lamas  since  the  fifth,  Navang 
me  Vatican  Lobsang  (1617-1682),  who  rebuilt  it.  This  great  building,  four 
of  Buddhism.  st0ries  high,  on  a  commanding  height,  has  in  or  connected  with 
it  ten  thousand  rooms  for  monks.  Everywhere  are  statues  of  Buddha  and 
( tther  saints,  and  varied  offerings  of  the  pious,  who  throng  to  Lhassa  to  pay 
their  worship  to  the  Grand  Lama,  with  gifts  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper. 
The  great  building  is  surmounted  by  a  cupola  overlaid  with  gold. 

Thomas  Manning  is  the  only  Englishman  who  has  ever  seen  a  Dalai 
Lama  ;    this  was  on  the  17th  December,  1811.      He  described  him   as   a 

t  rview  clieerful>  intelligent  child  of  seven.  Mr.  Sarat  Chandra  Das,  CLE., 
with  Grand  saw  the  present  Dalai  Lama  in  1882.  The  interview  was  con- 
ducted with  impressive  silence  and  dignity  by  the  high  officials. 
Consecrated  water  coloured  yellow  with  saffron  was  sprinkled  on  the 
company  ;  incense,  great  lamps,  and  a  yellow  hat  with  five  points  (denoting 
the  five  Dhyani-Buddhas)  are  important  elements  in  the  ceremonial,  which 
is  not  complete  without  all  sharing  tea  with  the  Lama  from  a  golden  teapot, 
preceded  by  a  grace  in  proper  Buddhist  form,  and  concluding  thus,  "Never 
even  for  a  moment  losing  sight  of  the  three  Holies  (Buddha,  the  Law,  and 
the  Order) ;  always  offer  reverence  to  the  Tri-ratnas  (or  three  jewels) ;  let 
the  blessings  of  the  three  be  upon  us."  Consecrated  rice,  touched  by  the 
Grand  Lama,  was  distributed  to  the  faithful.  The  sacred  youth  sat  all 
through  the  ceremony  cross-legged  on  a  throne- like  altar  with  wooden  lions 
on  either  side. 

L  is  said  that  Lhassa  almost  vies  with  Benares  and  Mecca  as  a  place  of, 


MODERN  BUDDHISM.  319 

pilgrimage,  Potala,  the  Vatican  of  Buddhism,  being  the  great  resort ;  and 
the  rice,  the  pills  of  blessing,  the  scraps  of  silk,  and  the  prayer-papers  or 
flags  which  the  Grand  Lama  has  consecrated,  are  treasured  for  life. 

Tashi  Lunpo,  with  its  great  monastery  of  the  Panchen  Lama,  has  been 
much  more  frequently  visited  by  Europeans.  This  monastery  is  much 
more  varied,  consisting  of  several  hundred  distinct  houses, 
surrounded  by  pinnacled  gilded  temples  and  topes.  It  is,  however, 
in  connection  with  the  oldest  monastery— La-brang  in  Lhassa — that  the 
greatest  temple  of  Buddhism  in  Tibet  is  to  be  found.  It  is  three  storeys 
high,  with  a  portico  and  colonnade  of  huge  wooden  pillars.  Opposite  the 
entrance  are  the  usual  great  statues  of  the  four  great  kings ;  beyond  is  a 
long  oblong  hall,  like  a  basilica,  with  rows  of  columns  dividing  it  into  three 
longitudinal  divisions,  with  two  transepts.  The  walls  contain  no  windows, 
but  across  the  central  division  or  nave  is  stretched  transparent  oil-cloth, 
which  is  the  only  mode  of  admission  of  daylight  to  the  building.  A  row  of 
small  chapels  flanks  each  side  of  the  long  building.  In  the  transepts  are 
seats  for  the  monks,  and  beyond  the  second  is  a  sanctuary  with  an  altar  for 
offerings  ;  at  the  extreme  west  end,  in  a  special  recess,  is  a  grand  altar  with 
many  steps,  and  on  the  summit  is  the  revered  gilt  image  of  Gautama  Buddha, 
respecting  the  origin  of  which  various  stories  are  told.  On  the  upper  steps 
of  the  altar  are  many  images  of  deified  saints  ;  and  the  temple  contains  very 
many  images  and  pictures  of  Buddha,  saints  and  deities,  as  well  as  relics.  Li 
front  of  this  altar  are  lofty  thrones  for  the  Dalai  and  Panchen  Lamas,  flanked 
by  smaller  ones  for  the  other  Avatar  Lamas  ;  seats  of  less  dignity  are  provided 
for  the  heads  of  monasteries  and  higher  orders  of  monks  in  the  western 
transept.  Five  thousand  oil  lamps  give  light,  and  the  muttering  of  the 
chief  Buddhist  formula  goes  on  continually.  Tibetan  temples  are  usually 
much  smaller  than  this  ;  the  chief  features  are  altars  with  images  of  Buddha 
and  the  Bodhi-satvas,  bowls  for  offerings,  bells,  etc. 

The  Tibetan  Buddhists  have  outdone  every  other  race  in  one  respect ; 
that  is,  in  praying  by  machinery.  Impressed  with  the  importance  of 
accumulating  religious  merit  as  a  means  of  shortening  their  stay  praying  by 
in  lower  forms  of  life,  and  accelerating  their  entrance  to  heaven,  maclliIiery- 
they  not  only  orally  repeat  multitudes  of  times  the  "jewel  "  formula,  which 
has  acquired  such  vogue  among  them,  but  they  get  it  repeated  by  turning 
machines  or  extending  flags  to  the  wind,  in  or  on  which  the  sacred  formula 
is  written.  This  formula  consists  merely  of  the  sentence,  "  Om  mani  padme 
Hum.7'  The  first  syllable  is  the  Hindu  sacred  syllable  (p.  102)  ;  the  next 
two  words  mean,  "  the  Jewel  in  the  Lotus,"  an  allusion,  it  is  said,  to  Avalo- 
kitesvara  as  the  patron  of  Tibet  appearing  from  or  seated  on  a  Lotus.  The 
last  syllable  is  regarded  by  some  as  an  Amen.  The  whole  formula  is  thought 
by  Sir  Monier- Williams  to  have  some  relation  to  Hindu  Siva-worship,  and, 
he  says,  "  no  other  prayer  used  by  human  beings  in  any  quarter  of  the 
globe  is  repeated  so  often.  Every  Tibetan  believes  it  to  be  a  panacea  for  all 
evil,  a  compendium  of  all  knowledge,  a  treasury  of  all  wisdom,  a  summary 
of  all  religion."     Each  of  its  syllables  is  believed  to  influence  one  of  the  six 


MODERN  BUDDHISM.  321 


courses  or  stages  of  transmigration  through  which  all  must  pass,  diminishing 
his  stay  in  them,  or  in  time  abolishing  it  altogether. 

The  favourite  prayer  cylinders  are  of  metal,  having  the  mystic  invoca- 
tion engraved  on  the  outside,  while  the  cavity  is  filled  with  paper  in  rolls,  on 
which  it  is  written  as  many  times  as  possible.     This  cylinder  can      prayer 
be  made  to  revolve  on  a  handle,  and  is  whirled  in  the  hand,  or   cy^d"3- 
rotated  by  a  chain  or  string.     "  All  day  long,"  says  Capt.  Gill  in  "  The 
River  of  Golden  Sand,"  "  not  only  the  Lamas,  but  the  people  may  be  seen 
muttering  the  universal  prayer,  and  twisting  their  cylinders,  invariably  in 
the  same  direction  with  the  hands  of  a  clock.     One  or  more  great  cylinders, 
inscribed  with  this  sentence,  stand  at  the  entrance  to  every  house  in  Tibet ; 
and  a  member  of  the  household  or  a  guest  who  passes  is  always  expected  to 
give  the  cylinder  a  twist  for  the  welfare  of  the  establishment.     At  almost 
every  rivulet  the  eye  is  arrested  by  a  little  building  that  is  at  first  mistaken 
for  a  water  mill,  but  which  on  close  inspection  is  found  to  contain  a  cylinder, 
turning  by  the   force   of  the   stream,   and   ceaselessly   sending   up   pious 
ejaculations  to  heaven  ;  for  every  turn  of  a  cylinder  on  which  the  prayer  is 
written   is   supposed   to   convey    an    invocation   to   the  deity.     Sometimes 
enormous  barns  are  filled  with  these  cylinders,  gorgeously  painted,  and  with 
the  prayer  repeated  on  them  many  times  ;    and  at  every  turn  and  every 
step  in  Tibet  this  sentence  is  forced  upon  the  traveller's  notice  in  some  form 
or  another." 

Another  variety  of  praying  ingenuity  is  the  erection  of  long  walls 
inscribed  with  any  number  of  this  and  other  invocations,  by  which  travellers 
who  walk  in  the  proper  direction  gain  the  credit  of  so  many  prayer  walls 
repetitions.  Praying-flags,  with  prayers  and  symbols,  extended  and  flags- 
by  every  wind,  praying  drums  which  frighten  away  evil  spirits,  bells  which 
have  the  same  function,  or  which  call  the  attention  of  the  deities  or  saints, 
armlets  with  sacred  sentences  or  relics  inside,  and  various  other  objects, 
are  among  the  "  properties  "  greatly  used  in  Tibetan  Buddhism,  while  the 
rosary  for  counting  the  number  of  repetitions  of  prayer  is  a  more  familiar 
object  in  Tibet  than  even  in  Roman  Catholic  countries. 

The  monks  of  the  Tibetan  monasteries  meet  in  their  temple  or  chapel 
three  times  a  day  for  worship :  at  sunrise,  midday,  and  sunset.     They  are 
summoned  by  a  loud  conch-shell  trumpet,  and  enter  in  procession.       D 
A  bell  gives  the  signal  to  commence  repeating  or  chanting  prayer  worship  of 
formulas,  passages  of  the  Law,  litanies,   etc.,  often  with  noisy 
musical  accompaniments.     The  ritual  is  varied  by  each  monk  repeating  a 
sentence  in  turn,  the  recital  of  the  praises  and  titles  of  honour  of  Buddha  or 

V*  The  illustration  on  page  320  depicts  a  group  of  Buddhist  priests  or  Lamas  at 
Darjeeling,  British  Sikkim,  at  the  entrance  to  their  Temple,  The  head  Lama  is  seated 
below  at  the  left,  wearing  the  sacred  hat,  a  garment  of  cloth  of  gold,  and  a  set  of  holy 
beads.  In  front  of  him  are  a  small  tom-tom,  a  brass  sanctifying  instrument,  and  a  bell. 
Next  to  him  is  the  second  Lama,  with  cymbals  and  a  short  horn.  In  the  centre  is  a 
student  under  instruction  for  the  office  of  Lama,  having  before  him  sheets  of  the  sacred 
writings.  Over  the  doorway  is  a  small  image  of  Buddha,  flanked  by  small  brass  cups 
containing  rice  and  oil.  Standing  in  the  Verandah  are  two  travelling  Lamas  from 
Lhassa. 

Y 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


one  of  the  Bodhi-satvas.  When  one  of  the  Grand  Lamas  is  present,  the 
service  is  very  elaborate.  Incense  and  perfumes  are  burnt,  and  at  times 
holy  water  and  grain  are  distributed.  In  some  ceremonies  tea-drinking  is  a 
conspicuous  element.  Laymen  play  but  a  very  subordinate  part  in  these 
services.  They  are  allowed  to  be  present,  repeating  prayers  and  invocations 
and  making  offerings  ;  they  may  also  acquire  merit  by  walking  round 
monasteries,  temples,  etc.,  without  stopping.  Sometimes  they  carry  loads 
of  books  containing  prayers,  and  frequently  prostrate  themselves  at  full 
length  on  the  ground ;  at  the  end  of  their  journey  they  are  held  to  have 
gained  the  same  merit  as  if  they  had  recited  all  the  prayers  in  the  books 
they  carried. 

The  Tibetans  have  a  number  of  special  festivals  which  we  can  only 
briefly  mention.     The  new  year's  celebration,  lasting  a  fortnight,  is  a  sort 
of  carnival ;  at  the  water-festival  in  August  or  September,  rivers 
and  lakes  are  blessed,  and  the  people  bathe  to  wash  away  their 
sins.     Buddha's  birthday  and  the  anniversary  of  his  death  are  very  impor- 
tant days ;  on  the  latter,  every  monastery  and  temple,  and  every  house  In 
Lhassa  is  darkened  with  the  burning  of  incense.     The  festival  of  lamps,  the 
ascent  of  Tsong  Khapa  to  heaven  ;  and  days  of   spirit-hunting  and  per- 
formances of  religious  dramas,  are  among  the  diversified  holidays  of  Tibet. 
Periods  of  fasting,  especially  before  the  great  festivals,  are  observed  by 
the  devout.     Of  course  these  are  more  observed  by  the  monks 

Fasts 

of  the  yellow  sect.  One  of  these  periods  of  fasting  lasts  four 
days,  during  which  the  monks  confess  their  faults  and  meditate  on  the  evils 
of  demerit.  On  the  third  day  no  food  whatever  is  taken,  and  not  even  the 
saliva  must  be  swallowed ;  not  a  word  is  spoken,  and  each  monk  is  engaged 
without  intermission  in  silent  prayer  and  confession.  Many  monks  keep 
the  four  holy  days  of  each  month  as  fast  days. 

Tibet,  then,  is  the  Papal  domain  of  Buddhism.     Some  lamasseries  are 

enormously  rich.     They  own  half  the  country,  constantly  receive  legacies, 

The  Papal   anc^  even  gr°w  rich  by  usury.     No  taxes  are  paid  by  them,  and 

domain  of   their  own  lands  are  attended  to  by  large  numbers  of  slaves.    Many 

Buddhism.       -    ,  .  n 

oi  the  monks  do  not  keep  their  vows  of  celibacy,  and  the  common 
people  are  said  in  their  hearts  to  detest  the  Lamas  for  their  oppression. 
Whether  this  is  generally  true  or  not,  every  rational  mind  will  agree  that. 
Tibetan  Buddhism  is  by  no  means  an  unmixed  good. 

CHINESE  BUDDHISM 

The  influence  of  Buddhism  in  China  is  still  great,  though  not  as  exten- 
sive as  formerly,  owing  to  the  loss  of  the  patronage  of  the  emperors ;  but  it 
exists  in  a  considerably  modified  form.  "  The  worship  of  Pu-sah,"  says  Dr. 
Beal,  "  in  the  houses  of  the  rich  and  poor,  is  hardly  recognised  as  Buddhist 
iii  its  origin  ;  and,  indeed,  the  very  term  Pu-sah,  which  is  the  Chinese  form 
of  Bodhi-satva,  is  explained  as  of  native  origin,  and  signifying  "  universal 
benevolence,"  whilst  the  objects  of  Buddhist  worship,  such  as  the  Goddess 
of  Mercy  and  the  Queen  of  Heaven,  have  been  placed  among  the  number  of 


MODERN  BUDDHISM. 


323 


their  genii."     Also  the  images  of  Pu-sah  are  to  be  found  in  the  houses  of 
many  officials  and  others  who  would  deny  that  they  were  Buddhists. 

Chinese  Buddhism  dates  from   a.d.  61,  when  the  Emperor  Ming-ti  is 


THE    CALL    TO    WORSHIP    IN    A    BULDHIS1'    MONASTERY^ 


said  to  have  had  a  dream  in  which  he  saw  a  golden  figure  of  a  god  hovering 
over  his  palace.  He  inquired  of  one  of  his  ministers  what  this  lntroducti(m 
could  mean,  and  was  told  that  a  divine  person  named  Buddha  of  Buddhism' 
had  "been  born  in  the  "West,  and  that  his  dream  was  probably 


324  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

connected  with  him.  The  emperor  in  consequence  sent  a  mission  to  India 
to  obtain  books  and  news  concerning  this  person.  They  returned  in  a.d.  67, 
with  two  Buddhist  monks,  together  with  various  books,  pictures,  and  relics. 
The  emperor  listened  to  them  readily,  and  had  a  temple  built  for  them  in 
his  capital  Loyang  (now  Honan-fu).  The  narrative  of  these  events  includes 
various  miracles  worked  by  the  Buddhists  in  proof  of  their  religion. 

The  short  life  of  Buddha  which  these  priests  introduced  and  translated, 
into  Chinese  is  of  special  interest,  for,  as  we  have  seen,  no  separate  life  of 
Chinese  life  Buddha  exists  in  the  southern  canon.  In  the  Chinese  life  he  is 
of  Buddha,  generally  termed  Sakyarnuni,  the  Sakya  sage,  and  his  proper 
name,  Gautama,  is  scarcely  mentioned.  This  title,  Sakyarnuni,  seems  to  have 
been  more  acceptable  to  the  northern  Buddhists,  because  of  the  belief  that 
the  name  Sakya  was  like  that  of  a  prominent  Central  Asian  people,  the 
Sacae  or  Scythians ;  and  this  name  has  been  adopted  as  the  title  of  the 
Chinese  Buddhists  (Shih-kian  or  Shih-tsen). 

It  would  be  most  interesting,  if  we  had  space,  to  give  an  account  of 
the  life  of  Buddha  as  depicted,  in  Chinese  books.  Previous  Buddhas, 
Mythical  appearing  through  enormously  long  ages,  are  named ;  and  the 
details.  Buddha  of  the  present  age  (Sakyarnuni)  is  said  to  have  gone 
through  a  number  of  stages  of  elevation  in  previous  ages.  A.t  last,  in 
the  age  immediately  before  the  present  one,  Sakya  became  a  Bodhi-satva, 
was  born  in  the  Tushita  heaven,  and.  finally  descended,  to  earth  on  a 
white  elephant  with  six  tusks.  The  narratives  which  follow,  while  ex- 
plicable as  consistent  with  the  life  we  have  already  given,  are  overlaid 
with  much  exaggeration  and  myth.  The  life  is  arranged  so  as  to  explain 
the  origin  and  scenes  of  the  very  numerous  books  of  the  northern  canon. 
Thus  at  one  time  Sakya  is  instructing  the  Bodhi-satvas ;  at  another  he 
is  in  the  heavens  of  the  Hindu  gods,  teaching  Indra,  Yama,  etc.  All 
this  serves  as  a  scene  for  the  development  of  the  Bodhi-satva  mythology. 
After  long  abstinence  and  meditation,  and  severe  temptation  by  the 
king  of  the  Maras,  Sakyarnuni  became  a  perfect  Buddha  (i.e.,  in  Chinese 
phrase,  from  being  Pu-sa  became  Fo).  In  order  to  convey  the  truth 
to  men  simply,  and  as  they  could  receive  it,  he  assumed  the  guise  of  an 
ascetic,  preached  the  four  primary  truths,  established  the  order  of  monks, 
and  sent  them  out  to  propagate  his  doctrine.  He  is  afterwards  said  to  have 
*ul>dued  a  fierce  snake  and  to  have  made  him  take  the  vows  of  the  order; 
to  have  resisted  the  fiercest  temptations  of  the  king  of  the  Maras,  and  to 
have  gone  to  the  Tushita  heaven  to  instruct  his  mother  Maya.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  reception  of  his  son  Rahula  and  other  boys  as  novices,  the 
admission  of  women,  the  establishment  of  discipline,  etc.  Sakya  is  said  to 
have  gone  to  Ceylon  himself,  to  have  visited  the  middle  heavens,  to  have 
secured  the  gods  (devas)  as  protectors  of  his  doctrine,  to  have  sent  Visva- 
karma  and  fifteen  daughters  of  devas  to  be  the  patrons  of  China.  He 
instituted  the  daily  service  and  ordained  honour  for  his  books.  In  his  last  j 
days  he  gave  forth  his  most  perfect  works,  "The  Lotus  of  the  Good  Law" 
and  "  Nirvana,"  intended  to  make  his  disciples  long  for  higher  attainments. 


MODERX  BUDDHISM.  325 

This  was  his  meaning,  say  the  Chinese  Buddhist  authors,  when  he  said, 
u  I  am  not  to  be  destroyed,  but  shall  be  constantly  on  the  mountain  of 
instruction."  Buddha,  entering  Nirvana,  is  not  dead,  but  lives  in  his 
teaching.  Before  his  death  he  is  said  to  have  had  presented  to  him  images 
of  himself  of  gold  and  sandal-wood,  which  he  consecrated,  giving  his 
disciples  in  charge  to  them.  At  this  time  also  he  forbade  the  eating  of 
animal  food.  His  death  and  cremation  were  attended  by  marvels  too 
numerous  to  mention. 

In  the  Chinese  records  we  are  introduced  to  a  long  series  of  Buddhist 
patriarchs,  the  successive  chiefs  and  defenders  of  Buddhist  law  and  disci- 
pline, each  selected  by  the  last  patriarch,  the  first  being  Maha  Buddhist 
Kashiapa,  appointed  by  Buddha.  A  patriarch,  says  Dr.  Edkins,  patriarchs, 
is  represented  as  "  one  who  does  not  look  at  evil  and  dislike  it ;  nor  does  he, 
when  he  sees  that  which  is  good,  make  a  strong  effort  to  attain  it.  He  does 
not  put  wisdom  aside  and  approach  folly ;  nor  does  he  fling  away  delusion 
and  aim  at  comprehending  truth.  Yet  he  has  an  acquaintance  with  great 
truths  which  is  beyond  being  measured,  and  he  penetrates  into  Buddha's 
mind  to  a  depth  that  cannot  be  fathomed."  Such  an  one  had  magical  powers, 
could  fly  through  the  air,  go  into  trances,  and  penetrate  men's  thoughts. 
Nevertheless  he  lived  poorly,  and  was  meanly  clad.  Thirty-three  of  these 
are  named,  including  five  Chinese  patriarchs,  and  their  biography  is  given. 

From  the  foundation  of  Chinese  Buddhism  a  succession  of  western 
Buddhist  monks  and  learned   men   came   to  China  and  undertook  great 
labours  of  translation  and  preaching  to  propagate  their  doctrines.        The 
In  the  fourth  century  the  Chinese  were  entering  the  Order  by    ^oks5* 
permission   of  a   Chow  prince,   many  pagodas  were   erected   in  translated. 
Loyang,  and  considerable  monasteries  were  built  in  North  China.     Many 
of  the  Buddhist  teachers  professed  to  work  miracles,  and  certainly  dealt  in 
magic.     Chinese  Buddhist  pilgrims  visited  India  and  other  Buddhist  coun- 
tries, and  brought  back  accounts  of  marvels  they  had  seen  (as,  for  instance, 
Fa-hien  and  Huen-siang).    Early  in  the  fifth  century  Kumarajiva,  an  Indian 
Buddhist,  assisted  by  eight  hundred  priests,  produced  a  new  translation  of 
the  Buddhist  books  into  Chinese,  extending  to  three  hundred  volumes. 

After  this  time  the  rulers  of  China  became  for  a  time  hostile  to  Bud- 
dhism ;  but  this  was  soon  reversed,  and  there  was  much  intercourse  between 
Buddhist  princes  in  India  and  China.     Monasteries  and  temples    0ppogition 
multiplied,  and  magic  and  wonders,  as  fostered  by  the  books  of  of 

....  Coiifucianists 

the  Greater  Vehicle,  overlaid  the  original  faith.  At  various  times 
Chinese  emperors,  followed  by  their  people,  combined  more  or  less  of  Con- 
fucianism and  Taoism  with  Buddhism,  and  seldom  prohibited  any  of  them. 
At  various  periods  the  Confucianists  sought  to  put  down  the  Buddhists,  to 
make  the  monks  and  nuns  marry,  etc.,  and  decrees  were  promulgated 
against  them  ;  and  sometimes  their  property  was  confiscated  and  they  were 
compelled  to  return  to  secular  life.  Side  by  side  with  religious  changes, 
Hindu  Buddhists  introduced  many  improvements  in  Chinese  orthography, 
science,  and  literature. 


326  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  twenty-eighth  Indian  Buddhist  patriarch,  Bodhidharma,  visited 
China  in  the  sixth  century,  and  died  there.  He  exalted  meditation  at  the 
expense  of  reading  and  book  knowledge,  allowing  no  merit 
BodMdharma.  either  tQ  thege  or  to  tlie  building  of  temples.  In  his  view  true 
merit  consisted  in  t;  purity  and  enlightenment,  depth  and  completeness,  and 
in  being  wrapped  in  thought  while  surrounded  by  vacancy  and  stillness." 
]\i<  influence  in  China,  where  he  died,  was  powerful  enough  to  make  his 
followers  a  distinct  sect  of  contemplatists,  as  contrasted  with  the  ascetics 
and  the  ordinary  temple-monks.  His  sect  gradually  became  the  most  influ- 
ential ;  and  it  appears  to  have  distinctly  weakened  the  looking  for  a  future 
life  and  retribution,  by  exalting  self-reform  as  to  be  brought  about  solely 
by  inward  contemplation.  Not  long  after  his  death  a  monk  of  Tien-tai, 
named  Cki-kai,  invented  a  system  which  combined  contemplation  with 
image-worship,  and  it  gradually  gained  great  popularity,  his  books  being 
after  some  centuries  reckoned  among  the  classics  of  Chinese  Buddhism. 

The  history  of  Chinese  Buddhism  in  the  middle  ages  presents  a  continual 
series  of  assaults  by  Confucianists,  alternate  persecutions  and  support  by 
emperors,  and  frequent  interference.     Certain  temples  were  destroyed  and 
others  exalted;   certain  monasteries  and   temples   were    transferred  from 
one  kind  of  worship  to  another,  from  one  sect  of  Buddhists  to  another; 
and   all  the   time   the    emperors    did    not    ostensibly   become   Buddhists, 
me  Mongol  The  Mongol  emperors,  however,  especially  Kublai  Khan,  became 
emperors,    decided  Buddhists,  and  used  the  Chinese  imperial  temples  for 
Buddhist  worship.      Towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth,  century  a  census 
stated  that  there  were  over  42,000  Buddhist  temples  and  213,000  monks  in 
China,   which  implies  a  very  great  number  of  lay  adherents.      After  the 
fall  of  the  Mongols  some  restrictions  were  gradually  imposed  on  the  Bud- 
dhists :  and  the  Sacred  Edict,  issued  in  1662,  and  still  read  periodically  in 
public,  blames  them  for  fixing  their  attention  on  their  individual  minds 
alone,  and  for  inventing  baseless  tales  about  future  happiness  and 
discourage-  misery.     Thus  Buddhism  is  officially  discountenanced,  although 
in  Mongolia  and  Tibet  the  Chinese  encourage  and  pay  deference 
to  it ;  and  in  China  itself  the  worship  and  festivals  continue  to  be  very 
largely  attended,  although  the  building  of  new  temples  has  to  a  large 
extent  fallen  off. 

Chinese  Buddhism  at  the  present  day  is  so  extensive  and  varied  that 
it  is  only  possible  to  glance  at  its  leading  features.  In  many  ways  it 
Present  occupies  much  the  same  standpoint  as  in  Tibet ;  and  the  Chinese 
state.  monk  takes  refuge  in  Buddha,  the  Law,  and  the  Order,  like  his 
Singhalese  brother.  The  worship  of  Buddha  still  remains,  in  a  considerably 
materialised  form ;  but  image-worship  is  by  no  means  held  to  be  essential 
by  instructed  Buddhists,  though  it  is  allowed  by  them  for  the  ignorant  and 
weak.  But  added  to  this  worship  is  that  of  a  great  number  of  associated 
and  inferior  beings,  making  Chinese  Buddhism  at  present  practically  a 
complex  polytheism.  Its  public  attitude  may  be  gathered  from  an  account 
of  the  temples  and  services. 


MODERN  BUDDHISM. 


127 


Looking  south,  like  so  many  Chinese  buildings,  the  temples  of  the 
Chinese  Buddhists  consist  of  a  series  of  halls,  the  vestibule  being  guarded 
by  the  same  four  great  kings  mentioned  at  p.  319,  carved  in 
wood,  and  dressed  and  equipped  with  various  symbols,  such  as  a 
sword,  an  umbrella,  a  snake,  or  some  other  object  with  a  well-defined  sig- 
nificance to  Orientals.  They  give  all  kinds  of  blessings  to  true  Buddhists, 
and  withdraw  their  favour  from  kings  and  nations  which  neglect  the  truth. 
Maitreya  (Mi-li  Fo)  also  appears  in  the  same  entrance-hall ;  sometimes  even 
Confucius  has  an  image  here,  as  protector  of  the  Buddhist  religion. 

The  great  hall  opening  from  the  entrance-hall  contains  the  images  of 


TWO    OF   THE    GCAUDIANS    OF    BUDDHA.       KUSJAN    MONASTERY,    NEAR   FOO-CHOW. 

Buddha,  the  Six  Bodhi-satvas,  Ananda,  and  many  saints,  in  various  sym- 
bolical attitudes,  Wen-shu  and  Pu-hien  often  being  placed  right  images 
and  left  of  Buddha,  while  Kwan-yin  is  behind  them  looking  m  the  haUs- 
northward.  Sometimes  Buddha  is  alone  in  front  and  the  other  three  are  in 
a  row  behind  him.  Kwan-yin  appears  in  numerous  forms  in  pictures  and 
sculptures ;  in  one  he  is  represented  by  a  female  figure  presenting  an  infant 
to  mothers  praying  for  children.  Other  halls  may  be  added  to  the  principal 
ones,  containing  statues,  sculptured  scenes,  and  pictures.  The  large  central 
hall,  according  to  Dr.  Edkins,  is  intended  to  symbolise   Buddha   giving 


32S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


instruction  to  an  assembly  of  disciples,  while  the  leading  idea  of  the 
entrance-hall  is  to  show  the  powerful  protection  by  celestial  beings  which 
Buddhists  enjoy.  All  this  is  in  agreement  with  the  narratives  in  the 
"  Greater  Vehicle."  There  may  be  many  subordinate  chapels,  dedicated  to 
Bodhi-satvas  and  other  beings  of  Buddhist,  Hindu,  and  Chinese  mythology. 
The  images  of  the  Pu-sa  or  Bodhi-satvas  stand  when  in  the  presence  of 
Buddha,  but  sit  when  in  their  own  shrines.  Even  the  Taoist  images  are 
admitted  into  the  all-comprehending  Buddhist  temples,  as  well  as  those  of 
celebrated  Chinese  Buddhists. 

In  North  China,  especially  at  Pekin,  it  is  customary,  whether  the 
images  are  of  brass,  iron,  wood,  or  clay,  to  make  them  with  internal  organs 
Realism  of  as  complete  as  possible,  according  to  Chinese  notions,  which  are 
images.  not  veiy  correct ;  but  the  heads  are  always  empty.  Surrounding 
the  abdominal  organs  is  a  large  piece  of  silk  covered  with  prayers  or 
charms,  while  within  it  are  bags  containing  small  pieces  of  gold,  silver,  and 
pearls,  and  the  five  chief  kinds  of  grain ;  but  many  of  these  valuables  have 
been  stolen  from  the  images. 

"While  the  more  intellectual  Buddhists  explain  their  temples  and  images 
as  purely  symbolical,  and  their  offerings,  bowings,  etc.,  as  expressing  rever- 
ential reception  of  Buddha's  teaching,  the  common  people  regard 
the  images  as  deities,  and  pray  to  them  for  deliverance  from 
sickness,  sufferings,  childlessness,  poverty,  etc.      Kwan-yin  is  very  exclu- 
sively worshipped,  being  commonly  known  as  the  goddess  of  mercy,  who 
hears  the  cries  of  men.      This  worship  is  always  associated  with  that  of 
Amitabha  (O-me-to),  the  father  of  Kwan-yin,  and  they  are  believed  to  dwell 
in  the  happy  (western)  land  of  Sukhavati.    Those  born  in  this  paradise  have 
only  unmixed  joys,  of  which  gorgeous  descriptions  are  given.     This  heaven 
has  taken  a  strong  hold  of  the  imagination  of  Chinese  Buddhists,  and  they 
will  repeat  the  name  "  Amita   Buddh "  incessantly,  while  counting  their 
beads.     It  is  possible,  and  is  strongty  held  by  some,  that  some  of  the  ideas 
of  this  worship,  especially  of  the  Litany  of  Kwan-yin,  were  derived  from 
Persian,  Arab,  and  Jewish  sources.     It  is  a  wide-spread  belief  that  Kwan- 
yin,  moved  by  infinite  compassion,  has  promised  to  become  manifest  in  all 
the  innumerable  worlds,  to  save  their  inhabitants.     He  also  visited  all  the 
hells  for  this  purpose ;  and  detailed  accounts  of  his  visits  and  their  beneficial 
results  are  given.     There  are  special  elaborate  services  in  which  Kwan-yin 
is  worshipped  and  invoked,  while  at  the  same  time  Buddha  and  the  other 
Bodhi-satvas  are  duly  honoured.    One  prayer  runs  thus:  "May  the  all-seeing 
and  all-powerful  Kwan-yin,  in  virtue  of  her  vow,  come  hither  to  us  as  we 
recite  the  sentences   and   remove  from  us  the  three   obstacles  (of  impure 
thought,  word,  and  deed).     Professor  Beal  gives  the  following  translation 
fri  »m  the  Chinese  of  the  confession  or  "  act  of  faith  "  in  Kwan-yin : — 

"All  hail,  good,  compassionate  Kwan-yin! 
Though  I  -were  thrown  on  the  Mountain  of  Knives, 
They  should  not  hurt  me  ; 
Though  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire, 


MODERN  BUDDHISM.  329 

It  should  not  burn  me  ; 

Though  surrounded  by  famished  ghosts, 

They  should  not  touch  me ; 

Though  exposed  to  the  power  of  devils, 

They  should  not  reach  me ; 

Though  changed  into  a  beast, 

Yet  should  I  rise  to  heaven. 

All  hail,  compassionate  Kwan-yin." 

Incense  is  burnt,  flowers  and  food  are  offered,  and  invocations  are  repeated 
again  and  again  to  Kwan-yin  and  Amitabha,  with  appropriate  readings  from 
the  sacred  books,  some  of  them  in  Sanskrit  and  unintelligible  alike  to  priests 
and  people,  but  supposed  to  have  a  magic  effect.  The  distinctive  worship 
of  Amitabha  is  practised  by  many,  both  in  China  and  Japan ;  they 
are  called  the  "pure  land  "  sect,  who  rely  on  Amitabha  to  effect 
their  entrance  to  the  bright  paradise.  The  mere  repetition  of  the  name 
with  concentrated  and  undivided  attention  is  believed  to  ensure  paradise ; 
he  is  also  invoked  by  the  form  "  Praise  to  Amita  Buddha,"  and  the  most 
extravagant  promises  are  made  to  those  who  rightly  invoke  him.  This  is 
the  prevailing  form  of  Buddhist  worship  in  many  parts  of  China,  and  it  is 
very  popular  owing  to  its  putting  out  of  sight  Nirvana  and  presenting  a 
heaven  of  conscious  happiness  and  joy  to  the  believer. 

At  the  temple  Pi-yun-si,  west  of  Pekin,  there  is  a  hall  of  500  departed 
saints,  arrayed  in  six  parallel  galleries ;  the  figures  are  of  clay,  full-sized, 
and  seated.  In  another  court  are  scenes  from  the  imagined  Halls  of  500 
future  state,  all  modelled  in  clay,  showing  the  fate  both  of  the  saints, 
good  and  the  evil.  These  halls  are  in  addition  to  the  usual  elaborate  series 
of  halls.  Pagodas  also  form  part  of  this  great  establishment.  Similar  halls 
are  numerous  in  the  Tien-tai  district. 

Music  is  much  used  in  Chinese  Buddhist  worship,  the  instruments  in- 
cluding drums,  small  and  large  bells,  cymbals,  and  various  metal  forms 
struck  by  clappers  which  have  no  analogy  in  western  music. 

Dr.  Edkins  admits  that  while  the  populace  believe  in  the  extravagant 
details  of  mythology  or  magic,  the  priests  in  the  services  still  read  the  old 
passages  from  the  Buddhist  books  which  teach  the  nothingness  of  every- 
thing ;  so  that,  if  fully  exposed,  the  most  utter  contrasts  would  be  found  in 
any  of  their  services. 

One  of  the  most  famous  Buddhist  regions  of  China  is  Tien-tai,  a  cluster 

of  hills  180  miles  south-east  of  Hang-cheu.     It  came  into   note  through 

Chi-kai,  who  in   the   sixth  century  founded  his  school   of  con-    _ 

1      .        t->  .  .  .    .         .  Tien-tai. 

templative  Buddhism  there,  imagining  its  grand  natural  scenery 

to  be  the  residence  of  the  great  saints  of  Buddhism,  the  Arhats  or  Lohans  ; 

indeed,  he  heard  them  sing  near  the  remarkable  rock  bridge  over  a  cataract, 

and  now  they  are  represented  by  five  hundred  small  stone  figures  at  the 

side  of  the  bridge.     Here  Chi-kai  developed  an  elaborate  comment  on  and 

development  of  Buddhism,  which  he  called  "  perfected  observation."     He 

explained  everything  as  an,  embodiment  of  Buddha,  subtly  getting  rid  of 


13° 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


all  the  objects  of  popular  belief.  He  taught  his  followers  various  forms  of 
meditation  which  his  followers  have  maintained,  while  not  entirely  con-, 
demningVopular  belief,  nor  going  to  the  extreme  of  Buddhist  agnosticism. 


At  the  present  clay  monasteries  are  to  be  found  five  miles  apart  throughout 
the  Tien-tai  hill  country. 

Besides  this  there  are  numerous  important  "  schools  "  of  Chinese  Bud- 
dhism, named  from  prominent  teachers,  from  whom   the  present  heads  of 


MODERN  BUDDHISM.  331 


monasteries  claim  continuous  succession.     Their  doctrines  lor  the  most  part 
do  not   differ   widely  from  one  another,  but   great  importance 
is  attached  to  minutiae.     The  Lin-tsi  school  was  founded  by  a     cMnese 
teacher  who  diebl  in  8G8,  and  had  a  great  reputation  for  magical  Buddhism, 
powers  ;  it  is  now  very  widely  spread  in  China  and  in  Japan.  The  Lin-tsi. 
It  teaches  that  Buddha  is  within  the  believer  if  he  only  be  recog- 
nised.    "  "What  is  Buddha  ?     A  mind  pure  and  at  rest.     "What  is  the  law  ? 
A  mind  clear  and  enlightened.      What  is  Tao '?     In  every  place  absence 
of  impediments  and  pure  enlightenment.     These  three  are  one."     Discipline 
is  strictly  maintained  by  means  of  three  blows  with  the  hand  or  with  the 
cane,  three  successive  reproofs,  and  the  alternation  of  speech  with  silence. 
We  cannot  particularise  the  other  varied  schools  of  Chinese  Buddhism, 
but  they  are  as  numerous  as  the  principal  dissenting  bodies  in  England. 

The  monasteries  need  not  be  particularly  described,  after  what  we  have 
said  of  Buddhist  monasteries  in  other  countries.  They  all  have  a  temple  or 
worship-hall  attached.  Most  of  the  larger  establishments  own  land  Monasteries 
or  other  property,  but  not  often  sufficient  for  all  expenses,  which  and  monks, 
are  met  by  mendicant  expeditions,  the  offerings  of  worshippers,  and  volun- 
tary presents  sent  to  them.  The  procession  of  monks  walks  through  the 
streets  to  receive  alms  beating  a  gong  or  cymbal  at  intervals,  and  often  recit- 
ing Buddhist  formulas.  The  monks  dress  very  differently  from  the  Chinese 
people.  In  officiating  they  usually  wear  yellow  garments  of  silk  or  cotton, 
with  a  wide  turn-down  collar  and  huge  sleeves ;  at  other  times  their  clothes 
are  mostly  of  an  ashy  grey.  Their  heads  are  closely  shaven  two  or  three 
times  a  month,  and  many  have  one  or  more  places  on  the  scalp  burnt  with 
red-hot  coals.  Their  celibacy  appears  to  be  strict,  and  they  do  not  own 
any  relationships  in  the  outside  wrorld,  and  show  very  little  sociability  in  their 
intercourse  with  the  people.  They  spend  much  of  their  time  in  chanting 
their  sacred  books,  mostly  in  a  form  which  represents  the  sound  without  the 
sense  of  the  Hindu  or  Tibetan  originals.  Some  monasteries  keep  their 
large  bells  constantly  tolled  day  and  night,  so  that  the  sound  never  ceases. 

A  large  monastery  has  numerous  rooms  devoted  to  specific  uses,  includ- 
ing a  library,  study,  reception-rooms  for  distinguished  guests,  and  a  place 
for  keeping  living  animals,  not  for  food,  but  as  a  work  of  merit.  Sometimes 
there  is  a  fish-pond  full  of  fine  fish  which  must  not  be  caught  or  eaten. ' 
Special  provision  is  made  for  cattle,  swine,  goats,  fowls,  etc.,  many  being 
deposited  by  lay  people  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  together  with  money  or  grain 
to  support  them  until  their  death.  The  monks  professedly  refuse  all  animal 
food,  but  it  is  believed  that  some  transgress.  On  the  whole,  the  mass  of  the 
Chinese  do  not  highly  reverence  the  Buddhist  monks,  because  they  trans- 
gress the  principles  of  filial  obedience  so  deeply  rooted  among  them ;  but 
they  are  nevertheless  much  employed  to  conduct  private  religious  cere- 
monies, whether  on  behalf  of  recently  deceased  persons,  those  suffering  in 
hells,  or  the  sick  and  infirm.  Frequently  the  succession  of  novices  in  the 
monasteries  is  kept  up  by  the  purchase  of  boys  from  their  parents. 

Within  the  monastery  ranks   there   are  frequently   ascetics  who  for 


332 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Nunneries. 


years  together  have  no  intercourse  with  the  outside  world,  but  sit  in  con- 
stant silent  meditation  in  their  cells,  receiving  their  food  through 
a  hole  in  the  door.  Usually  the  bodies  of  deceased  monks  are 
burned  in  a  special  cremation-building,  the  ashes  and  unconsumed  bones 
being  afterwards  collected  and  deposited,  in  an  earthen  vessel,  in  a  special 
room  or  building  of  the  monastery. 

There  are  numerous  Buddhist  nunneries  in  China,  under  the  especial 
patronage  of  Kwan-yin,  and  while  many  join  them  of  their  own  accord, 
others  are  bought  when  young  girls.  The  nuns  shave  the  whole 
head  like  the  men,  do  not  compress  their  feet,  and  wear  a  very 
similar  costume  to  the  monks.  Some  learn  to  read  the  Buddhist  books, 
and  attend  upon  those  who  worship  at  the  temples.  They  also  visit  the 
sick  and  afflicted,  and  pay  special  attention  to  those  who  place  themselves 

under  their  spiritual  care.  Although  they  have 
taken  a  vow  of  celibacy,  the  nuns  are  generally 
accused  of  breaking  it,  as  in  Tibet;  and  in 
some  districts  the  Chinese  officials  have  closed 
all  nunneries  for  this  reason. 

While  Buddhism  is  not  ardently  believed 
in  by  a  large  proportion   of  the  Chinese,  it  is 
Popular     undoubtedly  regarded  with  consider- 
aspect.      able    respect;    and    its   formulae    and 
practices,  especially  those  which  are  magical,  are 
largely  resorted   to  as   a  matter  of  precaution. 
Words   not  understood   by  the  people  are  con- 
tinually repeated  by  them   with   some   sort  of 
belief  in  their  efficacy  in  overcoming  evil  influ- 
ences.    The  workman  will  burn  his  paper  with 
the  charm  written  on  it   before  beginning   his 
morning's   work ;    while   the  man   of  learning, 
who  professes  to  despise  Buddhism,  knows  byj 
heart  the  magical  sentences  of  the  Ling-yen- 
king,  or  Heart  Sutra. 
The  Buddhist  calendar  includes  a  very  complete  set  of  festivals  and  j 
processions,  though  they  are  not  made  the  occasion  for  such  display  as  inl 
Buddhist    Burmah.    The  emperors'  and  empress's  birthday,  the  anniversaries 
calendar.    0f  emperor's  deaths,  and  the  four  monthly  feasts  are,  of  course,! 
kept,     Then  there  are  days  for  worshipping  the  devas  of  the  older  Hindu! 
mythology,  for  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon  (addressed  as  Pu-sahs  or  Bodhi- 
satvas,  the  power  of  Buddha  being  invoked  to  deliver  them),  for  sacrifice  toj 
the  moon,  and  praying  for  fine  weather  or  rain.     The  Deva  Wei-to  (really 
the  Veda)  is  invoked    as  protector,  and  his  birthday  is  kept,  as  also  the! 
birthdays   of  three  other   divine  protectors,  including  the  god  of  war,  o\ 
Buddha,  and  each  Bodhi-satva,  the  anniversaries  of  the  death  of  the  chief 
Chinese  Buddhist  saints,  and  of  the  founder  of  a  monastery,  etc.     But  this 
list  might  easily  be  lengthened. 


BUDDHIST   -M  N,    with   CAP 
BOSABY. 


MODERN   BUDDHISM. 


333 


Independent  of  its  professors,  Buddhism  has  exerted  a  great  influence 
in  tempering  the  character  of  Chinese  religion.  The  discountenancing  of 
sacrifices,  the  tenderness  to  animal  life,  the  conception  of  a  spiritual  & 


aim 


in  religion,  and  of  self-discipline  as  of  supreme  importance,  have  not  been 
without   far-reaching   effect   on   the  Chinese.     The   example  of  Influence 
-Buddha   as   beneficently  desirous  of  being    born   in   the   world  BudSmL 
to  save  it,  his  patience  and  self-sacrifice  in  his  successive  lives,      China- 


334  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


his  teaching  of  the  noble  path  and  the  desirability  of  freedom  from  the 
fetters  of  this  life  have  all  tended  to  elevate  the  popular  faiths.  A  more 
doubtful  influence  of  Buddhism  has  been  the  popularisation  of  beliefs  in 
material  hells.  A  great  variety  of  tortures  and  circumstances  of  punish- 
ment are  described,  and  the  demons  are  represented  as  delighting  in  human 
sufferings.  On  the  one  hand  it  is  alleged  that  the  beliefs  on  the  whole  have 
tended  to  discourage  the  crimes  that  are  said  to  be  visited  with  such 
punishments,  on  the  other,  that  the  popular  mind  is  thereby  familiarised 
with  pictures  and  descriptions  of  horrible  cruelties. 

The  tolerance  inculcated  by  Buddhism,  too,  has  had  its  effect  in  spread- 
ing a  considerable  indifference  to  religion  in  China,  while  on  the  other  hand 
it  has  favoured  its  own  existence.  But  the  extent  of  mutual  concession  and 
accommodation  to  be  found  among  the  Chinese  in  religious  as  well  as  other 
matters  is  a  very  pleasing  feature,  when  it  does  not  signify  lifelessness  or 
mere  indifference.  The  Buddhists  too  deserve  credit,  for  their  representations 
of  Buddhas  and  Bodhi-satvas  are  pre-eminently  merciful,  although  their 
objection  to  suffering  as  an  evil  loses  sight  of  its  medical  and  beneficial  influ- 
ence. Buddhism,  too,  has  in  China  acquired  more  regard  for  filial  duty  than 
elsewhere. 

We  may  also  note  how  greatly  Buddhism  has  contributed  to  the  artistic 
and  literary  development  of  the  Chinese.  The  pagoda  form  is  theirs 
especially.  It  is  derived  from  the  Indian  tope  or  dagoba  ;  the  base  or 
platform  signifies  the  earth,  the  semicircular  building  covering  it  the 
air,  and  the  railing  above,  the  heaven ;  the  spire  and  umbrellas  above  have 
been  expanded  into  successive  storeys  or  platforms,  representing  the  succes- 
sive worlds  above  the  heavens.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  Chinese 
pagodas  have  no  religious  significance,  and  only  relate  to  the  popular 
geomancy  by  which  luck  is  determined.  Those  which  contain  Buddhist 
relics  are  always  connected  with  monasteries.  Some  are  of  brick,  others 
of  porcelain,  others  of  cast  iron.  Many  are  now  falling  to  ruin,  and  few 
are  now  built.  Flower  cultivation  is  another  artistic  feature  in  China 
and  Japan  which  has  a  connection  with  the  Buddhist  flower  offerings; 
many  beautiful  flowers  are  grown  in  the  temple  and  monastery  gardens 
for  use  as  offerings  and  in  decorations. 

We  must  not  conclude  this  account  of  Chinese  Buddhism  without  calling 
attention  to  an  interesting  sect  of  reformed  Buddhists  who  have  spread 
-me  do-  considerably  since  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  in  the 
nothing  sect.  lower  rankg  of  the  Chinese,  known  as  the  Wu-wei-kian,  or  "  Do- 
nothing  sect."  They  oppose  all  image-worship,  but  believe  in  Buddha 
withom  worshipping  him.  They  meet  in  plain  buildings  with  no  images, 
and  containing  only  an  ordinary  Chinese  tablet  dedicated  to  heaven,  earth, 
king,  parents  and  teachers,  as  signifying  the  fit  objects  for  reverence.  They 
enjoin  the  cultivation  of  virtue  by  meditation  alone,  and  inward  reverence 
for  the  all-pervading  Buddha,  who  is  within  man  and  in  all  nature.  Their 
founder,  Lo  Hwei-neng  took  the  title  Lo-tsu  (the  patriarch  Lo) ;  on  the 
anniversaries  of  his  birth  and  death,  the  new  year,  and  in  the  middle  of  the 


MODERN  BUDDHISM. 


-»  ■>  r 


eighth  month,  they  meet  to  drink  tea  and  eat  bread  together.  They  are 
strict  vegetarians,  believing  strongly  in  metempsychosis  and  the  conse- 
quent sin  of  taking  animal  life.      They  have  no  order  of  monks  or  of  priests. 


BUDDHIST    CEREMONY,    JAPAN. 


Matter  they  regard  as  perishable,  and  believe  that  at  the  end  of  the  world 
they  will  be  taken  to  heaven  by  Kin-mu,  the  golden  mother,  whom  they  re- 
gard as  the  mother  of  the  soul.     She  is  indeed  more  an  object  of  worship  by 


33o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


this  sect  than  Buddha,  being  regarded  as  a  protectress  from  calamities  and 
sickness,  and  from  the  miseries  of  the  unseen  world.  So  far  have  the 
Taoist  notions  invaded  even  this  pure  form  of  Buddhism. 

JAPANESE    BUDDHISM. 

Buddhism  found  its  way  to  Japan  in  the  sixth  century  a.d.  both  from 
China  and  from  Corea,  but  gained  no  great  influence  until  the  ninth,  when  the 
priest  Kukai,  or  Kobo  Daishi,  showed  how  to  adapt  Shintoism  to  Buddhism 
by  asserting  that  the  Shinto  deities  were  transmigrations  of  the  Buddhistic 
ones.  Thus  explained,  Buddhism  gained  great  ascendency.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  a  philosophical  awakening  took  place,  under  which  every 
man  was  taught  to  long  for  perfection,  to  believe  in  successive  transmi- 
grations  of  souls,  and  to  look  forward  to  the  perfect  reward  of  absorption  into 
Buddha.  A  very  great  number  of  Buddhist  shrines  and  temples  exist, 
vastly  more  ornate  and  wealthy  than  those  of  the  Shinto,  containing  images 
of  extraordinary  variety  for  adoration,  supporting  till  lately  a  numerous 
priesthood,  who  took  care  to  attract  the  people  in  every  possible  way,  by 
spectacles,  games,  lotteries,  and  even  shooting  galleries.  The  recent 
revolution,  however,  has  been  attended  with  a  great  spoliation  of 
Buddhism,  '  suppression  of  temples  and  monasteries,  melting  of  bells  for 
coinage,  etc. ;  and  the  religion  now  only  exists  on  sufferance,  and  has 
already  put  forth  renewed  efforts  to  gain  spiritual  influence  over  the 
people. 

There  are  numerous  sects,  corresponding  in  the  main  to  those  of 
China,  some  being  contemplative,  others  mystic,  others  taking  charge  of 
The  shin-  the  popular  ceremonies.  The  Shin-shin  especially  reverence 
shin.  Amitabha  as  being  willing  and  able  to  save  those  who  be- 
lieve in  him.  No  prayers  for  happiness  in  the  present  life  are  made  by 
them,  and  they  teach  that  morality  is  of  equal  importance  with  faith. 
They  have  many  of  the  finest  temples  in  Japan,  and  are  remarkable  for 
their  active  missionary  work  in  China  and  Corea,  and  for  the  high  standard 
of  education  they  maintain.  The  priests  are  allowed  to  marry  and  to  eat 
meat.  The  creed  of  the  sect,  as  stated  by  one  of  its  principal  teachers,  is  as 
follows  : 

"  Rejecting  all  religious  austerities  and  other  action,  giving  up  all  idea 
of  self-power,  we  rely  upon  Amita  Buddha  with  the  whole  heart  for  our 
salvation  in  the  future  life,  which  is  the  most  important  thing,  believing 
that  at  the  moment  of  putting  our  faith  in  Amita  Buddha  our  salvation  is 
settled.  From  that  moment  invocation  of  his  name  is  observed  as  an  expres- 
sion of  gratitude  and  thankfulness  for  Buddha's  mercy.  Moreover,  being 
thankful  for  the  reception  of  this  doctrine  from  the  founder  and  succeeding 
chief  priests  whose  teachings  were  so  benevolent,  and  as  welcome  as  light 
in  a  dark  night,  we  must  also  keep  the  laws  which  are  fixed  for  our  duty 
during  our  whole  life." 


JAIN    TEMPLE    OF   ADINATH,    GWALIOK. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


3atnt$m« 

Jalnism  and  Buddhism  — Mahavira — Jain  beliefs— Temples  at  Palitana— Mount   Abu— Parasnatn— 

Tbe  Yatis. 

THE  Jains    are    at    the  present  day    an   important  body    of   religion- 
ists in  India,  more  for  their  wealth  and  influence  than  their  numbers. 
It  is   said  that  half  the   mercantile  transactions    of  India   pass  through 
their  hands  as  merchants  and  bankers,  largely  in  the  north  and  west   of 
;  India,  and  in  smaller  numbers  throughout  the  southern  peninsula,  jainism  and 
Till    comparatively   recently  they  were   believed  to  be  quite  a   B"ddnism- 
!  modern  sect  of  Hindus,  at  any  rate  not  much  more  than  a  thousand  }rears 
i old.      But  the  careful  researches  of  several  eminent  scholars  have  led  them 
to  the  belief  that  Jainism  is  coeval  with,  if  not  slightly  older  than,  Bud- 
dhism, and  took  its  rise  in  the  same  development  of  Brahman  asceticism 
and  reaction  from  Brahmanical  tyranny.     We  cannot  enter  into  the  details 
of  the  discussion,  but  shall  simply  take  this  view  as  supported  by  the  best 
authority,  Prof.  Jacobi. 

337  ~ 


338  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

There  are  some  resemblances  between  Buddhism  and  Jainism  which  do 
not  necessarily  show  that  the  one  is  derived  from  the  other,  but  rather  that 
the}'-  took  their  rise  in  the  same  age  or  during  the  same  intellectual  period. 
Buddhism  proved  the  more  adaptable  and  appealed  to  more  widespread 
sympathies,  and  surpassed  and  overshadowed  Jainism ;  but  the  latter,  less 
corrupted,  and  more  characterised  by  charitable  actions,  has  survived  in 
India,  while  the  former  is  extinct.  We  find  similar  titles  given  to  the 
saints  or  prophets  in  both,  such  as  Tathagata,  Buddha,  Mahavira,  Arhat, 
etc. ;  but  one  set  of  titles  is  more  frequently  used  by  the  one,  another  by 
the  other :  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  word  Tirthankara,  describing  a 
prophet  of  the  Jains,  is  used  in  the  Buddhist  scriptures  for  the  founder  of  an 
heretical  sect.  Both  lay  great  stress  on  not  killing  living  creatures ;  both 
worship  their  prophets  and  other  saints,  and  have  statues  of  them  in  their 
temples  ;  both  believe  in  enormous  periods  of  time  previous  to  the  present 
age.  The  rejection  of  the  divine  authority  of  the  Vedas  and  of  the  sway 
of  the  Brahmans  is  also  common  to  the  two.  There  is  further  almost  an 
identity  between  the  five  vows  of  the  Jain  ascetics  and  those  of  the  j 
Buddhist  monks :  namely  not  to  destroy  life,  not  to  lie,  not  to  take  that 
which  is  not  given,  to  live  a  life  of  purity,  and  to  renounce  all  worldly 
things  (the  last  being  much  more  comprehensive  than  the  corresponding: 
Buddhist  vow) ;  but  it  appears  that  the  first  four  were  equally  the  vows  of  I 
the  Brahman  ascetics.  There  are  other  points  in  the  life  of  the  Jain  monks ; 
which  agree  substantially  with  rules  laid  down  for  the  Brahman  ascetics. 

Vardhamana,  or  Mahavira  (his  name  as  a   Jain   prophet),   the   great! 
founder  of  Jainism,  figures   in   their  Kalpa    Sutra   as   the   twenty-fourth! 
Mahavira,  Pr0Pne^?  and  appears  to  have  been  a  younger  son  of  Siddhartka,! 
a  Khsatriya  noble  or  chief  of  Kundagramma,  not  far  from  Vesalij 
already  mentioned  in  our  account  of  Buddhism,  and  the  wife  of  Siddhartha 
was  sister  of  the  king  of  Vesali,  and  related  to  the  king  of  Magadha.    At  the  I 
age  of  twenty-eight  Mahavira  became  an  ascetic,  and  spent  twelve  years  irj  \ 
self-mortification.    After  that  period  he  became  recognised  as  a  prophet  and: 
saint,  or  Tirthankara  (meaning  conqueror  or  leader  of  a  school  of  thought)' 
and  spent  the  remaining  thirty  years  of  his  life  in  teaching  and  in  or! 
ganisiug  his  order  of  ascetics,  mostly  within  the  kingdom  of  Magadha,  bu' 
also  travelling  to  Sravasti  and  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas.     Mahavira  is  re 
ferred  to  in  the  Buddhist  books  under  his  well-known  name  Nataputta,  a 
the  head  of  the   rival  sect  of  Niganthas,  or  Jains,  and  several  contempc 
raries  are  referred  to  in  the  books  of  both  religions.     We  may  put  dow;! , 
Mahavira's  date  as  about  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  B.C.,  but  the  earlier 
extant  works  of  the  Jains  do  not  go  beyond  the  third  century,  and  were  nc 
reduced  to  writing  till  the  fifth  or  sixth  century  a.d.     It  is  very  doubtfi 
how  far  Mahavira  is  indebted  to  Parsva,  his  predecessor,  according  to  tl 
Kalpa  Sutra,  by  about  two  centuries.     The  lives  of  the  earlier  Jains,  lil 
those  of  the  predecessors  of  Gautama,  are  altogether  mythical.     Adinath 
the  earliest  of  them. 

The  life  of  Mahavira,  as  related  in  the  Kalpa  Sutra,  contains  but  fe' 


JAIN  ISM.  339 

details,  and  is  very  far  from  having  the  interest  of  that  of  his  great  con- 
temporary. He  is  declared  to  have  torn  out  his  hair  on  entering  the  ascetic 
life,  to  have  gone  naked  for  eleven  years,  and  to  have  abandoned  all  care  of 
his  body.  All  perfections  of  circumspect  conduct  and  self-restraint  are 
attributed  to  him.  He  at  last  reached  the  highest  knowledge,  unobstructed 
and  full,  so  as  to  become  omniscient.  At  his  death  he  became  a  Buddha,  a 
Mukta  (a  liberated  soul),  putting  an  end  to  all  misery,  finally  liberated, 
freed  from  all  pains. 

"Mahavira,"  says  Professor  Jacobi,  "was  of  the  ordinary  class  of  religious 
men  in  India.  He  may  be  allowed  a  talent  for  religious  matters,  but  he 
possessed  not  the  genius  which  Buddha  undoubtedly  had.  The  Buddha's 
philosophy  forms  a  system  based  on  a  few  fundamental  ideas,  whilst  that  of 
Mahavira  scarcely  forms  a  system,  but  is  merely  a  sum  of  opinions  on 
various  subjects."  The  matter  of  the  Jain  works  yet  translated  is  so  inferior 
to  that  of  the  Buddhist  scriptures  that  we  shall  not  make  any  extracts  from 
them. 

The  Jains  believe  in  a  Nirvana,  consisting  in  the  delivery  of  the  soul 
from  the  necessity  for  transmigration ;  and  they  do  not  look  for  an  absorp- 
tion of  the  soul  into  the  universal  Soul.     In  fact  they  do  not        toeliefs 
teach  anything  about  a  supreme  deity.     Right  perception,  clear 
knowledge,  followed  by  supernatural  knowledge,  leading  to  omniscience, 
were  the  stages  of  progress  to  Nirvana.     The  space  occupied  by  each  of 
the  perfected  ones  who  have  attained  Nirvana  is  stated  to  be  boundless, 
increasing  according  to  their  desire.     Their  parts  are  said  to  be  innumer- 
able, and  there  is  no  returning  again  to  a  worldly  state,  and  no  interruption 
to  that  bliss.     Their  term  of  existence  is  infinite,  and  they  exercise  them- 
selves in  the  highest  philosophy.     Believers  must  also  practise  liberality, 
gentleness,  piety,  and  sorrow  for  faults,  and  kindness  to  animals  and  even 
to  plants.     This  last  the  Jains  exhibit  in  the  present  day  by  an  extreme 
unwillingness  to  injure  living  creatures.      They  believe  all  animals  and 
plants  (and  even  the  smallest  particles  of  the  elements)  have  souls,  and  they 
spend  much  money  in  maintaining  hospitals  for  sick  animals.     They  will 
not  eat  in  the  open  air  during  rain  or  after  dark,  for  fear  of  swallowing  a 
fly  or  insect ;  they  strain  water  three  times  before  drinking  it,  and  will  not 
walk  against  the  wind  for  fear  that  it  should  blow  insects  into  the  mouth. 
The  strict  devotees  carry  a  brush  to  sweep  insects  out  of  the  way  when 
they  sit   down,  and  a  mouth-cloth   to  cover  the   mouth  when   they  are 
engaged  in  prayer.      In  strictness  the  Jains  disregard  Vedas,  gods,  and 
caste;  but  practically  they  yield  considerably  to  caste  regulations,  they 
pay  some  devotion  to  many  of  the  Hindu  deities  and  have  a  numerous  list 
of  good  and  bad  spirits  of  their  own,  and  they  appeal  to  the  Vedas  as  of 
considerable  authority  when  they  support  their  views.      Now-a-days  the 
peculiarity  of  nakedness  is  only  retained  by  the  ascetics  among  the  Digam- 
baras  (sky-clad   ones),  and   then  only  at  meal-times.      The  Svetambaras, 
the  other  sect  of  the  Jains,  are  white-robed  and  completely  clad.     They 
have  no  sacrifices,  and  practise  a   strict  morality.     Many  of  their  beliefs 


,40  THE    WORLDS  RELIGIONS. 


are  common  to  Brahman  and  Buddhist  philosophies,  such  as  that  re-births 
are  determined  by  conduct  in  previous  states  of  existence. 

The  Jains  possess  some  of  the  most  remarkable  places  of  pilgrimage  in 
India,  situated  in  the  midst  of  most  lovely  mountain  scenery.  At  Palitana, 
Temples  at  XVL  Kathiawar,  is  the  temple-covered  hill  of  Satrunjaya,  the  most 
palitana.  sacred  of  the  pilgrim-resorts  of  the  Jains  ;  and  Jains  from  all 
parts  of  India  desire  to  erect  temples  upon  it.  Many  of  them  are  very 
small  buildings  only  about  three  feet  square,  covering  impressions  of  the 
soles  of  two  feet  marked  with  Jain  emblems,  and  sacred  to  Mahavira.  The 
larger  temples  have  considerable  marble  halls  with  columns  and  towers,  and 
plenty  of  openings,  unlike  Hindu  temples  ;  the  marble  floors  have  beautiful 
tesselated  patterns.  In  the  shrine,  on  a  pedestal,  are  large  figures  of  Maha- 
vira, sitting  with  feet  crossed  in  front,  like  those  of  Buddha.  Often  on  the 
brow  and  breast  are  five  brilliants,  and  gold  plates  adorn  many  parts  of  the 
body.  The  eyes  are  of  silver  overlaid  with  pieces  of  grass,  and  projecting 
very  far,  so  as  to  stare  very  prominently.  The  larger  temples,  says  Fer- 
gusson  ("  History  of  Indian  Architecture"),  "  are  situated  in  tuks^  or  separate 
enclosures,  surrounded  by  high  fortified  walls  ;  the  smaller  ones  line  the 
silent  streets.  A  few  yatis,  or  priests,  sleep  in  the  temples,  and  perform  the 
daily  services,  and  a  few  attendants  are  constantly  there  to  keep  the  place 
clean  or  to  feed  the  sacred  pigeons,  who  are  the  sole  denizens  of  the  spot ; 
but  there  are  no  human  habitations,  properly  so  called,  within  the  walls. 
The  pilgrim  or  the  stranger  ascends  in  the  morning,  and  returns  when  he 
has  performed  his  devotions  or  satisfied  his  curiosity.  He  must  not  eat,  or 
at  least  must  not  cook  his  food  on  the  sacred  hill,  and  he  must  not  sleep 
there.  It  is  a  city  of  the  gods,  and  meant  for  them  only,  and  not  intended 
for  the  use  of  mortals."  Some  of  the  temples  date  from  the  eleventh 
century,  but  the  majority  have  been  built  in  the  present  century. 

Mount  Abu,  in  Rajputana,  is  another  remarkable  place  of  pilgrimage, 
and  has  been  termed  the  Olympus  of  India.  There  are  five  temples,  two 
of  which,  according  to  Fergusson  ("History  of  Indian  Archi- 
tecture"), are  unrivalled  for  certain  qualities  by  any  temples  in 
India.  They  are  built  wholly  of  white  marble,  and  the  more  modern  of 
the  two  was  built  (between  1197-1247)  by  the  same  brothers  who  erected  a 
triple  temple  at  Grirnar  ;  for  minute  delicacy  of  carving  and  beauty  of 
detail  it  stands  almost  unrivalled.  A  simpler  yet  very  elaborate  one, 
erected  in  the  eleventh  century,  is  a  typical  example  of  larger  Jain  temples ; 
it  his  a  central  hall  terminating  in  a  pyramidal  spire-like  roof,  containing 
a  cross-legged  seated  figure  of  the  deified  saint  worshipped,  who  in  this 
case  is  Parsva,  the  predecessor  of  Mahavira.  There  is  also  a  large  portico 
surmounted  by  a  dome,  and  the  whole  is  enclosed  in  a  large  courtyard,  sur- 
rounded by  a  double  colonnade  of  pillars  forming  porticos  to  a  range  of 
titty-five  cells,  as  in  Buddhist  viharas,  but  each  occupied  by  a  facsimile 
<>t  the  central  image,  and  over  the  door  of  each  are  sculptured  scenes  from 
the  saint's  life.  In  some  Jain  temples  the  image  of  Mahavira  or  other  saints 
ia  repeated  in  an  identical  form  hundreds  of  times,  each  with  cells  or  niches. 


JAINISM. 


34* 


Kemarkable  skill  and  ingenuity  have  been  displayed  in  the  decoration  of  the 
columns  and  other  parts  of  the  Jain  temples. 


pi 

raJfl 

pi 

JAIN    EMBLEMS. 


Parasnath,  in  Bengal,  is  the  eastern  metropolis  of  the  Jains,  having  been 
the  supposed  scene  of  the  entrance  into  Nirvana  of  ten  of  their  Parasnatll 
twenty-four  deified  saints.     In  one  view  of  Parasnath  there  are  to 
be  seen  three  tiers  of  temples  rising  one  above  another,  in  dazzling  white 


EMBLEM    OF   DHAKMA    (THE    LAW),    AT    SANCOI 
(BUDDHIST). 


EMBLEM    OF    DHAKMA,    TEMPLE    OF 
JAGANNATU,    POM. 


stone,  with  fifteen  shining  domes,  each  with  bright  brass  pinnacles.     In 
style  these  temples  differ  from  those  in  the  West  or  South,  and  are  partly 


34* 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


derived  from  Hindu  temples  and  partly  from  Mahometan  mosques.  There 
are  no  priests  to  perform  ceremonies  for  the  pilgrims  ;  each  performs  his 
devotion  according  to  his  own  views.  They  have  to  pay  toll  to  the  priestly 
order  before  entering,  and  to  leave  some  contribution  to  the  repairs  of  the 
buildings.  Extreme  cleanliness  being  one  of  the  Jain  principles,  it  is  carried 
out  perfectly  in  the  temples,  producing  an  effect  of  surpassing  beauty. 
"  On  entering  the  centre  and  holy  chamber,"  says  one  of  the  few  European 
visitors  who  have  gained  admission,  "  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  being  im- 
pressed with  the  simple  beauty  of  the  place.  The  pavement  is  composed  of 
fine  slabs  of  blue-veined  marble  ;  and  on  a  white  marble  pediment,  opposite 
to  the  entrance,  five  very  beautiful  images  of  the  Jain  saints  sit  in  dignity 
waiting  for  the  prayers  of  their  disciples,  which  are  rendered  more  deep- 
toned  by  the  echoing  influence  of  the  dome."  Pilgrims  visit  every  shrine 
in  the  holy  place,  a  work  of  extreme  labour,  owing  to  the  number  of  peaks 
and  the  pilgrimage  is  completed  by  a  circuit  round  the  base  of  the  group  of 
hills,  a  distance  of  something  like  thirty  miles. 

The  yatis,  or  ascetics,  among  the  Jains  have  no  absolute  rule  as  to  wor- 
ship, being  only  devoted  to  meditation  and  abstraction  from  worldly  affairs; 


The  yatis. 


but  they  often  read  the  Jain  scriptures  in  the  temples,  while 
the  ministrants,  attendants,  etc.,  in  the  temples  are  Brahmans. 
The  Jains  fast  and  specially  devote  themselves  to  religious  duties  during  a 
part  of  the  rainy  season  (the  Buddhist  Vassa).  At  its  commencement  they 
are  accustomed  to  confess  their  sins  to  an  ascetic  and  obtain  absolution  for 
them.  The  Svetambaras  are  the  broader  of  the  two  sects,  taking  their  meals 
clothed  and  decorating  their  images,  and  allowing  that  women  may  attain 
Nirvana,  which  the  Digambaras  deny. 


On  .Tainism  see  "Sacred  Books  of  the  East,"  vol.  xxii. ;   "Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India;" 
"  Statistical  Account  of  Bengal ;  "  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  Art.  Jain. J 


CHAPTER   X. 

Zoroaster  an*  iIk  %eirti*abe$ta« 

The  A  vesta—  Zend  and  Pahlavi— The  Magi  of  the  Bible— The  Greeks  and  the  Magi— Modern  study  by 
Europeans— Zoroaster— A  real  personage— His  life  in  Eastern  Iran— His  date— Mythical  develop- 
ments—Marvels and  miracles— Contrary  opinions — The  doctrines  of  Zoroaster— Ormuzd  and 
Ahriman— Dualism— Importance  attached  to  thoughts —Relation  to  early  Aryan  religion— Com- 
parison with  Vedic  religion— Ahura— Zoroaster  and  the  settled  agriculturists— Attributes  of 
Ormuzd— The  name  of  Ormuzd— Lofty  conception  of  the  Deity— The  Amesha-Spentas— The 
Yazatas  or  spiritual  genii— Mithra— Vayu— Sraosha — The  soul  of  the  bull— The  powers  of  evil— 
Ahriman— The  daevas  and  druj— The  Yatus,  Drvants,  etc.— Zoroaster  magnified— The  universal 
conflict— The  Fravashis— Immortality — Future  rewards  and  punishments —The  final  dissolution 
and  renovation. 

THE  Zend-Avesta1  is  the  popular  name  of  the  great  religious  book  or 
collection  of  books  of  the  Parsees,  a  wealthy  and  influential  body  of 
Indian  residents  (numbering  over  70,000)  whose  ancestral  home 

Ttis  AvssttL 

was  Persia,  but  who  after  the  seventh  century,  when  the  Persians 
were  overthrown  by  the  Mohametans,  took  refuge  in  Western  India  and  the 
peninsula  of  Guzerat.     Only  a  few  thousand  descendants  of  the  old  people 
still  keep  up  the  ancestral  worship  in  Persia  itself,  in  Yezd  and  its  neighbour- 
hood.    Properly  speaking,  the  old  collection  of  books  is  the  Avesta,  Zend  (or 
"  interpretation  ")  being  the  name  of  the  translation  and  commentary  on  it 
in  the  Pahlavi  or  early  Persian  language.     Nor  is  "  Zend  "  strictly  a  correct 
term  for  the  language  of  the  Avesta ;  both  the  book  and  the  Ian-     Zend  and 
guage  in  which  it  is  written  are  properly  called  Avesta,  and  there     Palllavi- 
is   no  other  book  remaining  in  the  language.     But  the   language  of  the 
Avesta  is  very  generally  termed  Zend,   since  that  name  has  long  gained 
currency.     This  language  was  that  of  north-eastern  Iran  in  its  wide  sense, 
and  was  akin  to  Sanskrit.     From  it  or  a  closely  allied  form  the  Iranian  or 
Persian  family  of  languages  is  derived. 

Considering  how  much  was  known  by  the  ancient  Hebrews  and  Creeks 
about  the  Zoroastrian  religion,  it  is  a  surprising  fact  that  little  more  than 
a  century  ago  Sir  William  Jones  rejected  the  Avesta  as  a  modern  Tne  Magi  of 
rhapsody.  The  priests  of  this  religion  were  the  Magi  or  "  wise  the  Blble- 
men"  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  located  in  "the  East"  among  the 
Chaldseans  and  Persians,  and  viewed  by  the  Israelites  chiefly  as  astrologers, 
diviners,  and  interpreters  of  dreams.     In  Daniel  xx.  we  read  that  the  prophet 

1  See  "  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,"  vols,  iv.,  v.,  xviii.,  xxiii.,  xxiv.,  xxxi.  "Encyclopedia 
Britannica,"  ninth  ed.,  articles  "Persia,"  "Pahlavi,"  "Parsees,"  "Zend-Avesta,"  "Zoroaster." 
"Avesta,"  translated  with  commentary  by  Prof.de  Harlez,  second  ed.  Paris,  1881.  "Civilisation  of 
the  Eastern  Iranians,"  by  Prof,  (ieiger,  translated  into  English  by  D.  P.  Dastur;  London:  Henry 
Frowde,  188G.    (G.) 

343 


344  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

and  his  associates  were  reckoned  "  ten  times  wiser  than  all  the  magicians 
and  astrologers."  How  deeply  this  view  of  them  impressed  itself,  we  see 
in  the  fact  that  from  their  Greek  name  "  magoi "  is  derived  our  generic 
term  for  all  professors  of  enchantment  and  preternatural  powers.  Daniel 
is  represented  as  interceding  for  the  Magi  when  condemned  to  death  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  was  himself  appointed  Master  of  the  Magi ;  again  and 
again  after  this  we  find  that  one  common  ground -was  recognised  between  the 
religions,  both  hating  idolatry  and  acknowledging  the  "God  of  Heaven." 
The  "  wise  men  (Magi)  from  the  east "  of  Matthew  ii.  may  not  have  been 
from  Persia,  but  the  mention  of  them  implies  the  high  position  they  held 
and  the  respect  paid  to  their  persons  and  doings.  Later  references  to  Magi 
in  the  New  Testament  imply  what  was  the  fact,  that  large  numbers  of 
impostors  had  become  distributed  through  the  Roman  empire,  among  whom 
may  be  mentioned  Simon  Magus  and  Elymas. 

The  Greeks  early  knew  about  the  Magi  through  Herodotus  and  other 

travellers  and  historians  ;  and  Aristotle  and  other  philosophers  wrote  about 

The  Greeks  ^ie  Persian  religion  in  lost  books.      The  Magi  appear  to  have 

and  the     recommended  the  destruction  of  the  Greek  temples  in  Xerxes' 

Magi.         .  _ 

invasion.  After  the  Greek  conquest  of  Persia  the  name  of  the 
Magi  represented  a  hated  system  of  divination,  and  the  religion  of  a  con- 
quered foe.  Both  Plato  and  Xenophon,  however,  speak  of  the  Magi  with 
respect.  Philo,  the  great  Alexandrian  philosopher,  describes  them  as  men 
who  gave  themselves  to  the  worship  of  nature,  and  the  contemplation  of  the 
Divine  perfections,  and  as  being  worthy  to  be  the  counsellors  of  kings. 
Much  literature  was  put  forth  in  Greece  as  being  the  oracles  of  Zoroaster,  but 
having  very  faint  traces  of  his  system.  Throughout  the  middle  ages,  how- 
ever, no  real  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Persian  religion  existed  in  Europe. 
Gradually  after  the  Renaissance  the  old  knowledge  was  re-collected  ;  and 
travellers  in  Persia  and  India  gathered  the  beliefs  of  the  Parsees  and  described 
Modern  study  their  practices.    Thomas  Hyde,  an  Oxford  professor,  in  1700  pub- 

y  Europeans.  ]jsneci  the  first  accurate  description  of  modern  Parseeism;  and  in 
1723  Richard  Cobbe  brought  to  England  a  copy  of  the  Vendidad,  which 
was  hung  up  by  an  iron  chain  in  the  Bodleian  library,  a  treasure  which  no- 
body could  read.  More  than  thirty  years  later,  Duperron,  a  young  French- 
man, after  years  of  persuasion  and  investigation,  obtained  from  the  Parsees 
of  Surat  both  their  books  and  the  means  of  translating  them,  and  in  1764 
brought  to  Paris  the  whole  of  the  Zend-Avesta;  in  1771  he  published  the 
first  European  translation.  But  it  was  loudly  asserted  that  the  Avesta  was 
a  forgery  and  a  late  concoction ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  Pahlavi  inscriptions 
oi  the  first  Sassanian  emperors  had  been  deciphered  by  De  Sacy,  and  they 
in  turn  led  to  the  reading  of  the  Persian  cuneiform  inscriptions  by  Burnouf, 
Lass.  ii.  and  Rawlinson,  that  it  was  proved  beyond  doubt  that  the  Avesta 
s  written  in  a  still  more  ancient  language.     Zend,  as  it  is  usually  called, 

I  apparently  derived  from  a  common  source  with  Sanskrit;  and  its 
grammatical  forms  remind  one  of  Greek  and  Latin  as  well  as  of  the  language 
oftheVedas.  &    h 


ZOROASTER   AND    THE  ZEND-AVESTA.  345 

ZOROASTER. 

So  much  scepticism  has  been  displayed  as  to  the  A  vesta  that  it  is 
scarcely  surprising  to  find  that  many  have  doubted  the  existence  of  any 
person  corresponding  to  Zoroaster  or  Zarathustra  (in  modern 
Persian,  Zardusht),  although  they  might  in  some  cases  admit  that  a  real 
he  was  a  mythological  personage  developed  out  of  some  man.  personage- 
But  it  requires  very  cogent  proof  to  upset  the  unanimous  voice  of  classical 
antiquity,  which  speaks  of  Zoroaster  as  a  real  person  and  the  founder  of 
the  Persian  religion.  The  period  when  he  lived  and  the  details  of  his 
life  must  be  admitted  to  be  doubtful ;  and  his  name  is  not  mentioned  in  any 
cuneiform  inscription  yet  deciphered.  No  doubt  the  Zoroaster  of  the  later 
parts  of  the  Avesta  and  of  the  Zend  is  largely  mythical,  and  of  these  myths 
we  must  later  give  some  account.  But  the  Zoroaster  of  the  gat  has  or 
hymns  contained  in  the  Yasna  appears  as  a  man,  trusting  in  the  Divine 
Being  whom  he  worships,  facing  fierce  opposition  from  without,  crippled  at 
times  by  the  faintheartedness  of  his  supporters,  sometimes  suffering  from 
inward  doubts  and  straggles,  and  again  exulting  in  secure  confidence.  And 
it  is  less  marvellous  to  believe  in  these  sentiments  as  having  proceeded  from 
a  man  who  was  the  founder  of  a  religion  than  to  believe  they  were  invented 
long  afterwards  in  the  successful  days  of  the  religion,  when  it  was  beginning 
to  decay.  But,  as  in  the  case  of  Buddha  and  also  of  the  early  history  of 
Buddha,  these  old  Aryans  had  no  notion  of  writing  biographies.  All  we 
have  from  them  is  incidental  information,  which  may  be  even  more  reliable, 
when  sifted,  than  details  professing  to  be  biographical  would  have  been  in 
that  age. 

Although  his  birthplace  is  uncertain,  Zoroaster's  active  life  and  teach- 
ing may  safely  be  placed  in  Eastern  Iran,  possibly  in  Bactria.  The  later 
parts  of  the  Avesta  describe  him  as  teaching  during  the  reign  of  His  life  in 
Vishtaspa,  the  same  word  as  is  rendered  Hystaspes  by  the  Greeks  ;  Eastern  tt3J1- 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  this  king  belonged  to  a  much  earlier  period 
than  Hystaspes,  the  father  of  Darius.  This  king  was  evidently  the  patron 
and  friend  of  the  great  religious  teacher ;  and  his  influence  greatly  con- 
tributed to  Zoroaster's  success.  Two  brothers,  Frashaoshtra  and  Jamaspa, 
the  latter  a  minister  of  the  king,  were  among  Zoroaster's  prominent  sup- 
porters ;  indeed  he  married  their  sister  Hvovi.  Like  some  other  religious 
leaders,  Zoroaster  derived  much  aid  from  his  relatives  and  their  followers  ; 
and  he  appears  to  have  had  a  family  of  sons  and  daughters.  The  Avesta  does 
not  speak  of  his  death ;  but  in  the  late  Shah-Nama,  or  book  of  Turanian 
kings  (13th  century),  it  is  related  that  he  was  murdered  at  the  altar  in  the 
storming  of  Balk  by  the  Turanian  conquerors.      Almost  the  only  means 

that  we  have  of  indicating  Zoroaster's  date  is  the  fact  that  when 

a  His  date. 

Cyrus  reigned,  in  the  6th  century  B.C.,  the  Magian  religion  was 

firmly  established  in  Western  Iran.      Various  conjectures  assign  him  dates 

between  1000  and  1400  B.C. 

Turning  now  to  the  view  of  Zoroaster  given  by  the  later  parts  of  the 


346  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 

Avesta,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  he  became  invested  with  marvellous  powers, 
nothing  less  than  supernatural,  and  was  in  fact  made  part  of  the 
develop-    Magian  mythology.    He  is  described  as  smiting  fiends  chiefly  with 
his   prayers,    driving   away  Ahriman  the  evil   spirit   with  huge 
stones  which  he  had  received  from  Ormuzd,  the  supreme  and  good  god.      At 
his  birth  the  floods  and  trees  rejoiced.     Ormuzd  is  even  represented  as  sacri- 
ficing  to  a  spring,  and  praying  that  Zoroaster  may  be  brought  to  think 
and  speak  and  do  according  to  his  law.     Zoroaster  in  fact  becomes  the  sup- 
porter of  Ormuzd,  and  drives  away  Ahriman  and  the  fiends  that  try  to  kill 
him.     He  is  a  godlike  champion,  who  kills  the  powers  of  evil  with  the  word 
of  truth  or  the  sacred  spell.     At  some  far-off  period  a  posthumous  son  will  be 
born  to  him  who  will  come  from  the  region  of  the  dawn  to  free  the  world 
from  death  and  decay,  and  under  his  rule  the  dead  will  rise  and  immortality 
commence. 

Still  later,  in  the  Bundahish  we  have  more  details  and  marvels  about 
Zoroaster,  and  from  it  a  legendary  history  of  the  great  teacher  may  be  com- 
Marveis  and  piled.  During  his  early  life  a  whole  series  of  marvels  occurred, 
miracles.  m0stly  protecting  his  life  from  danger.  His  early  life  was  blame- 
less, but  it  was  only  after  he  attained  the  age  of  thirty  that  his  mission 
commenced.  He  appears  to  have  emigrated  from  his  native  country  to 
Iran  proper,  with  a  few  followers,  and  miracles  were  worked  in  his  progress. 
The  spirit  Vohu-mano  (" the  good  mind")  introduces  him  to  Ormuzd,  the  su- 
preme Being ;  he  asks  permission  to  put  questions  to  Him,  inquiring  which 
of  God's  creatures  is  best,  and  receiving  the  answer,  "  He  is  the  best  who  is 
pure  of  heart ;  "  and  then  receives  instruction  as  to  the  names  and  duties 
of  angels  and  the  nature  of  the  evil  spirit  Ahriman.  Various  miraculous 
signs  are  shown  to  him.  He  sees  a  fiery  mountain  and  is  commanded  to  pass 
through  the  fire,  but  is  not  hurt  thereby.  Molten  metal  is  poured  into  his 
breast  without  his  feeling  pain  ;  and  these  wonders  are  explained  to  him  as 
having  a  mystic  meaning.  He  then  received  the  Avesta  from  Ormuzd  and 
was  commanded  to  proclaim  it  at  the  court  of  King  Vishtaspa.  This  belief 
in  the  communication  between  Zoroaster  and  Ormuzd  runs  through  the 
whole  Avesta.  In  every  important  matter  he  questions  Ormuzd  and  receives 
a  precise  answer  from  him.  Various  statements  are  made  that  these  revela- 
tions took  place  upon  a  mountain,  which  afterwards  burst  out  into  flames. 
A\  In  mi  he  at  last  presented  himself  at  court,  the  king's  wise  men  endeavoured 
to  refute  him,  but  were  compelled  to  own  that  he  had  beaten  them  in  argu- 
ment ;  finally  the  king  accepted  the  Avesta,  after  the  prophet  had  been 
accused  as  a  sorcerer  and  had  proved  his  mission  by  miracles.  The  king 
at  last  did  nothing  without  consulting  Zoroaster,  and  erected  the  first  fire- 
temple. 

Having  treated  Zoroaster  as  having  been  a  real  historical  personage, 

round  whom  many  mythical  or  exaggerated  narratives  have  collected,  we 

contrary    will  quote  a   few  sentences  showing  the   contrary  opinion  held 

by  not  a  few  scholars  :  "  All  the  features  in  Zarathustra  point  to 

a  god  :  that  the  god  may  have  grown  up  from  a  man,  that  pre-existent 


ZOROASTER   AND    THE  ZEND-AVESTA.  347 

nrytliic  elements  may  have  gathered  around  the  name  of  a  man,  born  on 
■  earth,  and  by-and-by  surrounded  the  human  face  with  the  aureole  of  a  god, 
may  of  course  be  maintained,  but  only  on  condition  that  one  may  distinctly 
express  what  was  the  real  work  of  Zoroaster.  That  he  raised  a  new  religion 
against  the  Vedic  religion,  and  cast  down  into  hell  the  gods  of  older  days 
can  no  longer  be  maintained,  since  the  gods,  the  ideas,  and  the  worship  of 
Mazdeism  (i.e.,  Zoroastrianism)  are  shown  to  emanate  directly  from  the  old 
religion,  and  have  nothing  more  of  a  reaction  against  it  than  Zend  has 
against  Sanskrit."      (Darmesteter,  S.E.,  vol.  iv.) 

THE  DOCTRINES   OF  ZOROASTER. 

The  most  special  feature  of  Zoroaster's  teaching  is  the  dualistic  principle, 
according  to  which  Ahura  Mazda  (Ormuzd),  the  good  spirit,  is  constantly 
antagonised  by  Angra  Mainyu  (Ahriman),  the  evil  spirit,  who  is  ormuzd  and 
the  originator  of  everything  evil.     The  latter  is  to  be  ultimately    Alininai1- 
expelled  from  the  world^  and  man  must  take  an  active  part  in  the  struggle, 
his  conduct  being  regulated  by  the  code  revealed  to  Zoroaster  by  Ormuzd. 
Ormuzd  and  Ahriman  are  believed  to  have  been  co-existent,  and    Dualism# 
opposed  in  the  earliest  period  known    to   the  Gathas  ;    but  the 
ultimate   triumph    of  Ormuzd  indicates    essential  if  latent    inferiority  in 
Ahriman.     It  must  not  be  taken  that  other  spirits  were  not  believed  in  by 
Zoroaster ;  but  as  far  as  one  can  judge,  his  special  teaching  relates  to  the 
supremacy  and  greatness  of  Ormuzd  and  his  final  victory. 

As  regards  conduct  in  this  world,  Zoroaster  enforces  the  doctrine  that 

no  one  can  occupy  a  position  of  indifference  ;  he  must  be  either  on  the  side 

of  good  or  of  evil.     The  only  proper  course  was  to  choose  the  Importailce 

good,  and   to  follow  it  in  thought,  word,   and  deed.     This  was    a"^11^ 
0        '  &      j  3  to  thoughts. 

announced  clearly  in  the  first  gatha ;   and  we  must  concede  to 

Zoroaster  the  great  merit  of  seeing  the  importance  of  the  thoughts,  and 

tracing  evil  to  that  source.      When  we  remember  how  few  of  the  hymns  of 

the  Eig-Veda  refer  to  sin  or  its  expiation,  and  how  slight  are  the  traces  of 

feelings  of  guilt,  and  the  necessity  for  obtaining  forgiveness  for  it  from  the 

Deity,  it  will  be   seen   that  the   Avesta  contains  distinctly  an  advanced 

teaching. 

Whatever  may  have    been   Zoroaster's  contribution   to.  the   religious 

progress  of  his  race,  such  a  religion   as  his  could   only  become  accepted 

where  there  was  already  a  large  basis  of  positive  belief,  even  if  Relation  t0 

that  belief  were  erroneous ;  and  as  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  early  Aryan 
t        •  TJ-    j  religion. 

Iranians  were  derived  from  the  same  stock  as  the  Aryan  Hindus, 

we  must  compare  their  early  religion  with  the  features  found  existing  in 

the  Avesta,  in  default  of  any  document  recording  what  was  the  state  of 

belief  upon  which  Zoroaster  began  to  work.     And  this  study  leads  to  most 

interesting  results. 

The  general  name  for  a  god  in  the  earlier  portions  of  the  Rig- Veda  is 

deva  (bright)  ;  in  the  Avesta  the  evil  spirits  are  called  daeca,  essentially 

the  same  word ;  while  in  the  later  Rig- Veda  the  name  means  exclusively 


348  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

a  good  spirit,  a  beneficent  god.     In  contrast  to  this,  we  find  the  use  of  an 

alternative  name  to   deca  in  the  earlier  parts  of  the  Rig-Veda. 

Comparison  .  r  .  ° 

witnvedic  namely  asura.     This  is  the  same  word  as  ahura  m  the  Avesta, 

e  gion.     ^ormjng  par^  0f  faQ  name  Ormuzd  (Ahura  Mazda)  and  limited  to  a 

good  sense.     Yet  in  the  later  Rig-Veda  and  in  Brahmanism  the  same  name 

is  exclusively  applied  to  evil  spirits.     We  have  not  space  to  trace  fully  how 

this  divergence  was  concomitant  in  India  with  the  deposition  of  Varuna 

from  the  supreme  place  among  the  gods  and  the  rise  of  Indra  ;  but  it  may 

be  inferred  from  the  Avesta  that  in  Zoroaster's  time  the  people  of  Iran  were 

divided  between  two  distinct  and  contrasted  forms  of  belief — the  wilder 

unsettled   nomads  who  believed  in  the   devas,  the  original  spirits  of  the 

Avran  race,  and  who  ill-treated  and  sacrificed  cattle ;  while  the 

Ail  urns 

more  settled  people  believed  in  the  ahuras,  the  patrons  of  cattle, 
and  elevated  the  care  of  cattle  into  a  sacred  function. 

Zoroaster  therefore  appeared  as  a  champion  of  the  belief  of  the  settled 

peoples,  and  added  the  epithet  Mazda,  the  wise,  to  the  name  of  the  chief  god 

whom  thev  already  believed  in.     He  identified  the  old  devas,  still 

ZorOcistcr  3.ncl 

the  settled  believed  in  by  the  nomads,  with  powers  of  evil,  false  gods,  devils, 
agriculturists. rp^ege^  j^  {.aUght,  were  all  different  manifestations  or  helpers 
of  a  predominant  evil  principle,  often  called  Druj,  or  deception,  and  less 
frequently  Angra  Mainyu,  or  Ahriman.  This  is  but  a  concentration  and 
development  of  the  early  Aryan  belief  in  a  conflict  between  the  powers  of 
nature,  some  benefiting  and  others  injuring  mankind. 

The  frequent  brief  address  to  Ormuzd  in  the  Vendidad  is  "  the  most 
blissful  spirit,  creator  of  the  material  world,  thou  Holy  One,"  or  more  fully, 
Attributes  of "  I   venerate  the  Creator,   Ahura  Mazda,  the  brilliant,  radiant, 

ormuzd.  greatest,  best,  most  beautiful,  mightiest,  wisest,  best-formed, 
most  exalted  through  holiness,  giving  profusely,  granting  much  bliss,  who 
created  us,  who  prepares  us,  who  maintains  us,  the  most  blissful  spirit." 
Dr.  Geiger  lays  stress  on  the  spiritual  view  which  is  given  of  Ormuzd,  and 
says  that  he  is  not  represented  as  having  any  visible  form,  except  where 
the  sun  (Mithra)  is  spoken  of  as  "  the  body  and  the  eye  of  Mazda."  Anthro- 
pomorphism is  rare  as  applied  to  the  Supreme  Being  in  the  Avesta :  and 
Geiger  looks  upon  all  the  passages  as  symbolical,  which  speak  of  wives  and 
relatives  of  Ormuzd.  But  we  cannot  be  blind  to  the  extreme  probability 
that  such  relationships  would  be  looked  upon  as  real  by  the  general  mass 
of  the  people,  however  definitely  the  leaders  may  have  regarded  them  as 
symbolical. 

Great  importance  is  evidently  attached  to  the  "  name  "  of  Ormuzd,  and 

it  is  interesting  to  compare  it  with  the   "name"  of  Jehovah  as  treated  in 

The  name  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,    and  the  1,001  names  of  Allah. 

ormuzd.  These  names,  as  given  in  the  Ormuzd  Yast  are  "  the  One  of  whom 
questions  are  asked,  the  Herd-giver,  the  Strong  One,  Perfect  Holiness, 
Creator  of  all  good  things,  Understanding,  Knowledge,  Well-being,  and  the 
Producer  of  well-being,  Ahura  (the  Lord),  the  most  Beneficent,  He  in  whom 
there  is  no  harm,  the  Unconquerable,  He  who  makes  the  true  account  (that 


ZOROASTER   AND    THE  ZEND-AVESTA.  349 

is  of  good  works  and  sins),  the  All-Seeing,  the  Healer,  Mazda  (the  All-wise). 
He  is  represented  in  the  gathas  as  not  to  be  deceived,  and  as  looking  upon 
everything  as  a  warder  with  eyes  radiant  with  holiness.  How  high  is  the 
conception  of  the  deity  reached  in  the  gathas  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
extract  from  one  of  them  (Yasna  44) . 

"  That  I  ask  of  Thee,  tell  me  the  right,  0  Ahura  ! 
Who  was  the  father  of  the  pure  creatures  at  the  beginning  ? 
Who  has  created  the  way  of  the  sun,  of  the  stars  ? 
Who  but  Thou  made  it  that  the  moon  waxes  and  wanes  ? 
This,  0  Mazda,  and  other  things  I  long  to  know. 
Who  upholds  the  earth  and  the  clouds  above, 
That  they  fall  not  ?     Who  made  the  water  and  the  plants  ? 
Who  gave  their  swiftness  to  the  winds  and  the  clouds  ? 
Who  is,  O  Mazda,  the  creator  of  the  pious  mind  ? 
Who,  working  good,  has  made  light  as  well  as  darkness  ? 
Who,  working  good,  has  made  sleep  and  wakefulness  ? 
Who  made  the  dawn,  the  mid-days,  and  the  evenings  ?  " 

There  is  no  doubt  that  Ormuzd  is  believed  to  have  existed  before  any 
material  thing,  and  to  have  called  the  world  into  existence  by  his  will.  He 
is  specially  mentioned  as  the  creator  of  the  holy  mind,  of  religious  truth,  and 
of  the  prayers  and  offerings.  Fire  is  also  a  special  creation  of  Ormuzd,  the 
importance  of  which  we  shall  see  later.  Being  omniscient  and  infallible, 
he  rewards  the  good  and  punishes  the  evil  both  in  this  world  and  the  next. 
Thus  we  read  in  the  gathas  : 

"  Whosoever  in  righteousness  shows  to  me 
The  genuine  good  actions,  to  me  who  am  Zarathushtra : 
Him  they  (the  divine  beings)  grant  as  a  reward  the  next  world, 
Which  is  more  desirable  than  all  others. 
That  hast  thou  said  to  me,  Mazda,  thou  who  knowest  best." 

The  impious  are  thus  threatened :  "  Whoso  brings  about  that  the  pious 
man  is  defrauded,  his  dwelling  is  finally  for  a  long  time  in  darkness,  and 
vile  food  and  irony  shall  fall  to  his  lot.  Towards  this  region,  0  ye  vicious, 
your  souls  will  conduct  you  on  account  of  your  actions." 

There  have  not  been  wanting  those  who  see  in  the  resemblances  between 
this  conception  of  the  supreme  Deity  and  that  of  the  Jews  a  proof  that  the 
one  was  derived  from  the  other ;  but  the  view  that  they  are  distinct  and 
unrelated  finds  warm  advocacy.     Thus  Dr.   Geiger  says  :  "  In  this  sublime 
conception  of  the  Avesta,  Ahura  Mazda  undoubtedly  stands  far  above  the 
deities  of  the  Vedic  pantheon.     Only  the  Jehovah  of  the  ancient  Jews  may . 
be  compared  to  him.     But  however  obvious  the  similarity  be-       Lof 
tween  the  God  of  Israel  and  the  god  of  the  Mazdeans  may  be,  still  conception  of 
I  reject   entirely  the  assumption   that   the  Avesta  people   have 
borrowed  from  the  Jews.     Upon  the  Iranian  soil  a  narrowly-confined  nation 
has,    independently   and  of  itself,  attained  that   high  conception  of  God, 
which,  with  the  exception  of  the  Jews,  was  never  attained  by  any  Aryan, 


350  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Semitic,  or  Turanian  tribe."  (G.)  To  another  student,  Professor  Geldner, 
Ormuzd  appears  as  the  idealised  figure  of  an  oriental  king.  To  Professor 
Darmesteter  he  is  the  developed  idea  of  the  old  Aryan  "Heaven-God,"  and 
many  features  betray  his  former  sky  nature.  Thus  "  he  is  white,  bright, 
seen  afar,  and  his  body  is  the  greatest  and  fairest  of  all  bodies ;  he  has  the 
sun  for  his  e}Te,  the  rivers  above  for  his  spouses,  the  fire  of  lightning  for 
his  son ;  he  wears  the  heaven  as  a  star-spangled  garment ;  he  dwells  in  the 
infinite  luminous  space." 

The  sevenfold  arrangement  of  the  Vedic  gods  which  was  sometimes 
made,  and  from  which  were  developed  the  twelve  adityas,  was  seen  also 
Tiie  Amesha-in  the  Iranian  religion,  and  it  is  a  question  whether  it  did  not 
spentas.  exist  very  early,  Ormuzd  becoming  the  most  prominent  and 
finally  the  supreme.  In  some  parts  of  the  Avesta  mention  is  made  of  seven 
Amesha-Spentas  (the  blissful  immortals),  of  whom  Ahura  Mazda  is  chief. 
The  names  of  the  others  are  (1)  Vohu-mano,  the  good  mind,  (2)  Asha-vahishta, 
the  best  holiness,  (3)  Khshathra-varya,  the  desirable  sovereignty,  (4) 
Spenta-Armati,  moderate  thinking  and  humble  sense,  (5)  Harvatat,  well- 
being,  happiness,  health  ;  (6)  Amertal,  long  life,  immortality.  The  abstract 
meanings  of  these  names  renders  it  difficult  to  understand  them,  but  there 
is  no  doubt  that  they  are  invoked  in  the  Avesta  as  real  beings  who  can 
answer  prayer.  "We  find  them  very  definitely  associated  with  particular 
functions  :  Vohu-mano  protects  herds,  Asha  is  the  genius  of  fire,  Khshathra 
has  the  care  of  metals,  Spenta-Armati  is  the  guardian  of  the  earth,  while 
the  last  two  protect  the  waters  and  plants.  "We  may  here  indicate  with 
some  reserve  Geiger's  explanation  of  the  abstract  meaning  of  some  of  the 
Amesha-Spentas,  as  connected  with  these  practical  functions.  Vohu-mano, 
the  good  mind,  is  the  protector  of  herds  because  the  people  who  accepted 
the  Zoroastrian  doctrine,  and  consequently  were  of  good  mind,  were  the 
cattle-rearers,  as  opposed  to  the  nomads.  Vohu-mano  came  also  to  be 
regarded  as  the  guardian  of  all  living  beings.  The  connection  of  Asha, 
purity,  with  fire,  is  evident,  fire  being  the  symbol  of  purity.  Armati  (the 
Vedic  goddess  Aramati)  is  the  protector  of  the  earth,  regarded  as  "  the 
humble  suffering  one  which  bears  all,  nourishes  all,  and  sustains  all.  In  the 
Big- Veda  Aramati  is  devotion,  or  the  genius  of  devotion.  By  the  Indian 
commentator  Sayana,  Armati  is  regarded  as  wisdom,  but  he  also  defines 
the  same  word  twice  as  the  'earth.'  "  Harvatat,  health,  is  the  master  of 
water,  for  the  waters  dispense  health.  Amertal,  long  life  and  immortality, 
is  the  genius  of  plants,  which  dispel  sickness  and  death,  especially  the 
Haoma  (Indian  Soma)  plant,  which  gives  health  and  long  keeps  up  the  vital 
powers.  The  white  Haoma  gives  immortality.  Fire  is  spoken  of  as  the 
son  of  Ormuzd,  and  Armati  as  his  daughter.  In  one  place  (Yast  xix.)  we 
find  all  invoked  as  sons  of  Ormuzd  :  "I  invoke  the  glory  of  the  Amesha- 
Spentas,  who  all  seven  have  one  and  the  same  thinking,  one  and  the  same 
•loin-,  one  and  the  same  father  and  lord,  Ahura  Mazda," 

Another  subject  of  great  interest  is  the  part  played  by  the  ijazatas, 
sometine  lerised  as  angels  or  spiritual  genii  presiding  over  elements 


ZOROASTER  AND   THE  ZEND-AVESTA.  351 

or  over  abstract  ideas.     Mr.  Dastur  says :  "In  the  abstract,  anything  that 
is  excellent  and  worthy  of  praise  in  the  moral  and  material  uni- 
verse and  that  glorifies  the  wisdom  of  the  Deity  is  a  yazata.  (Gh  o^sphituai' 
p.  xxiv.)     Mithra  is  one  of  the  most  significant  of  these,  because     senil- 
he  can  be  identified  with  Mitra,  the  Vedic  god  of  the  heavenly 
light,  closely  associated  with  Varuna.     Mithra  was  believed  to  see 
and  therefore  know  everything,  and  became  the  witness  of  truth  and  the 
preserver  of  oaths  and   good  faith  ;    consquently    he   punishes    those  who 
break  their  promises.     He  is  also  the  lord  of  wide  pastures  and  the  prince  of 
the  countries.     The  tenth  yast  contains  many  hymns  to  Mithra,  from  which 
the  following  extracts  are  made.  (S.  E.  xxiii.) 

"  Ahura  Mazda  spake  unto  Spitama  Zarathushtra,  saying :  '  Verily, 
when  I  created  Mithra,  the  lord  of  wide  pastures,  0  Spitama,  I  created 
him  as  worthy  of  sacrifice,  as  worthy  of  prayer  as  myself,  Ahura  Mazda. 
The  ruffian  who  lies  unto  Mithra  (or  who  breaks  the  contract)  brings 
death  unto  the  whole  country,  injuring  as  much  the  faithful  world  as  a 
hundred  evil-doers  could  do.  Break  not  the  contract,  0  Spitama,  neither 
the  one  that  thou  haclst  entered  into  with  one  of  the  unfaithful,  nor  the  one 
that  thou  hadst  entered  into  with  one  of  the  faithful,  who  is  one  of  thy 
own  faith.     For  Mithra  stands  for  both  the  faithful  and  the  unfaithful.'  " 

"  We  sacrifice  unto  Mithra,  the  lord  of  wide  pastures,  who  is  truth- 
speaking,  a  chief  in  assemblies,  with  a  thousand  ears,  well-shapen,  with  ten 
thousand  eyes,  high,  with  full  knowledge,  strong,  sleepless,  and  ever  awake. 

"  Who  upholds  the  columns  of  the  lofty  house  and  makes  its  pillars  solid  ; 
who  gives  herds  of  oxen  and  male  children  to  that  house  in  which  he  has 
been  satisfied  ;  he  breaks  to  pieces  those  in  which  he  has  been  offended." 

On  behalf  of  Mithra,  loud  claims  are  put  forth  for  a  sacrifice,  invoking 
him  in  his  own  name.  He  is  prayed  to  for  riches,  strength,  and  victory, 
good  conscience  and  bliss,  wisdom  and  the  knowledge  that  gives  happiness. 
In  one  place  he  is  a  warlike  courageous  youth,  who  drives  in  a  chariot  with 
four  white  horses  through  the  heavens,  and  also  into  battle  ;  who  becomes  a 
3razata  of  war.     See  the  account  of  Mithraism,  later,  p.  363. 

Vayu,  another  Vedic  deity,  is  the  storm  yazata  in  the  Avesta,  and  is 
appealed  to  by  Ormuzd  to  grant  him  power  to  smite  Ahriman.  He  is  in- 
voked as  a  strong  warlike  helper  in  every  danger.  Among  other 
important  yazatas  are  that  of  Fire,  the  messenger  of  the  gods, 
sent  down  as  lightning  and  sun-fire  to  the  earth  ;  that  of  the  waters,  Ardvi- 
sura  Anahita,  Tistrya  the  rain-bestower,  Verethragna  the  fiend  smiter,  and 
the  Sun  and  Moon,  etc.  Many  of  these  are  identical  in  name  and  epithets 
with  Vedic  gods  or  spirits,  and  in  reading  the  yasts  we  seem  to  hear  again 
the  strains  of  the  Rig- Veda. 

"  He  who  offers  up  a  sacrifice  unto  the  undying,  shining,  swift-horsed 
sun,  to  withstand  darkness,  to  withstand  the  daevas  born  of  darkness, 
to  withstand  the  robbers  and  bandits,  to  withstand  death  that  creeps  in 
unseen,  offers  it  up  to  Ahura  Mazda,  offers  it  up  to  the  Amesha-Spentas, 
offers  it  up  to  his  own  soul. 


35 2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


"We  sacrifice  unto  Tistrya,  the  bright  and  glorious  star,  for  whom 
long  the  standing  waters,  and  the  running  spring- waters,  the  stream-waters 
and  the  rain-waters  : 

"  When  will  the  bright  and  glorious  Tistrya  rise  up  for  us  ?  When 
will  the  springs  with  a  flow  and  overflow  of  waters,  thick  as  a  horse's 
shoulder,  run  to  the  beautiful  places  and  fields,  and  to  the  pastures,  even  to 
the  roots  of  the  plants,  that  they  may  grow  with  a  powerful  growth  ?  " 

The  spirit  or  god  Sraosha  must  also  be  mentioned ;  his  name  signifies 

obedience,  especially  to  the  Holy  Word.     He  it  was  who  first  tied  together 

the  baresma,  the  consecrated  sacrificial  branches  ;  he  first  sang 

l0S  a'  the  sacred  hymns ;  three  times  a  day  he  descends  on  the  world 
to  smite  Ahriman.  Hence  he  has  been  termed  the  priest-god  ;  the  holy 
prayers  are  the  weapons  with  which  he  smites.  He  requires  a  man  to  rise 
early  that  he  may  perform  the  due  rites ;  he  pities  the  poor  and  needy  and 
guards  the  sanctity  of  the  covenants.  Again  Ashi  or  piety,  moral  order, 
the  dauo-hter  of  Ormuzd  and  sister  of  Sraosha,  Mithra  and  others,  bestows 
the  human  intellect,  defends  matrimony,  and  cares  actively  for  the  house. 
She  confers  power  and  riches,  and  gives  beauty  to  maidens. 

Another  spirit  is  named  Geush-urvan,  "  Soul  of  the  Bull "  ;  in  the 
gathas  we  find  this  spirit  complaining  before  Ormuzd  of  the  oppressions 
The  soul  of  and  dangers  inflicted  on  him  by  enemies.  Besides  those  named 
the  bun  many  other  spirits  are  invoked,  such  as  the  holy  doctrine,  the 
Holy  Word,  the  genius  of  justice,  etc.  Here  we  see  how  prone  Zoroastrian- 
ism  was  to  personify  abstract  ideas,  just  as  the  Vedic  religion  personified 
material  objects  or  forces. 

We  now  come  to  the  obverse  side  of  the  picture — the  powers  of  evil, 
and  their  relations  to  Ormuzd  and  the  forces  of  goodness.  It  has  already 
The  powers  been  stated  how  prominently  the  Avesta  asserts  dualism  in  the 
of  eva  government  of  the  world  ;  but  there  are  not  wanting  those  who 
consider  that  Zoroastrianism  is  not  more  dualistic  than  Christianity,  and 
point  to  the  fact  that  no  attempt  is  made  to  account  for  the  origin  of  either 
spirit,  while  the  temporary  character  of  the  power  of  the  evil  one  is  dis- 
tinctly asserted.  (West,  S.  E.,  vol.  xviii.)  Haug  says  that  Zoroaster  held  the 
grand  idea  of  the  unity  and  indivisibility  of  the  supreme  Being,  and  sought 
to  reconcile  the  existence  of  imperfections  and  evils  with  the  goodness  and 
justice  of  God  by  supposing  two  primeval  causes  which,  though  different, 
were  united.  But  it  is  surely  simpler  to  take  the  plain  statements  of  the 
gathas,  that  two  powerful  beings  opposed  and  counteracted  each  other,  but 
that  the  good  Being  is  the  stronger  and  will  ultimately  conquer,  as  ex- 
pressing the  essence  of  the  creed  of  Zoroaster.  If  one  reads  the  gathas 
naturally,  without  prepossessions,  it  will  appear  that  Ahriman  is  imagined 
to  have  existed  from  the  beginning. 

Ahriman,  the  prince  of  the  demons,  is  the  opposite  and  counterpart  of 

Ormuzd  in  all  characters.     He  dwells  in  infinite  darkness,  and  is  all  dark- 

Ahrtmati    116Ssj  falsehood  and  wickedness,  and  around  him  all  evil  spirits 

collect.     Any  good  man  is  his  enemy,  and  he  is  represented  as 


ZOROASTER  AND    THE  ZEND-AVESTA.  353 


being  enraged  at  the  birth  of  Zoroaster.     The  evil  spirits  are  the  daevas, 
(devas)    male,   and  the  druj   (female).     There   are  six  principal    The daevas 
evil    spirits    corresponding     to    the  Amesha-Spenta :    thus    (1)    and  ^J- 
Akomano,  evil  mind;    (2)  Andra  (Indra),  destructive   fire;  (3)   Saru,    the 
tyrant,  opposed  the  first  three  of  the  Amesha-Spentas. 

The  first  section  of  the  Vendidad  exhibits  in  detail  the  way  in  which 
Ahriman  counterworked  the  beneficent  creation  of  Ormuzd.  His  first 
creation  was  the  serpent  in  the  river,  and  winter,  followed  by  the  cattle-fly,, 
corn-carrying  ants,  the  mosquito,  demon-nymphs  and  wizards,  etc. ;  and  also 
the  sinful  lusts,  unbelief,  pride,  unnatural  sins,  the  burying  and  burning  of 
corpses,  the  oppression  of  foreign  rulers,  and  excessive  heat,  each  following 
a  beneficial  creation  of  Ormuzd.  Ahriman  was  also  represented  as  the 
killer  of  the  first  bull,  the  poisoner  of  plants,  the  causer  of  smoke,  of  sin,  and 
of  death. 

Some  of  the  associate  spirits  of  evil  can  be  identified  with  Vedic  spirits  ; 
such  are  the  Yatus,  wizard  demons.  The  Pairikas  are  demon-nymphs  who 
keep  off  the  rain-floods.  The  Drvants  or  Dregvants  are  head-  The  Yatus, 
long-running  fiends.  The  Varenya  daevas  are  the  fiends  in  the  Drvants. etc- 
heavens.  Bushyasta  sends  people  to  sleep  at  dawn,  and  makes  them 
forget  to  say  their  prayers.  "We  cannot  go  into  the  details  relating  to  all 
these. 

We  must  note  how  in  the  Yasts  Zoroaster  appears  as  the  typical  and 
best  human  being,  who  first  antagonised  Ahriman.  Thus,  we  read  in  Yast 
13,  "  We  worship  the  piety  and  the  Fravashi  (see  p.  354)  spirit  Zoroaster 
of  the  holy  Zarathustra,  who  first  thought,  spoke,  and  did  what  is  magnified, 
good,  who  was  the  first  priest,  the  first  warrior,  the  first  plougher  of  the 
ground,  who  first  knew  and  taught ;  who  first  possessed  the  bull,  and  holiness, 
the  word  and  obedience  to  the  word,  and  dominion,  and  all  the  good  things 
made  by  Mazda ;  who  first  in  the  material  world  proclaimed  the  word  that 
destroys  the  daevas,  the  law  of  Ahura  ;  who  was  strong,  giving  all  the  good 
things  of  life,  the  first  bearer  of  the  law  among  the  nations  ;  for  whom  the 
Amesha-Spentas  longed,  in  one  accord  with  the  sun,  in  the  fulness  of  faith 
of  a  devoted  heart ;  they  longed  for  him,  as  the  lord  and  master  of  the 
world,  as  the  praiser  of  the  most  great,  most  good,  and  most  fair  Asha ;  in 
whose  birth  and  growth  the  waters  and  the  plants  rejoiced ;  and  whose 
birth  and  growth  all  the  creatures  of  the  good  creations  cried  out,  "  Hail !  ;' 
(S.E.  vol.  xxiii.)  Here  we  see,  as  if  in  process,  the  deification  of  a  human 
being. 

The  conflict  between  good  and  evil  was  represented  as  universal  in  its 
extent.  Every  power  or  being  or  material  thing  was  engaged  on  one  side 
or  the  other.  All  animals  and  plants  belong  to  one  or  the  other,  -me  universal 
or  are  forced  into  their  service.  Sometimes  the  gods  and  fiends  conflict, 
are  seen  under  the  guise  of  dogs,  snakes,  otters,  frogs,  etc.  ;  and  it  was 
held  a  crime  to  kill  the  creatures  of  Ormuzd,  while  a  man  might  atone  for 
evil  by  killing  the  creatures  of  Ahriman.  Darmesteter,  speculating  on  this 
aspect  of  the  Avesta,  says,  "  Persia  was  on  the  brink  of  zoolatry." 

A    A 


354  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Of  course  mankind  were  shared  between  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman.     The 

servant  of  Ahriman  and  of  Asha  (fire)  offers  sacrifice  to  them  with  libations 

of  haoma  juice  (the  Vedic  Soma),  the  great  healing  and  invigo- 

andtbe     rating  plant,   which  when  drunk   by  the  faithful  benefits   the 

wicked.     g0(^s .  sacrifices  of  consecrated  meat  and  libations  of  holy  water. 

Be  aids  Ormuzd  and  the  holy  spirits  by  every  good  thought,  word,  and 

deed,  and  by  increasing  the  number  of   and  protecting  the  creatures  of 

Ormuzd.     The  priest,  or  Atharvan,  who  drives  away  fiends  and  diseases  by 

his  spells  :    the  warrior  who  destroys  the  impious,  the    husbandman  who 

produces  good  harvests,  are  all  workers  for  Ormuzd,  and  those  who  do  the 

contrary,   for   Ahriman.     The   former  will   have  a   seat  near   Ormuzd  in 

heaven,  and  at  the  end  of  time  the  dead  will  rise  and  live  happily  on  the 

earth,  which  will  then  be  free  from  all  evil. 

In  this  connection  we  maj1"  note  ^he  belief  in  the  existence  of  a  spirit 
(FravasM)  distinct  from  the  body  originally,  separated  from  it  by  death,  and 

The  believed  to  be  simply  the  spirit  of  ancestors ;  but  this  developed 
FravasMs.  into  a  belief  in  Fravashis  as  the  immortal  principle  or  counter- 
part of  any  being,  whether  gods,  animals,  plants,  or  physical  objects.  They 
are  spoken  of  in  Yast  xiii.  as  "the  awful  and  overpowering  Fravashis,"  bring- 
ing help  and  joy  to  the  faithful,  helping  in  the  maintenance  of  all  creations. 
Because  of  the  help  they  give  in  the  perpetual  conflict  between  good  and 
evil,  the  Fravashis  are  worshipped  and  invoked  on  all  occasions.  They  are 
praised  as  "  the  mightiest  of  drivers,  the  lightest  of  those  driving  for- 
wards, the  slowest  of  the  retiring,  the  safest  of  all  bridges,  the  least  erring  of 
all  weapons  and  arms,  and  never  turning  their  backs";  they  are  correspond- 
ingly dreadful  to  the  foe.  They  are,  however,  said  to  ask  for  help  thus 
':  "Who  will  praise  us  ?  Who  will  offer  us  a  sacrifice  ?  Who  will  meditate 
upon  us  ?  Who  will  bless  us  ?  Who  will  receive  us  with  meat  and  clothes 
in  his  hand,  and  with  a  prayer  worthy  of  bliss?"  High  above  all  other 
Fravashis  is  the  Fravashi  of  Ahura  Mazda. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Avesta  teaches  the  doctrine  of  immortality, 
and  a  coming  world  which  is  "  better  than  the  good."     The  idea  of  a  bridge 

conducting  men  thither  has  been  common  to  many  religions.  The 
Immortality.  »  •  •  ^     ■  ^  1    ■•  -i         -/• 

early  Avesta  represents  it  as  a  chmvat  bridge,  or  bridge  of  retribu- 
tion, at  which  justice  is  administered.  The  good  go  to  the  abode  of  light 
and  glory  where  Ormuzd  reigns  and  is  praised  in  hymns.  The  evil,  the 
false  priests,  and  idol-worshippers  go  for  all  eternity  to  the  habitation  of 
the  devils,  in  eternal  night,  scorned  by  the  demons.     Yast  xxii.  gives 

Future  detailed  description  of  the  fate  of  the  good  and  of  the  evil.  A 
rewards  and  good  man's  spirit,  remaining  near  the  head  of  the  body,  tastes 
'  during  the  three  nights  succeeding  the  death  of  the  hody  as  mud 
happiness  as  the  whole  living  world  can  taste.  He  passes  into  the  most 
blissful  region  and  is  met  by  his  own  conscience  in  the  shape  of  a  beautifu 
heavenly  maiden  who  recites  to  him  all  his  good  deeds,  and'  then  conducts 
him  through  the  Paradises  of  Good  Thought,  Good  Worth,  Good  Deed,  anc 
Endless  Light.     The  evil  man  correspondingly  suffers  for  three  nights  a 


ZOROASTER  AND    THE  ZEND-AVESTA. 


355- 


much  as  the  whole  living  world  can  suffer,  and  then  is  brought  through  a 
foul  region  into  the  hills  of  Evil  Thought,  Evil  Word,  and  Evil  Deed,  and 
finally  into  endless  darkness.     Later  this  vision  is  amplified. 

In  one  passage  of  the  gathas  we  find  mention  of  a  final  dissolution  of 
creation,  wheu  the  final  distribution  of  rewards  and  punishments  will  take 
place  ;  but  the  general  tenor  of  the  Avesta  is  to  look  for  a  re-  The  final 
generation  of  the  earth,  with  a  resurrection  of  the  bodies  of  the  ^^nT1011 
dead,  to  join  their  souls.  Many  hold  that  this  view  of  the  resur-  renovation, 
rection  was  original  in  Zoroastrianism  and  that  it  was  adopted  from  the 
Persians  by  the  Jews.  The  end  of  the  world  is  to  be  preceded  by  the 
appearance  of  three  great  prophets,  all  regarded  as  supernatural  sons  of 
Zarathushtra,  the  last  one  (Astvat-erta),  being  named  the  victorious  Saviour,, 
embodied  piety,  overcoming  all  torments  of  men  and  demons.  He  is  to- 
renew  the  world,  he  makes  the  living  immortal  and  awakens  the  dead  from 
their  sleep,  brings  death,  old  age  and  decay  to  an  end,  and  grants  to  the- 
pious  eternal  life  and  happiness.  One  last  decisive  struggle  takes  place- 
between  the  powers  of  light  and  darkness,  and  Astvat-erta,  with  the  aid  of 
the  good  spirits,  vanquishes  the  demons,  and  extirpates  evil.  Then  comes- 
the  peaceful  and  happy  reign  of  Ormuzd  and  all  the  good,  no  longer  dis- 
turbed hj  any  evil-disposed  being. 


^^23 


PfT2 


PARSEE    SUN-WORSHIP. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
Cl)f  Zoroastrian  36ooks— iWttfiratsim* 

The  Avesta— Country  of  its  origin— Date  of  the  Avesta— The  Gathas— People  to  whom  addressed— 
The  Vendidad— The  most  pleasing  and  displeasing  things— Impurity  of  corpses — Exposure  of 
dead— Law  of  contracts  and  assaults— The  Vispered  and  Yasna— The  liturgies— The  early  rites 
of  Mazdaism— Rise  of  the  Magi— Loss  of  Zoroastrlan  books— The  Pahlavi  texts— The  Bundahish 
—The  Shayast  la-Shayast— The  Dadistan-i-Dinik— The  Spirit  of  Wisdom— Mithraism— Mithraic 
monuments— Antagonism  of  Christians — Mithraic  ceremonies. 

THE  AVESTA. 

in  ROM  the  Avesta  itself  it  appears  to  be  conclusively  proved  that  it 
-L  originated  in  Eastern  Iran,  east  of  the  central  desert  of  Persia,  the 
land  of  the  Syr-Daria,  nearly  all  the  places  mentioned  in  it  being  situated 

country  of  therein,  with  the  exception  of  Ragha,  near  its  western  boundary. 

its  origin.  Babylon  is  the  only  famous  western  city  mentioned.  A  passage 
especially  noted  is  this,  in  which  the  Aryan  country  is  described  as  the  first 
created  and  best  land.  "  As  the  first  of  the  lands  and  as  the  best  dwelling 
place,  I,  Ahura-Mazda  (Ormuzd)  created  the  Aryana-vaija  (the  country) 
situated  on  the  good  Datya.  Thereupon  Angra  Mainyu  (Ahriman) ,  who  is 
full  of  death,  counter-created  the  water  serpents  and  a  winter  produced  by  the 
demons.  (G.)     This  Aryan  country  was  very  possibly  in  Upper  Ferghana. 

366 


THE  ZOROASTRIAN  BOOKS.  357 


The  A  vesta,  itself  testifies  to  its  own  date  in  the  following  way.  It 
does  not  mention  any  town  which  was  famous  in  the  Median  Date  of  the 
and  Achemenian  period  except  Ragha ;  nor  does  it  mention  the  Avesta. 
names  of  later  nations  or  empires.  It  only  knows  Aryans,  not  Persian sr 
Parthians,  or  Medes  as  such.  It  does  not  even  contain  any  reference  to  the 
battles  between  the  Medes  and  the  Babylonians,  still  less  to  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  And  this  is  the  more  significant  as  it  alludes  to  many 
external  events,  battles,  inroads  of  foreigners,  the  hostility  of  the  Aryans  to 
non-Aryans,  and  of  the  settled  agriculturists  to  the  nomad  tribes.  The  tribal 
grouping  was  in  full  force,  and  only  specially  powerful  kings  were  able  tO' 
unite  the  tribes  into  kingdoms.  It  is  much  more  natural  to  regard  all  this  as- 
a  sign  of  great  antiquity,  especially  when  coupled  with  the  primitive  type 
of  the  Avesta  language.  And  it  is  not  safe  to  dismiss  portions  of  the 
narrative  as  purely  mythical  because  all  trace  of  some  of  the  names  men- 
tioned has  vanished.  Herodotus's  statement  that  the  Medes  were  anciently 
called  Aryans,  supports  this  view  of  the  antiquity  of  the  record  which  deals- 
solely  with  Aiwans,  before  the  Medes  had  become  a  distinct  people. 

Let  us  take  the  gathas,  or  hymns  of  the  Avesta,  contained  in  the  Yasna,. 
and  study  them  for  traces  of  the  people  among  whom  they  were  composed. 
In  them  Zoroaster  speaks  directly.  The  king  Vishtaspa  is  de- 
scribed  as  his  pious  friend  in  his  great  work,  wishful  to  announce 
it ;  and  in  many  ways  the  gathas  address  or  speak  of  contemporary  persons 
and  events.  The  religion  itself  is  in  process  of  formation,  and  its  followers- 
are  subject  to  persecution.  No  doubt  mythology  is  intermingled ;  but  if 
everything  which  contains  mythological  interpretations  or  descriptions- 
were  adjudged  to  contain  no  historical  fact,  very  much  more  than  the  Avesta 
would  have  to  be  sacrificed. 

One  important  fact  intimating  the  great  age  of  the  gathas,  and  also- 
showing  the  connection  of  the  Aryan  people  they  describe  with  the  Aryans  of 
the  Big- Veda,  is  the  high  importance  attributed  to  the  cow,  show-  ^g  le 
ing  special  attention  to  its  breeding  and  rearing.  Thus  they  were  to  whom 
in  the  pastoral  state  which  succeeds  a  nomad  life,  and  becoming 
more  settled  than  mere  keepers  of  sheep  and  goats,  which  can  be  readily 
transferred  from  place  to  place.  We  are  expressly  told  in  the  gathas  that 
the  cow  is  the  giver  of  permanent  homes,  and  the  especial  care  of  the  active 
labourer,  and  also  leads  to  the  development  of  agriculture.  In  the  Ven- 
didad,  in  contrast  to  this,  agriculture  has  become  of  equal  importance  with 
cattle-breeding.  In  the  gathas  antagonism  is  represented  as  occurring  be- 
tween the  nomads  and  the  agriculturists,  and  the  former  oppose  the  teach- 
ing of  Zoroaster.  In  fact  the  nomads  plundered  the  settled  people  then  as 
now,  and  naturally  disliked  the  moral  teacher  of  their  more  civilised/ 
brethren.  We  find  Zoroaster  assigned  as  the  special  protector  of  the  cow, 
and  the  announcer  to  man  that  the  cow  is  created  for  the  industrious  and 
the  active.  In  the  later  parts  of  the  Avesta  we  find  the  religion  of  Zoroaster 
firmly  established  and  an  order  of  priests  (Atharvans),  but  the  people  are 
still  peasants  and  shepherds,  and  their  daily  life  is  intimately  connected 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


with  th.'ir  religion,  the  annual  feasts  being  specially  related  to  the  agri- 
cultural and  pastoral  life.  The  people  do  not  yet  seem  to  have  used  salt. 
Glass,  coined  money,  and  iron  were  unknown  ;  the  bronze  age  still  ruled. 
One  passage,  which  has  been  alleged  to  refer  to  Gautama,  and  to  show  the 
date  of  the  Avesta  to  be  later  than  his  time,  is  not  at  all  conclusive,  and  the 
name  is  rather  an  old  Iranian  form ;  also  the  name  Gautama  occurs  in  the 
Rig- Veda.     It  was  in  fact  an  early  Aryan  name. 

The  Vendidad  is  specially  the  Zoroastrian  book  of  purification  ;  but  the 
first  two  sections  belong  to  the  older  literature.  The  first  section  at  once 
Tbe  touches  a  natural  chord  by  representing  Ahura-Mazda  (Ormuzd) 
vendidad.  as  telling  Zoroaster  that  he  has  made  every  country  dear  to  its 
own  people  ;  were  it  not  so,  they  would  all  have  come  to  the  Aryan  country, 
which  was  created  best  of  good  lands.  The  counter-creation  of  Angra 
Mainyu  (Ahriman)  is  then  described,  giving  rise  to  the  ten  months  of  winter. 
•Other  neighbouring  countries  were  then  created,  followed  by  Ahriman's 
•creation  of  special  evils  or  plagues,  including  various  sins,  evils,  and  insect 
plagues.  In  tho  second  section  Zoroaster  asks  Ormuzd  who  was  the  first 
mortal  with  whom  he  had  conversed  ;  and  he  replies,  "  The  fair  Yima,  the 
great  shepherd,"  who  appears  to  have  represented  the  founder  of  civilisa- 
tion. Afterwards  he  was  told  that  a  period  of  fatal  winters  was  approach- 
ing, and  he  was  commanded  to  gather  into  a  large  enclosure  all  kinds  of 
seeds  and  grains,  and  to  make  a  sort  of  terrestrial  paradise.  This  Yima  is 
compared  in  some  respects  with  Yama,  the  ruler  of  departed  spirits,  in  the 
Rig- Veda. 

The  third  section  gives  an  enumeration  of  five  things  most  pleasing 
And  five  most  displeasing  to  the  earth.     These  are,  (1)  the  place  where  one 
Tne  most    of  the  faithful  with  wood  for  the  altar  fire,  and  the  sacred  bundle 
Mispleading1  °^  twigs,  steps  forward  praying  to  Mithra,  the  lord  of  wide  pas- 
things,     tures,  and  Rama  Svastra,  the  god  that  gives  good  pastures  to 
cattle  ;  (2)  the  place  where  one  of  the  faithful  erects  a  house  for  a  priest, 
with   wife,  children,  and  herds ;    (3)  the  place  where  one  of  the  faithful 
cultivates  most  corn,  grass,  and  fruit;  (4)  where  there  is  most  increase  of 
flocks  and  herds;  (5)  and  where  they  yield  most  manure.     The  unpleasing 
places  relate  to  the  corpses  or  other  creations  of  Ahriman,  and  also  the 
captive  wife  and  children  of  one  of  the  faithful.     No  man  is  allowed  to 
impurity    carry  a  corpse  alone,  and  every  corpse,  if  buried,  must  be  disin- 
of  corpses,  terred  (for  exposure)  within  six  months.     A  large  part  of  the 
Vendidad  relates  to  the  extent  of  defilement  by  corpses  or  portions  of  dead 
matter  and  the  means  of  purification.     Throughout  all  we  see  the  guiding 
principle  that  purity,  especially  of  the  body,  is  of  prime  importance;  but 
impurity  is  believed  to  be  the  work  of  a  demon,  which  especially  inhabits 
a  corpse,  and  thence  passes  to  those  who  touch  it.     Peculiar  washings  and 
3pells  are  enjoined  in  order  to  expel  the  impure  spirit.    Nowhere  has  this  idea 
•i   impurity  connected  with  the  dead  been  more  elaborately  developed.    The 
evil  spirit,  is  expelled  from  the  corpse  itself  by  the  "  four-eyed  dog  "  being 
2>ruught  near  ami  made  to  look  at  the  dead.     In  practice  this  is  interpreted 


THE  ZOROASTRIAN  BOOKS.  359 

as  a  dog  with  two  spots  above  the  eyes.  This  may  be  compared  with  the 
four-eyed  dogs  of  the  Vedic  god  Yama,  and  the  three-headed  Cerberus, 
watching  at  the  doors  of  hell.  Wherever  the  corpse  passed,  death  walked 
with  it,  threatening  the  living  ;  consequently  no  man  or  animal  might  pass 
that  way  till  the  deadly  breath  had  been  blown  away  by  the  four-eyed  dog, 
the  priest  aiding  with  his  spells. 

Fire,  earth,  and  water  being  all  holy  to  Zoroastrians,  corpses  must  be 
kept  as  far  as  possible  away  from  them  and  placed  on  the  highest  summits, 
where  there  are  always  corpse-eating  dogs  and  birds,  and  fastened  Exposure 
by  the  feet  and  hair  lest  the  bones  should  be  carried  away.  The  of  dead- 
bones  must  afterwards  be  laid  in  a  building  known  as  the  Dokma  or  tower 
of  silence.  This  principle  was  carried  out  very  thoroughly,  partial  death 
and  sickness  being  equally  unclean.  Everything  proceeding  from  the  human 
body  was  impure,  even  parings  of  nails  and  cut  hair.  Sickness  was  sent  by 
Ahriman,  and  must  be  cured  by  washings  and  spells.  If  several  healers 
offered  themselves  together,  one  healing  with  the  knife,  one  with  herbs, 
and  one  with  the  holy  word  or  by  spells,  the  latter  was  to  be  preferred. 
Hence  the  class  of  priests  included  the  chief  doctors. 

The  fourth  section  of  the  Vendidad  is  occupied  with  laws  about  con- 
tracts and  assaults;  the  latter  are  of  seven  degrees,  and  guilt  is  estimated 
as  very  greatly  increased  by  each  repetition  of  the  offence.    Crimes  Law.  of  QQn_ 
are  punished  not  only  by  stripes,  but  in  addition  by  penalties   tracts  and 
after  death.      Offences    against   the  gods   were   punished   more 
heavily  than  offences  against    man  ;  and  death  is  the  punishment  of  the 
man  who  falsely  pretends  to  cleanse  the  unclean,  and  the  man  who  carries 
a  corpse  alone,  these  being  special  offences  against  the  gods.     Repentance 
only  saves  the  sinner  from  penalties  after  death.     The  burning  or  burial 
of  the  dead,  the  eating  dead  matter,  and  unnatural  crimes  were  inexpiable, 
apparently  punished  by  death  as  well  as  future  torments. 

The  Vispered  and  Yasna  properly  form  an  indivisible  part  of  the 
Avesta  ;  in  fact,  they  constitute  a  liturgy.  The  Vispered,  which  is  very 
short,  contains  merely  invocations  and  invitations  to  Ormuzd  The  vispered 
and  the  good  genii  to  be  present  at  the  ceremonies  about  to  be  an 
performed.  The  Yasna  means  literally  "  offering  with  prayers,"  and  includes 
the  gathas  or  hymns,  to  which  we  have  already  referred.  These  were  to 
be  recited  by  the  priests  alone  (the  laity  not  being  present),  during  the 
performance  of  certain  religious  ceremonies,  which  in  brief  were  the 
consecration  of  holy  water,  of  the  sacred  twigs  or  Baresma,  and  of  the  juice 
of  the  Haoma,  and  the  offering  of  the  draonas,  or  little  round  cakes,  on 
which  pieces  of  cooked  flesh  were  placed,  and  afterwards  eaten  by  the 
priests.  Properly  it  was  the  priest's  duty  to  recite  the  entire  Avesta  once 
every  twenty-four  hours,  and  principally  during  the  night,  this  being 
essential  in  order  that  they  might  keep  themselves  fit  to  perform  the  rites 
of  purification. 

The  liturgies  are  not  of  interest   proportionate  to  their  length,    and 
it  is  difficult  to  give  an  idea  of  their  varied  character  within  our  limits. 


36o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Here  is  a  brief  extract  from  tlie  Vispered  :  "  "We  honour  the  omniscient 
The  spirit  Ahura-Mazda.  We  honour  the  light  of  the  sun.  We 
liturgies.  honour  the  sum,  the  Amesha-Spentas.  We  honour  the  perfect 
Mantras.  We  honour  the  brilliant  works  of  purity.  We  honour  the 
assemblies,  of  which  fire  is  the  cause.  We  honour  pure  and  benevolent 
prosperity  and  intelligence."  Again,  "  Apply  your  feet,  hands,  will, 
Mazdeans,  disciples  of  Zarathustra,  to  the  practice  of  the  good  works 
pri  scribed  03'  law  and  justice,  to  the  avoidance  of  bad  actions,  contrary 
to  law,  and  unjust ;  give  to  those  who  lack." 

The  Yasna  largely  consists  of  lists  of  those  in  whose  honour  the  various 
consecrated  objects  are  offered,  or  to  whose  praise  the  priests  are  chanting. 
Thus :  "  With  this  Baresma  and  holy  water  I  honour  the  pure  spirits 
of  the  months,  pure  spirits  of  the  pure  world.  I  honour  the  new 
moon,  pure  spirits  of  the  pure  world."  Frequently  various  points  in  the 
history  or  achievements  of  the  spirits  are  alluded  to.  Then  the  features 
of  Ormuzd's  rule  are  spoken  of :  "  Reign  undisputed  over  the  waters,  over 
the  trees,  over  all  that  is  good  and  of  pure  origin.  Make  the  just  man 
powerful,  and  the  wicked  powerless  and  weak."  A  long  account  of  the 
origin  and  history  of  Haoma  is  put  into  the  mouth  of  Zoroaster,  and 
prayer  is  offered  to  him  as  a  person,  in  extravagant  terms.  Paradise, 
health,  long  life,  prosperity,  conquest,  safety,  posterity,  etc.;  are  among  the 
gifts  besought  of  Haoma.  He  is  also  asked  to  frustrate  the  efforts  of  those 
who  would  injure  the  worshipper,  and  to  bring  every  calamity  upon  him. 

From    these    various   indications    we    may    picture    to   ourselves   the 

Zoroastrian  religion  as  practised  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  and  long 

The  early    a^er  the  time  of  Zoroaster.      It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  Avesta 

rites  of     contains  no  mention  of  temples ;  and  the  sacred  fire  was  kept 
Mazdaism.  i«t  • 

up  on  altars  in  the  open  air  on  elevated  places,  at  most  sur- 
rounded by  a  simple  wall.  No  image  or  representation  of  the  gods  or 
genii  was  made ;  fire  alone  was  sufficient  to  symbolise  them,  kept  up 
perpetually  in  great  stone  or  copper  basins,  fed  with  the  choicest  wood. 
The  priests  (atharvans)  taught  the  holy  law,  recited  the  sacred  texts  and 
invocations,  prepared  the  Haoma,  washed  and  kept  the  sacred  vessels,  and 
presided  at  ceremonies  of  penance  and  purification.  They  were  expected 
to  know  the  Avesta  by  heart,  and  had  charge  of  the  instruction  and 
initiation  of  novices  and  students.  It  appears  that  they  were  accustomed 
to  go  from  place  to  place  in  the  exercise  of  their  sacred  functions ;  and 
some  of  them  were  medically  skilled,  but  performed  many  cures  by  sacred 
formulas.  The  holy  days  which  the  religion  prescribed  were  sufficiently 
numerous,  including  the  1st,  8th,  18th,  and  23rd  of  each  month,  sacred 
to  Ormuzd,  the  3rd  and  5th  to  the  Amesha  Spentas,  and  every  day  had 
its  special  spirit  or  deity.  The  new  year's  festival  to  Ormuzd,  and  that 
of  the  autumnal  equinox  to  Mithra,  were  among  the  principal  festivals; 
and  the  dead  in  general  were  celebrated  on  the  last  ten  days  of  the  year. 
The  contaminations  that  made  men  impure,  as  we  have  already  detailed 
them,  gave  much  work  to  the  priests  in  purification. 


THE   ZOROASTRIAN  BOOKS.  361 

By  the  time  of  Darius,  Chaldsean  and  Semitic  image-worship  had 
influenced  the  worshippers  of  Ormuzd  to  a  limited  extent.  Darius  placed 
a  symbolical  picture  of  the  god  on  his  inscriptions ;  Artaxerxes  Rise  0f  the 
II.  erected  statues  and  a  temple  to  Anahita,  at  Ecbatana.  Magl 
How  the  Magians  became  the  priests  of  the  Avesta  religion  we  have  no 
clear  account.  They  appear  to  have  been  a  tribe  or  caste  of  the  Medes, 
and  probably  they  were  the  inheritors  of  the  primitive  Arj'an  tradition, 
who  accepted  the  Zoroastrian  development  of  it,  and  acquired  great  influence 
in  the  Persian  empire,  becoming  not  only  teachers  of  religion,  and  priests, 
but  also  political  administrators  and  advisers  ;  and  they  appear  to  have 
become  combined  or  amalgamated  with  the  priestly  families  of  old  Persia. 
The  Sacred  fire  was  carried  before  the  kings  by  Magians,  and  the  king's 
sons  were  instructed  by  them  in  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  at  this  time  they  occupied  themselves  with  soothsaying,  pro- 
phecy, the  interpretation  of  dreams,  etc.  ;  it  is  probable  that  these  offices 
were  performed  by  the  Chaldsean  priests.  The  Greek  historians  represent 
that  no  one  could  sacrifice  in  Persia  without  a  Magian.  They  offered 
sacrifices  at  high  places,  first  praying  to  fire  (or  rather,  looking  towards  the 
sacred  fire).  They  sacrificed  animals,  striking  them  down  with  a  club  ; 
but  no  part  of  the  flesh  was  set  apart  for  the  deity,  the  soul  of  the  animal 
only  being  required.  "  As  far  west  as  Cappadocia,"  says  Strabo,  "  there 
were  enclosed  places,  in  the  midst  of  which  was  an  altar  heaped  up  with 
ashes.  On  this  the  Magians  kept  up  the  unquenchable  fire.  Each  day 
they  went  and  sang  for  an  hour  before  the  fire,  holding  in  their  hands 
a  bundle  of  twigs."  The  Magian  religion  extended  even  to  the  cities  of 
I/ydia,  where  Pausanias  observed  their  worship. 

The  exposure  of  corpses  was  but  partially  practised  by  the  ancient 
Persians,  and  may  have  been  restricted  to  the  priests.  Certainly  the 
kings  were  buried :  but  under  the  Sassanian  monarchy,  the  dead  were 
exposed  according  to  the  modern  custom. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Avesta  anciently  consisted  of  niairy 

more  books  than  we  have  at  present.     Various  traditions  speak  of  their 

number   (twenty-one)    and    contents,   and    the    efforts   made    to      Lossof 

preserve  them.     Alexander  the  Great,  in  a  drunken  frolic,  burnt  zoroastrian 

.  1  books, 

the  palace  at  Persepolis,  which  contained  one  of  the  two  then 

existing  complete  copies  of  these  books,  and  the  other  was  said  to  have 
been  taken  away  by  the  Greeks.  The  attempts  of  the  Sassanian  kings 
of  Persia  to  collect  and  preserve  the  Zoroastrian  books  were  rendered 
futile  by  the  destroying  fury  of  the  Mohammedans,  and  those  who  refused 
to  adopt  the  faith  of  the  conquerors  emigrated  to  India,  and  settled  chiefly 
on  western  shores.  They  preserved  some  portions  of  the  Avesta,  together 
with  translations,  commentaries,  and  original  works  in  the  Pahlavi  lan- 
guage and  character,  which  prevailed  in  Persia  from  the  third  to  the 
tenth  century  a.d.  In  these  Pahlavi  texts  we  have  much  of  The  Pahlavi 
the  middle  period  of  Mazdaism,  "  with  a  strange  mixture  of  text8, 
old  and  new  materials,"  says  Dr.  West,  "  and  exhibiting  the  usual  symptom 


362  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


of  declining  powers,  a  strong  insistence  upon  complex  forms  and  minute 
detail-. 

The  Bundahish  is  one  of  these  texts  which  gives  an  account  of  cosmo- 
gony and  legendary  history,  describing  creation  under  the  good  and  evil 
Tlie  influences  of  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman,  with  their  conflicts,  and 
Bundahish.  COming  down  to  early  Persian  kings  and  to  Zoroaster,  with 
a  brief  account  of  later  Persian  history.  There  are  many  references  which 
indicate  that  this  is  a  translation  with  commentary  from  an  Avesta 
original.  The  Bahman  Yast  is  a  remarkable  prophetical  book,  in  which 
Ormuzd  is  said  to  give  to  Zarathustra  a  narrative  of  the  future  history 
of  his  religion. 

The  Shayast  La-Shay ast  is  a  work  about  "  the  proper  and  the  im- 
proper," or  laws  and  customs  about  sin  and  impurity.  The  nature  and 
degrees  of  different  breaches  of  propriety,  the  kinds  of  good 
works  and  those  who  can  or  cannot  perform  them,  the  mode  of 
atoning  for  sins,  various  kinds  of  worship,  and  an  infinite  number  of  detailed 
rules  are  given,  showing  no  elevation  of  mind,  but  a  pedantic  reliance  on 
outward  formal  purification. 

The  Dadistan-i-Dinik,  by  Manuskihar,  a  high  priest  of  the  Parsees,  was 
written  in  the  ninth  centurj7',  and  represents  the  doctrines  and  practice  of 
The  the  modern  Parsees.  The  title  signifies  "  Religious  Opinions  or 
Dadistan-i-  Decisions."  The  purpose  of  the  creation  of  men  is  defined  as  "  for 
progress  and  goodness,"  which  men  are  bound  to  promote.  Man 
is  bound  to  glorify  and  praise  the  all-good  Creator.  "A  righteous  man  is 
the  creature  by  whom  is  accepted  that  occupation  which  is  provided  for 
him,  and  is-fully  watchful  in  the  world  as  to  his  not  being  deceived  by  the 
rapacious  fiend."  The  evil  happening  to  the  good  in  this  world  to  so  large 
an  extent  is  attributed  to  the  demons  and  evil  men  ;  but  for  this  they 
receive  more  reward  in  the  spiritual  existence,  and  by  it  they  are  kept  from 
evil  and  improper  actions.  Explanations  are  given  as  to  the  exposure  of  the 
dead,  the  knowledge  by  the  soul  of  the  fate  of  the  body,  the  future  of  the 
evil  and  the  good.  A  brilliant  picture  is  given  of  heaven,  and  a  very  dark 
one  of  hell.  The  sacred  thread-girdle  is  declared  to  be  a  sign  of  the  service 
of  the  sacred  beings,  a  token  of  sin  ended,  and  a  presage  of  beneficence. 
The  sacred  ceremonial  is  pleasing  to  Ormuzd,  because  it  entirely  fulfils 
his  commands,  and  produces  propitiation  of  good  spirits,  the  increase 
of  digestiveness-,  the  growth  of  plants,  the  prosperity  of  the  world,  and 
the  proper  progress  of  living  beings.  The  proper  mode  of  celebrating  the 
ceremonial  is  described  ;  but  there  is  little  in  it  that  adds  to  the  essen- 
tials already  described,  and  nothing  that  is  of  a  very  lofty  or  original 
The  spirit   ('nara°ter-      Another  Pahlavi  book,   "Opinions  of  the  Spirit  of 

of         Wisdom "    is   of  interest  for  its  expressing;  the  belief  that   the 

wisdom 

':  innate  wisdom  "  of  Ormuzd,  a  distinct  personality  created  by 
Ormuzd,  produced  both  the  material  and  spirit  worlds,'  and  can  appear  in  a 
ptTsonal  form  and  give  instructions,  such  as  those  recorded  in  the  work 
itself.     Another  similar  book  is  called  by  its  author  "  The  Doubt-dispelling 


MITHRAISM.  363 


Explanation,"  and  defends  and  expounds  the  dualism  of  Mazdaism,  assert- 
ing that  other  religions  can  only  account  for  the  origin  of  evil  by  degrading 
the  character  of  the  supreme  Being,  or  by  supposing  a  corrupting  influence 
to  be  at  work,  which  is  really  an  evil  spirit.  He  makes  references  to,  and 
attacks  the  inconsistencies  he  finds  in  Mohammedan,  Jewish,  Christian,  and 
Manicha?an  doctrine. 

MITHRAISM. 

The  recurrence  of  the  name  of  Mithra  in  the  preceding  chapters,  from 
page  171  onwards,  will  already  have  been  noted  ;  and  we  must  now  give  a 
brief  account  of  the  obscure  eultus  which  has  been  termed  Mithraism,  which 
some  assert  to  have  been  the  most  widespread  religious  system  in  the  Roman 
empire  for  some  centuries  after  the  rise  of  Christianity,  having  been  even 
brought  into  this  country  by  the  Roman  soldiery  (see  J.  M.  Robertson  in 
"Religious  Systems  of  the  World,"  1890,  pp.  225-248).  In  the  Veda, 
Mithra  is  twin-god  with  Varuna  ;  in  Zoroaster,  he  is  lord  of  wide  pastures, 
created  by  Ahura-Mazda ;  he  was  still  lord  of  the  heavenly  light,  and  so 
became  specially  the  sun-god,  god  of  light  and  truth,  of  moral  goodness  and 
purity,  punishing  the  Mithra-Dmj,  'him  who  lies  to  Mithra';  hence  also  he 
is  a  judge  in  hell.  (S.E.,  iv.  xxiii.j  Rawlinson  says  that  Darius  Hystaspes 
placed  the  emblems  of  Ahura-Mazda  and  of  Mithra  in  equally  conspicuous 
positions  on  the  sculptured  tablet  above  his  tomb  (b.c.  485) ;  and  his  example 
was  followed  by  later  monarchs.  The  name  Mithradates  "  given  by  Mithra," 
so  often  borne  by  Eastern  monarchs,  is  another  testimony  to  the  influence  of 
Mithra.  He  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  intermediate  between  Ormuzd 
and  Ahriman,  a  mediator  eternally  young,  preserving  mankind  from  the 
evil  one,  and  performing  a  mysterious  sacrifice,  through  which  the  good  will 
triumph  ;  and  in  some  aspects  Mithra  was  regarded  as  a  female  deity,  and 
there  are  many  Mithraic  monuments  on  which  the  symbols  of  two  Mithraic 
deities  appear,  male  and  female.  The  Grseco-Roman  bas-relief  monuments, 
of  Mithras  slaying  a  bull,  in  the  British  Museum,  indicates  one  form  of  the 
symbolism  associated  with  this  god,  and  connected  with  the  idea  of  sacrifice 
and  purification  ;  and  in  other  associations  a  ram  was  slain  to  Mithra.  We 
learn  from  Origen  that  the  Mithraic  mysteries  included  a  complex  represen- 
tation of  the  movements  of  the  stars  and  planets,  and  of  the  disembodied 
human  soul  among  them. 

Much  of  the  difficulty  of  comprehending  Mithraism  really  is  due  to  its 
opposition  and  proscription  by  early  Christianity,  and  to  the  secrecy  with  which 
its  worship  was  carried  on,  largely  in  caves.  There  are  many  Antagonism 
remains  of  Mithraic  altars  cut  out  in  rocks,  and  he  was  even of  Cnristians- 
named  "  Mithras  out  of  the  rock."  The  rites  were  probably  to  a  large 
extent  derived  from  those  of  Zoroastrianism.  At  the  vernal  equinox,  the 
deity  appears  to  have  been  symbolically  mourned  as  dead,  a  stone  image 
being  laid  by  night  on  a  bier  to  represent  the  dead  god  ;  and  Justin  Martyr 
and  Tertullian  describe  initiation  and  other  ceremonies  of  the  worshippers 
of  Mithra,  which  they  regarded  as  imitations  of  the  Christian  sacraments. 


364 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


We  can  see  in  the  light  of  the  Greek  myth  of  Persephone,  that  this  was  no 
imitation,  but  an  early  and  widespread  symbolism  of  the  early  death  of 
Nature,  and  the  restored  life  of  spring-time.  Initiation  was  an  elaborate 
ordeal,  including  trial  by  water,  by  fire,  by  cold,  by  hunger,  by  thirst,  by 
Mithraic  scourging,  etc. ;  and  the  worshippers  were  divided  into  different 
ceremonies.  grades,  called  after  different  birds  and  other  animals.  Tertullian 
says  that  the  soldier  of  Mithra  was  offered  a  crown,  which  it  was  his  place 
to  refuse,  saying  Mithra  was  his  crown.  Mithraism  seems  to  have  had 
considerable  popularity  among  the  later  Roman  soldiery,  and  to  have  been 
acknowledged  by  the  emperors,  so  that  there  are  many  military  inscriptions, 
"Deo  Soli  Invic  to  Mithras," — "  to  the  invincible  sun-god,  Mithra."  The  most 
usual  representation  of  him  depicts  a  young  man  in  Oriental  costume  kneel- 
ing with  one  knee  on  a  prostrate  bull,  grasping  the  head  and  pulling  it  back 
with  his  left  hand,  while  with  the  right  he  plunges  his  sword  into  its  neck. 
A  dog,  a  snake,  and  a  scorpion  drink  the  blood  flowing  from  the  bull,  and 
the  sun  and  moon  occupy  the  two  sides  of  the  relief. 

There  is  much  curious  speculation  and  fact  bearing  on  Mithra  wor- 
ship, but  the  study  cannot  yet  be  said  to  be  placed  on  a  basis  of  certainty  ; 
and  to  say  that  Christianity  borrowed  largely  from  Mithraism,  is  quite 
unproved. 


FIRE    TEMPLE    OF    PAESEES,    BAKU. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ifflotorn  $tergms»m« 

The  Parsees— Their  persecutions— Their  principles— A  Parsee  catechism— The  priesthood — Devotions 
of  the  laity— Festivals— Ceremonial  rites— Deathbed  forms— The  towers  of  silence— Ceremonies 
of  departed  souls— Family  life. 

THE  PARSEES. 

A  PEOPLE  within  a  people,  like  the  Jews  in  England,  the  Parsees  have 
attained  and  maintained  an  influence  and  wealth  far  beyond  their 
numerical  proportion.      Their  persistence  is  in  its  way  as  strong  a  testimony 
to  the  power  of  heredity  as  any.     The  people  survive  by  their  commercial 
,  ability  ;    their  religion  survives   with  them,  like  Judaism   with  Persecution 
the  Jews.     Persecution  was  long  their  fate,  both  in  Persia  and      of  the 
India;  the  difficulties  of  their  struggle  for  existence  have  fixed 
their  striking  characteristics  in  a  mould  more  tenacious  of  life.     May  we  not 
say  that  they  have  largely  preserved  a  pure  faith  in  one  supreme  beneficent 
God,  Ormuzd,  and  believe  them  when  they  repudiate  the  designation  fire- 
worshippers,  and  reject  idolatry  in  all  forms  ?     Fire  they  revere,  fire  is  the 
symbol  of  their  god,  and  they  do  not  treat  fire  lightly  in  any  circumstances ; 

3G5 


366  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 


indeed,  they  are  the  only  people  who  universally  refrain   from    tobacco- 
Their       smoking,   as  offending  their  religious  principles.     But  they  are 

principles,  equally  fixed  in  the  determination  not  to  defile  any  of  the  works 
of  Ormuzd,  whether  earth,  water,  animals,  or  plants ;  and  their  practices  of 
cleanliness  and  frequent  personal  ablution  must  have  contributed  greatly 
to  their  maintenance  in  health.  The  greatest  number  of  them  is  to  be 
found  in  Bombay  ;  they  are  numerous  in  Surat,  Ahmedabad,  and  other 
cities  of  Gujerat  :  and  they  are  to  be  found  in  many  other  cities  under 
British  Indian  rule.  Their  total  number  is  about  82,000,  including  8,000  in 
Persia  (Yezd,  etc.).  Their  name  is  derived  from  their  original  province, 
Pars,  or  Fars,  from  which  Persia  is  named. 

The  Parsees,  or  Guebres,  of  Yezd  have  still  thirty-four  fire  temples 
great  and  small,  but  possess  very  few  books ;  and.  till  lately  were  in  a  very 
degraded  condition  and  in  great  poverty,  being  most  unjustly  treated  by 
their  Mahometan  neighbours ;  their  condition  has,  however,  been  mitigated 
by  the  persistent  efforts  of  the  Parsees  of  Bombay  and  of  the  British 
ministry  in  Persia.     At  Baku,  on  the  Caspian,  they  still  have  fire  temples. 

Till  recently  the  pure  faith  was  only  preserved  by  a  few  of  the  Parsee 
priests ;  and  the  average  priest  was  little  but  a  reciter  of  portions  of  the 

a  Parsee     sacred  books  and  formulas  \>y  rote,  without  understanding  the 

catechism,  language  in  which  they  were  written.  Of  late  years  a  catechism 
of  instruction  has  been  prepared  for  the  instruction  of  Parsee  children, 
from  which  we  learn  that  they  are  taught  that  there  is  one  God,  Ormuzd, 
and  that  Zartusht  (Zoroaster)  is  his  true  prophet;  that  the  religion  of  the 
A  vesta  was  communicated  to  him  by  God,  and  that  it  is  true  beyond  doubt; 
that  God  is  good,  and  that  good  deeds  are  enjoined.  All  evil  and  wicked- 
ness are  strictly  forbidden.  Morality  is  confined  within  three  words,  pure- 
thought,  pure-word,  pure-deed  ;  truth  is  particularly  enjoined.  Evil  deeds 
will  bring  punishment  after  death  in  hell,  and  judgment  is  believed  to  take 
place  on  the  fourth  day  after  death,  determining  whether  the  deceased  goes 
to  heaven  or  hell.  But  a  future  resurrection  is  held  out  as  certain,  when 
God  only  can  save  any  one.  It  is  also  enjoined  upon  believers  that  they 
turn  their  face  towards  some  luminous  object  while  engaged  in  prayer 
and  worship,  which  must  be  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  day.  Angels 
are  believed  in,  who  aid  mankind  in  various  ways,  and  superintend  various 
parts  of  creation.  Prayers  are  addressed  to  these  spirits.  Prayer  is  made 
that  the  evil  may  become  virtuous  and  be  pardoned  by  the  mercy  of 
Ormuzd.     There  is  no  propitiation  of  the  evil  spirits,  or  prayer  to  them. 

The  priesthood  is  handed  down  by  inheritance  from  father  to  son, 
although  priests  may  become  laymen.     The  high  priests,  or  dasturs,  are  the 

The  priest-  especial  religious  authorities,  imposing  penances  and  declaring 
hood.  doctrine.  The- ordinary  priests,  or  mobeds,  and  the  lower  priests,- 
<)!•  herbads,  complete  the  religious  orders  of  the  Parsees.  They  have  a  coun- 
cil, or  Panchyat,  composed  of  six  dasturs  and  twelve  mobeds,  which  settles 
all  the  joint  affairs  of  the  Parsee  community.  At  present  the  condition  of 
the  P;.i\see  priesthood  is  one  of  progress  ;  two  colleges,  representing  the  two 


MODERN  PARSEEISM.  367 


sects  of  the  Parsees  (marked  by  comparatively  unimportant  differences), 
have  been  established,  under  able  teachers;  and  learned  works  of  consider- 
able value  bearing  on  the  history  and  ancient  texts  of  their  religion  have 
been  produced  by  Parsees  who  have  studied  at  German  universities  and 
write  English  with  fluenc}7.  The  Parsee  community  does  not  make  offerings 
to  the  priests  and  to  the  temples  the  chief  or  only  meritorious  work ;  but 
its  charitable  institutions  are  numerous,  and  a  Parsee  beggar  is  unknown. 

As  to  the  devotional  practices  of  the  laity,  a  man  who  is  very  religious 
will  say  prayers  many  times  a  day,  albeit  in  the  Avesta  language,  which  he 
does  not  understand.  Prayer  may  be  said  on  rising  from  sleep,  Devotions 
after  bathing,  and  after  every  operation  of  life,  before  and  after  of  the  laity, 
meals,  and  before  going  to  bed.  Among  the  strangest  and  most  repulsive 
of  Parsee  practices,  to  western  notion,  is  the  habit  of  rubbing  nirang  (cow's 
urine)  over  face  and  hands,  as  a  specific  against  devas  or  evil  spirits,  a 
prayer  or  incantation  being  recited  at  the  same  time.  Devotions  at  the 
Parsee  fire  altars  are  quite  optional,  and  they  may  be  performed 
at  any  time  by  the  worshippers,  who  usually  give  something  to 
the  priests.  There  is,  however,  a  considerable  attendance  at  the  festivals, 
about  once  a  week,  and  at  special  seasons,  such  as  the  six  days'  festival  in 
the  middle  of  winter,  celebrating  the  six  periods  of  creation,  that  at  the 
spring  equinox  in  honour  of  agriculture,  that  to  Mithra,  etc.  On  the  tenth 
day  of  the  eighth  month  there  is  a  festival  to  Fravardin,  who  presides  over 
the  souls  of  the  departed,  when  special  ceremonies  for  the  dead  are  per- 
formed, the  towers  of  silence  are  visited,  and  prayers  said  for  them  in  the 
small  temples  in  the  grounds  ;  these  are  in  addition  to  annual  celebrations 
for  the  dead  in  each  house.  New  Year's  Day  is  both  a  da}'-  of  religious 
festival  and  social  intercourse,  when  the  fire-temples  are  visited  and  pra}rers 
said,  looking  towards  the  altar  of  sacred  fire.  Visits  to  friends,  with  cere- 
monial hand- joining,  follow,  and  alms  are  given  to  the  poor. 

The  Parsee  infant,  born  on  a  ground  floor,  to  which  he  is  again  brought 
as  soon  as  he  is  dead,  has  his  nativity  cast  on  the  seventh  day  by  a  Brahman 
or  Parsee  astrologer-priest ;   at  seven  years  old  he  is  purified  with  ceremonial 
nirang,  and  invested  with  the  sacred  girdle  of  seventy-two  threads,      ntes- 
representing  the  seventy-two  chapters  of  the  Yasna.     As  the  priest  blesses 
the  child,  he  throws  upon  its  head  portions  of  fruits,  spices,  and  perfumes. 
This  is  the  ceremony  of  the  Jcusti.     Marriages  are  carefully  arranged  by  the 
astrologer,  but   are  celebrated   with  a  religious   ceremony,   in   which    the 
couple  are  tied  together  by  a  silken  cord  gradually  wound  round  them,  while 
a  benediction  is  pronounced  in  Zend  and  Sanskrit.     It  is  in  their  funerals 
that  the   Parsees  are  most  peculiar.      A  dying  Parsee  will  be    Deathbed 
attended  by  a  priest,  who  repeats  to  him  consolatory  texts  from      forms- 
the  Avesta,  gives  him  the  sacred  Haoma  juice  to  drink,  and  prays  for  the 
forgiveness  of  his  sins.      The  body  is  then  taken  to  a  ground-floor  room 
from  which  everything  has  been  removed,  laid  upon  stones,  washed  in  warm 
water,  dressed  in  clean  white  clothes,  and  laid  upon  an  iron  bier.      The 
priest,  in  the  presence  of  the  corpse,  gives  an  exhortation  to  the  relatives 


368 


MODERN  PARSEE1SM.  369 


to  live  pure  and  holy  lives,  so  that  they  may  meet  the  deceased  again  in 
paradise.      This  exhortation  consists  of  the  first  gatha  of    Zoroaster.      A 
dog  is  brought  in  to  look  at  the  deceased,  this  being  known  as  the  sag-did 
or  dog's  gaze.     This  used  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  means  of  judging,  by  the 
dog's  instinct,  whether  life  was  really  extinct;  but  it  is  now  explained  as 
securing  the  passage  of  the  soul  over  the  Chinvat  bridge,  over  which  only 
the  pious  pass  to  heaven.     The  carriage  of  the  body  to  the  towers  of  silence 
is  committed  to  a  special  class  of  Parsees  called  Nessusalar,  or  The  towers 
unclean,  from  the  work  they  perform.     The  towers  of  silence  in   of8llenc3- 
Bombay  are  constructed  on  the  top  of  Malabar  Hill,  a  great  home  of  vultures. 
Built  of  stone,  they  rise  about  twenty-five  feet,  with  only  a  small  entrance 
below.     On  arrival  at  the  appointed  tower,  prayers  are  said  at  the  neigh- 
bouring fire-altar.     The  body  is  then  exposed  on  a  stone  platform  within 
the  tower,  so  that  all  fluids  pass  into  a  well,  into  which  also  the  bones  left 
by  the  vultures  are  swept.     During  the  three  days  after  death  a  Ceremonies 
priest  constantly  prays  before  a  burning  fire  fed  with  sandal-  of  departed 
wood  near  the  spot  where  the  dead  body  was  laid,  the  soul  not 
being  believed  to  leave  this  world  during  that  period.     On  the  fourth  day 
after  death  there  is  a  further  ceremony  for  the  soul  of  the  departed.     Con- 
tributions to  charities  are  made  in  memory  of  the  deceased,  and  successive 
annual,  muktad,   or    ceremonies  of  departed  souls,   keep  them  in  remem- 
brance. 

The  well-to-do  perform  a  ceremony  every  day  of  the  first  year  after  a 
death ;  and  the  last  ten  days  of  their  year  are  specially  set  apart  for  the 
muktad.  One  of  the  rooms  of  the  house  is  spacially  cleaned  and  set  apart, 
and  every  morning  choice  flowers  and  fruits  are  placed  there,  and  prayers 
are  offered  in  it  by  the  relatives,  not  only  for  the  dead  but  for  themselves 
for  forgiveness  of  their  past  sins. 

Parsees  keep  their  heads  covered  day  and  night,  having  imbibed  an 
idea  that  it  is  sinful  to  be  uncovered.  Parsee  women  occupy  a  much 
higher  position  than  among  Hindus  and  Mohammedans ;  and  in 
recent  years  women  have  been  admitted  to  meals  in  common 
with  the  men.  The  family  life,  especially  of  the  well-to-do,  has  much  in 
it  that  is  admirable.  The  education  of  women  has  made  great  progress 
among  them  in  recent  years.  Much  superstition  still  exists  about  the  sig- 
nificance of  particular  days,  every  day  having  some  special  thing  for  which 
it  is  best  suited ;  some  days  for  beginning  a  journey,  others  for  choosing  a 
new  house,  others  for  soliciting  a  bride,  etc. 

The  largest  tower  of  silence  in  Bombay  is  about  ninety  feet  in  diameter, 
or  300  feet  in  circumference,  the  outer  (circular)  walls  being  built  of  very 
hard  stone,  faced  with  white  plaster.  Inside  the  tower  is  a  circular  plat- 
form extending  to  its  full  circumference,  formed  of  large  stone  slabs,  divided 
into  three  rows  of  exposed  receptacles  for  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  diminish- 
ing towards  the  interior,  the  exterior  row  being  used  for  men,  the  middle 
for  women,  and  the  inner  for  children.  Each  receptacle  is  separated  from 
the  others  by  ridges  about  an  inch  high  ;   and  channels  are  cut  for  the  pur- 

B    B 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


pose  of  conveying  all  liquids  into  a  deep  hollow,  or  well,  in  the  centre  of 
the  tower.  "  When  the  corpse  has  been  completely  stripped  of  its  flesh  by 
the  vultures,  which  is  generally  accomplished  within  one  hour  at  the  outside, 
and  when  the  bones  of  the  denuded  skeleton  are  perfectly  dried  up  b}'  the 
powerful  heat  of  a  tropical  sun,  they  are  thrown  into  this  pit,  where  they 
crumble  into  dust."  There  are  also  four  drains  leading  from  the  pit  to  the 
exterior,  opening  into  four  wells.  "  At  the  mouth  of  each  drain  charcoal  and 
sandstones  are  placed  for  purifying  the  fluid  before  it  enters  the  ground, 
thus  observing  one  of  the  tenets  of  the  Zoroastrian  religion,  that  "  the 
mother  earth  shall  not  be  defiled."  The  wells  have  a  permeable  bottom, 
which  is  covered  with  sand  to  a  height  of  five  or  seven  feet. 

The  foundation-laj'ing  and  the  consecration  of  a  new  tower  is  an  occasion 
of  great  ceremony.  After  the  ground  has  been  marked  out  and  limited 
Foundation  with  a  thread  carried  round  a  large  number  of  nails  arranged  in 
secraticrTof  a  cii'cle,  prayers  are  offered  to  Sravsha,  the  guardian  deity  of  the 
towers,  souls  of  the  dead,  to  Ormuzd,  and  to  Spenta  Armati,  the  guar- 
dian deity  of  earth,  to  departed  souls,  and  to  the  seven  Amesha-Spentas. 
These  prayers,  acknowledging  that  it  is  wrong  to  contaminate  the  earth  with 
the  bodies  of  the  dead,  pray  that  the  enclosed  space,  and  no  more,  may  be 
occupied  for  depositing  the  bodies  of  departed  souls.  At  the  consecration  of 
a  dokhena,  a  trench  is  dug  all  round  it,  and  then  in  the  centre  of  the  tower 
two  priests  perform  the  Yasna  and  Vendidad  prayers  and  ceremonies  in 
honour  of  Sravsha  for  three  consecutive  mornings  and  nights.  On  the 
fourth  morning  there  is  a  prayer  in  honour  of  Ormuzd ;  and  afterwards 
there  are  similar  prayers  to  those  at  the  foundation.  Other  services  outside 
the  tower  follow,  during  and  after  which  thousands  of  Parsees  visit  the 
tower,  which  is  afterwards  closed  to  everybody.  Sometimes  the  towers  are 
erected  by  public  subscription,  but  private  persons  frequently  bear  the  sole 
expense,  it  being  considered  a  specially  meritorious  act  to  build  one. 

Thus,  in  the  midst  of  antagonistic  creeds,  persists  the  religion  associated 
with  the  name  of  Zoroaster,  a  standing  revelation  to  us  of  the  ideas  and  wor- 
ship of  long-distant  ages.  Reverence  and  worship  for  the  great  Ormuzd,  the 
supreme  Being,  principally  typified  by  the  wondrous  fire,  dread  of  the  evil 
spirit  and  anxiety  to  avoid  the  evils  he  can  bring,  and  practical  charity 
chiefly  characterise  this  most  interesting  survival  from  the  past.  Learned 
modern  Parsees  maintain  and  teach  that  invocations  to  spirits  other  than 
the  supreme  God  do  not  belong  to  the  religion  as  originally  established  by 
Zoroaster,  and  that  they  may  all  be  dispensed  with,  retaining  the  belief  in 
one  God  and  in  purity  of  thought,  word,  and  deed.  They  hold  also  that  all  I 
their  ritual  and  ceremonies  may  be  altered  according  to  the  spiritual  state  I 
and  needs  of  the  community. 

th<  besl  account  of  the  modern  Parsees  and  their  present  religious  state,  see  "History  of, 
the  Parsei  b,  '  by  Dosabhai  Framji  Karaka,  C.S.I.,  late  member  of  the  Bombay  Legislative  Council.'! 
Macmillan,  L884. 


IDEAL  ASSEMBLAGE  OF  THE  GODS  ON  MOUNT  OLYMPUS. 


BOOK    IV. 

EUROPEAN  ARYAN  RELIGIONS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Cfce  gttrieiit  <8vtck  ftrlfgfon?  €\)t  <goti$. 

Long  study  of  classics— Nature-  and  ancestor-  worship— Early  simplicity— Local  gods— Foreign 
influences— Succession  of  gods—  Kronos—  Personification  of  nature— Growth,  of  myths — Early 
cosmogony-Local,  tribal,  or  civic  gods— Zeus— Hera— Pallas- Athene— Themis— Apollo— Delphi 
—Aphrodite— Demetsr— Hephaistos— Hestia —Ares  —  Hermes  —  Dionysos  —  Poseidon — Hades,  or 
Pluto— Minor  divinities— Characters  of  gods. 

WHEN  we  come  to  the  Aryan  religions  of  Europe,  we  enter  at  first  upon 
a  domain  which  has  been  more  thoroughly  traversed  and  discussed 
than  any  we  have  previously  described.  For  hundreds  of  years  classical 
students  have  been  engaged  in  making  out  the  meaning  of  the  Long.  study 
Greek  and  Latin  authors,  and  reconstructing  and  explaining  their  of  classics, 
systems,  histories,  and  philosophies.-  It  cannot  be  said  that  either  Greece 
or  Rome  possessed  Scriptures  like  the  Vedas,  though  the  Homeric  hymns, 
the  works  of  Hesiod,  and  various  lost  writings  approached  to  this  cha- 
racter ;  and  there  certainly  is  no  special  set  of  sacred  books  to  which  the 

3?1 


37- 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Greeks   and   Romans   appealed  as  of  divine   authority.     Botli  on  account 
of  the  literature  being  well  known  and  accessible,  and  on  account  of  its 

great  bnlk,  we  shall  not  here  attempt  any- 
thing like  a  full  treatment  of  this  subject,  but 
shall  rather  seek  to  indicate  the  main  ideas, 
and  very  briefly  describe  the  personages  of 
the  Greek  and  Roman  deities  and  the  beliefs 
generally  associated  with  them. 

In  Greek  and  Roman,  as  in  Indian,  re- 
ligion we  find   a   combination  of   nature-per- 
.    sonification,    nature-worship,     with 
ancestor-     that  of  deified  heroes  and  ancestors. 
The  original  Pelasgians  appear  to 
have  had  no  temples,  and  to  have  worshipped 
principally    upon    the     tops     of    mountains. 
When  they  attained  the  conception  of  a  su- 
preme deity  cannot   be  ascertained ;   but  the 
earliest  aspect  of  the  Zeus,  or  supreme  God,  is  that  of  the  heaven,  earth,  or 
sky,  just  like  Dyaus  of  the  Veda.     They  also  worshipped   the  same  god 
under  the  title  Father  Zeus,  Zeus  pater  (later  developed  into  the  Latin 
Early      Diespiter  and  Jupiter).     This  conception  was  retained,  together 
simplicity.  with  an  open-air  altar,  long  after  tke  Greek  cities  were  crowded 
with  images  and  temples.     St.  Paul  detected  a  relic  of  the  old  religion  at 
Athens  in  the  altar  to  "  the  unknown  god,"  and  it  was  no  uncommon  thing 
to   see   in   Greece   altars  to   the  ''pure,"    "great,"   and    "merciful"    gods 
unnamed,  inspired  by  an  old  feeling  which  neither  named  nor  represented 
the  gods  in  word  or  by  symbol. 

As  the  primitive  Pelasgians  branched  and  migrated,  they  imagined 
new  local  gods  or  phases  of  divine  beings,  possibly  learning  about  them  from 
people  whom  they  conquered  or  enslaved.  Later  they  mingled 
with  the  Phoenician  voyagers,  .and 
saw  their  images  of  Astarte  and  Melcar, 
which  hitter  they  changed  to  Melicertes,  and 
adapted  to  their  own  ideas.  The  Greeks  who 
Foreign     colonised  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor 

influences.  found  plenty  of  material  already 
there  for  the  development  of  local  or  patron 
deities  ;  some  they  adopted  directly,  to  others 
they  gave  the  attributes  of  their  own  national 
heroes. 

Whether  it  marks  a  series  of  changes  of 
divinities  or  not,  we  find  that  the  great  god 

succession  Zeus  rests  on  a  past  history,  traced 
of  gods.     by  the  poet    Hegiod    from  Chaog^ 

after  whom  arose  Gaia,  the  earth,  with  Tartarus,  the  infernal  region,  below. 
i  una  was  the  parent  of  Ouranos,  the  Heaven  ;  and  from  their  intermarriage 


Local  gods. 


HEPHAISIOS. 


THE   ANCIENT  GREEK  RELIGION:    THE    GODS. 


373 


HADES    (PLCTO). 


arose  the  twelve  Titans,  the  Cyclopes  and  three  hundred-handed  beings. 

Ouranos  was  not  at  all  satisfied   to   see  his  offspring,   including  Oceanus, 

Hyperion,     Kronos     (The     Creator),     Themis 

(Law),  etc.,  multiplying,  and  concealed  them 

in    cavities    of    the   earth.     Finally       ■ 

17       Kronos. 

Kronos  disabled  and  dethroned  Ou- 
ranos, whose  last  offspring,  Aphrodite,  rose 
from  the  sea-foam  opposite  the  island  Ky- 
thera,  and  thence  went  to  Cyprus ;  in  both 
of  which  islands  her  worship  was  probably 
derived  from  that  of  the  Phoenician  Astarte. 
Each  Titan  was  credited  with  a  numerous 
offspring  ;  very  remarkable  is  the  facility  with 
which  gods  were  multiplied  by  the  Greeks. 
The  children  of  Kronos,  however,  became 
most  powerful,  and  included  Hestia  (Vesta), 
Demeter,  and  Here  (Juno),  Hades  (Pluto), 
Poseidon,  and  Zeus,  the  latter  destined  to  supplant  his  father.  But  Kronos, 
foreseeing  destruction  by  one  of  his  children,  had  swallowed  the  first  five, 
and  retained  them  still  alive  within  himself.  The  birth  of  Zeus  was  con- 
cealed from  him,  a  stone  enveloped  in  swaddling  clothes  being  substituted, 
and  duly  swallowed.  Later,  Zeus  made  his  father  eject  the  stone  and  the 
children;  the  stone  being  preserved  and  venerated  near  the  temple  of 
Delphi.  And  this  is  but  a  sample  of  an  extraordinary  number  of  myths 
which  the  Greeks  related  and  believed  about  their  gods. 

What  the  sentiments  properly  termed  religious  had  to  do  with  the 
growth  of  Greek  polytheism  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  The  oldest  names 
rf  the  gods  describe  the  elementary  facts  of  nature.     It  probably  Personifica_ 

can  never  be  settled  how  far  the  old  tie*  of 
Greeks  consciously  personified  the  tacts 
and  forces  of  nature,  and  how  far  early  modes  of 
expression,  not  at  all  fictitious  in  intention,  came 
to  signify  personal  beings,  which  gradually  became 
dissociated  from  the  natural  facts  they  represented. 
Early  human  beings,  seeing  the  heavenly  bodies, 
lightning,  rain,  trees,  etc.,  probably  imagined  them 
to  have  life  and  consciousness  like  themselves,  and 
saw  in  the  rising,  the  course,  and  the  setting  of  the 
sun  facts  in  the  history  of  the  sun-being,  which 
these  who  had  fancy  interpreted  in  their  own  fashion. 
Many  myths  undoubtedly  sprang  up  in  the  attempt 
to  explain  part  of  the  ritual.  By  the  effect  of  na- 
tural selection,  those  beliefs  which  gave  most  plea- 
apollo.  g^  satisfie(1  tlie  instiuct  for  the  marvellous,  or  besl 

appealed  to  feelings  already  in  existence,  persisted,  and  were  firmly  believed 
in  even  after  higher  thoughts  had  been  awakened.     Some  of  these  legends 


374  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


are  very  gross,  and  can  only  have  persisted  because  religion  is  always 
conservative.  Then  the  imaginative  minds  set  to  work  to  give  fuller  and 
more  artistic  representations,  to  fill  in  details,  to  supply  explanations  of 
what  seemed  incongruous  in  the  older  myths;  and  often  an  old  epithet  of  one 

Growth  of  being  would  give  rise  to  a  totally  new  one,  and  to  a  secondary 
myths,  story  or  myth.  And  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  sun  sup- 
pi  in  I  the  source  for  many  of  these  myths.  As  Sir  G.  "W.  Cox  says  :  "  In 
the  thought  of  these  early  ages  the  sun  was  the  child  of  night  or  darkness  ; 
the  dawn  came  before  he  was  born,  and  died  as  he  rose  in  the  heavens.  He 
strangled  the  serpents  of  the  night ;  he  went  forth  like  a  bridegroom  out 
of  his  chamber,  and  like  a  giant  to  run  his  course.  He  had  to  do  battle 
with  clouds  and  storms.  .  .  .  Sometimes  he  was  the  lord  of  heaven  and 
of  light,  irresistible  in  his  divine  strength  ;  sometimes  he  toiled  for  others, 
not  for  himself,  in  a  hard,  unwilling  servitude.  His  light  and  heat  might 
give  life,  or  destroy  it.  His  chariot  might  scorch  the  regions  over  which  it 
passed.  .  .  .  He  would  have  many  brides  in  many  lands ;  and  his  off- 
spring would  assume  aspects  beautiful,  strange,  or  horrible.  His  course 
might  be  brilliant  and  beneficent,  or  gloomy,  sullen,  and  capricious."  Thus 
we  may  see  how  it  is  to  the  creative  and  imaginative  men  among  the 
early  Greeks  that  we  owe  the  growth  of  that  marvellous  mass  of  myth 
which  is  involved  in  their  entire  history.  From  the  idea  of  the  sun  looking 
down  on  the  earth,  and  producing  a  teeming  harvest  or  countless  progeny, 
the  transition  is  easy  to  the  sun-god  marrying  the  earth-goddess,  and  be- 
coming by  her  the  parent  of  a  vast  family  of  beings  ;  and  by  a  further 
literalising  of  language,  we  have  Zeus  depicted  as  inspired  by  passions 
and  lusts,  having  many  wives,  or  assuming  many  forms  to  woo  reluctant 
brides.  And  the  deceased  heroes  of  the  race,  no  longer  seen  by  their  rela- 
tives, are  imagined  as  becoming  acquainted  with  the  heavenly  beings,  being 
advanced  by  them  to  positions  of  honour,  and  finally,  it  may  be,  are  identi- 
fied with  personalities,  of  whom  it  may  be  represented  that  they  were  mere 
temporary  earthly  embodiments. 

We  may  pause  here  to  refer  to  the  cosmogony  or  history  of  the  world 

as  represented  in  the  early  Greek  poems.     The  Hebrew  belief  that  God 

Early      formed  man  out  of  the  dust  of  the  earth  is  parallel  with  the 

cosmogony.  Qree^  belief  that  man  originated  from  the  earth,  untamed  like 
the  beasts,  and  was  only  gradually  civilised  by  the  gods  and  heroes  who 
taught  him  useful  arts,  agriculture,  house-building,  etc.  A  tradition  as 
old,  or  older,  makes  men  the  children  of  trees.  Then  came  a  period  of 
degeneracy,  and  all  the  world  was  destroyed  by  a  flood,  from  which  only 
I>>  ucalion  and  his  wife  Pyrrha  were  saved,  in  consequence  of  their  piety, 
in  an  ark,  in  which  they  floated  for  nine  days  and  nights,  till  it  rested  on 
the  summits  of  Parnassus.  From  the  bones  (i.e.,  stones)  of  their  mother 
earth,  cast  over  their  shoulders,  sprang  men  and  women.  It  was  by  a  dis- 
placement  of  this  view  that  men  came  to  be  regarded  as  made  by  the  gods, 
and  as  having  passed  through  successive  periods  known  as  the  Golden,  the 
Silver,  the  Brazen,  and  the   Iron  Ages.     The  first  age  (when  Kronos  or 


THE  ANCIENT  GREEK  RELTGION:    THE   GODS.  375 


Saturn  was  supreme)  was  one  of  unmixed  bliss,  all  things  growing  freely  ; 
men  were  pure,  happy,  and  long-lived,  did  no  evil,  and  had  no  wars.  In 
the  Silver  Age,  when  Zeus  came  into  power,  men  were  feebler  and  shorter- 
lived,  fought  with  one  another,  and  were  not  properly  reverent  to  the  gods. 
Consequently,  they  were  banished  to  Hades,  where  they  wandered  rest- 
lessly, regretting  their  lost  pleasures.  The  men  of  the  Brazen  Age  were  a 
new  strong  race,  cruel  and  warlike,  using  brazen  (or  rather,  bronze)  tools 
and  arms.  The  gods  at  length  sent  them  also  to  Hades,  and  they  were 
followed  by  the  men  of  the  Iron  Age,  who  had  to  toil  hard  to  gain  food,  and 
who  also  became  sinful.  These  then  were  all  drowned  but  Deucalion  and 
Pyrrha,  who  became  the  father  of  Hellen,  from  whom  the  Hellenic  people 
derived  their  origin.  But  this  was  by  no  means  the  only  cosmogony  of  the 
Greeks,  for  which  we  must  refer  to  separate  works.  In  fact,  every  tribe  or 
town  may  be  said  to  have  had  a  share  in  a  cosmogony,  at  least,  sd  far  as 
concerned  their  own  locality.  As  Mr.  Grote  says,  "Every  association  of 
men  traced  back  their  union  to  some  common  progenitor,  either  Local  tribal 
their  common  god  or  some  semi-divine  person  closely  allied  to         or 

•  civic  cods 

him.  A  series  of  names  of  ancestors,  with  adventures  ascribed 
to  them,  constituted  for  the  Greeks  their  pre-historic  past  connected  with 
the  gods.  The  names  in  this  genealogy  were  largely  their  own  names,  or 
those  of  local  objects,  rivers,  mountains,  etc.,  embodied  as  persons,  and 
introduced  as  acting  or  suffering.  The  personage  from  whom  the  com- 
munity derived  their  name  was  sometimes  the  son  of  the  local  god,  or 
sometimes  a  man  sprung  from  the  earth,  thought  of  as  a  goddess."  We 
must  now  refer  to  the  principal  gods  and  their  characteristics  as  accepted 
in  the  greatest  period  of  Greece ;  but  we  have  not  space  to  describe  even 
such  a  great  hero-god  as  Herakles  (Hercules),  whose  labours  and  significance 
as  the  patron  god  of  the  Dorians  are  well-known,  or  Theseus,  the  patron 
god  of  Athens. 

Zeus  was  the  ruler  of  earth  and  heaven,  the  god  producing  storms, 
darkness,  and  rain  ;  he  controlled  the  phenomena  of  nature  and  the  recur- 
rence of  seasons  ;  kingly  power  was  derived  from  him,  and  he 
upheld  princes  and  rulers,  and  all  the  institutions  of  the  State. 
As  father  of  men,  he  watched  over  them,  rewarding  good  deeds,  such  as 
charity,  truth,  and  integrity  ;  while  he  punished  cruelty,  false  swearing, 
and  want  of  hospitality.  Zeus  also,  as  father  of  the  gods,  saw  that  each  of 
the  gods  performed  his  duty,  settled  their  quarrels,  and  punished  their 
defaults.  His  special  home  was  on  the  cloud-capped  top  of  Mount  Olympus, 
in  a  palace  of  gold,  silver,  and  ivory,  built  by  Hephaistos  (Vulcan),  who  had 
also  built  palaces  for  the  other  gods  lower  down. 

In  Greek  art  Zeus  was  represented  as  a  man  of  noble  appearance, 
serious  and  benign,  with  high  forehead,  thick  hair,  and  flowing  beard.  An 
eagle,  a  bundle  of  thunderbolts,  lightning,  and  a  wreath  of  oak-leaves  are 
his  accompanying  symbols.  At  one  of  the  earliest  places  where  he  was  wor- 
shipped,— Dodona,  in  Epirus, — he  was  chiefly  adored  as  the  sender  of  water 
or  rain.     There  his  voice  was  believed  to  be  heard  in  the  rustlings  of  an 


376 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


oak,  interpreted  by  his  priests.     The  worship  at  Dodona  became  inferior  to 
thai  at  Olympia,  in  Elis,  where  there  was  a  magnificent  statue  of  Zeus  of 


HERA    AND    IRIS. 


ivory  and  gold,  forty  feet  high,  counted  as  one  of  the  seven  wonders.  The 
appropriate  sacrifices  to  Zeus  were  white  bulls,  cows,  and  goats. 

Zeus  appears  as  a  polygamist,  seven  of  his  wives  being  immortals.  His 
first  wife,  Metis  (representing  prudence  and  wisdom),  was  devoured  by  him 
in  the  belief  that  her  offspring  would  depose  him.  After  this  he  himself 
gave  birth  to  Athene,  his  head  being  cloven  for  that  purpose  by  Hephaistos. 
His  remaining  goddess  wives  were  Themis  (goddess  of  Justice),  Eurynome, 
Demeter,  Mnemosyne  (goddess  of  Memory  and  mother  of  the  nine  Muses), 
Leto,  mother  of  Apollo  and  Artemis  (Diana),  and  Hera  (Juno)  whose  position 
became  highest,  so  that  she  was  regarded  as  queen  of  heaven. 

Zeus  was  not  only  allied  to  numerous  goddesses,  but  he  visited 
mortal  women  under  various  disguises ;    Antiope,  Leda,  Europa,  Kallisto, 


BACCHUS. 


Alkmene,  Semele,  Io,  and  Danae  are  among  these ;  and  the  children  of  Leda 
(Castor  and  Pollux),  Europa  (Minos,  Rhadamanthus),  Alkmene  (Herakles  or 


THE   ANCIENT  GREEK  RELIGTON:    THE    GODS. 


377 


Hera. 


Hercules),  are  world-famed  types  of  heroes.  No  doubt  the  fables  of  Zeus 
becoming  the  father  of  earthly  kings  and  heroes  represent  part  of  the 
process  of  their  deification,  so  that  much  of  the  Greek  mythology  is 
resolvable  into  ancestor- worship. 

Hera  was  generally  regarded  as  the  one  truly  married  wife  of  Zeus  (also 
his  sister),  and  so  became  the  protectress  of  married  women.  She  was  also 
figured  as  specially  faithful  to  her  husband,  and  thence  was  the 
representative  of  wifely  virtue  and  the  sanctity  of  the  marriage 
bond.  Jealous  of  any  immorality,  she  was  a  strict  censor  of  the  misdoings 
of  gods  and  men  ;  and  she  is  represented  as  vain  of  her  beauty  and  jealous 
of  any  indignity.  She  became 
the  mother  of  Ares  (Mars),  He- 
phaistos,  and  Hebe,  and  was  the 
special  guardian  of  the  Greek 
people.  She  is  figured  seated 
on  a  throne,  with  a  sceptre  in 
one  hand  and  a  pomegranate 
in  the  other,  as  a  calm,  beauti- 
ful, dignified  matron,  wearing  a 
tunic  and  mantle.  Her  princi- 
pal temples  were  at  Argos  and 
Samos ;  and  on  the  first  day 
of  each  month  a  ewe  lamb 
and  a  sow  were  sacrificed  to 
her. 

Pallas-Athene,  whom  we 
have  already  described  as  issu- 
ing from  Zeus's  head,  paiias- 
was  born  fully  armed,  Athene, 
and  she  is  the  goddess  of  wis- 
dom, protecting  the  State,  law 
and  order,  the  patroness  of 
learning,  science,  art,  and  all 
arts  and  inventions.  She  is  the 
type  of  chastity  and  purity.  An 
segis  or  shield  was  given  to  her 
by    Zeus,    which    she    whirled 

swiftly  around  her;  in  its  centre  was  the  awful  Medusa's  head,  which 
changed  all  who  looked  at  it  into  stone.  Athene,  among  other  arts,  presided 
especially  over  spinning  and  weaving,  in  which  she  excelled.  In  statues, 
etc.,  she  appears  as  a  fully  clad  woman,  serious,  thoughtful,  and  earnest, 
with  beautiful  oval  face  and  abundant  hair,  somewhat  masculine  on  the 
whole.  As  a  war  goddess  in  defence  of  the  Greeks,  of  cities,  and  of  innocent 
victims,  she  wears  a  helmet  with  a  large  plume,  a  golden  staff,  and  her 
famous  shield.  While  very  generally  worshipped  throughout  Greece,  she 
Was  specially  the  goddess  of  the  Athenians,  who  built  the  great  temple  of 


37S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

the  Parthenon  to  the  virgin  goddess,  whose  great  statue  by  Phidias  was 
enshrined  there.  The  olive-tree  was  specially  sacred  to  Athene,  and  rams, 
bulls,  and  cows  were  offered  to  her.  The  great  Panathenaic  festival  was 
held  in  her  honour. 

Themis,  the  goddess  of  law  and  justice,  presided  over  popular  assemblies 
and  guarded  the  rights  of  hospitality ;  even  Zeus  is  represented  as  taking 
counsel  with  her.  Her  statues  represent  her  witli  the  scales  of 
justice  in  her  right  hand,  indicating  her  impartiality,  which  is 
further  secured  by  her  eyes  being  bandaged,  so  that  no  individual  influence 
or  prejudice  should  influence  her.  The  sword  in  her  right  hand  indicates 
the  majesty  and  sovereignty  of  the  law. 

Together  with  Zeus  and  Athene,  Apollo  may  be  named  as  constituting 
the  greatest  triad  of  the  Greek  gods ;  and  in  many  ways  Apollo,  though 
described  as  a  son  of  Zeus  and  deriving  his  power  from  him,  is 
the  god  whose  character  and  worship  had  the  greatest  influence 
upon  the  Greeks.  There  is  no  doubt  that  among  the  later  Greek  poets  and 
philosophers  Apollo  was  identified  with  Helios,  the  sun-god,  although  in 
Homer  and  for  some  centuries  afterwards  the  two  are  quite  distinct ;  but 
the  epithet  Phoebus,  the  shining  one,  is  even  in  Homer  applied  to  Apollo. 
It  has  been  strongly  held  by  some  that  Apollo  was  originally  the  sun-god, 
and  that  it  was  a  process  of  development  which  made  Helios  a  subordinate 
deity.  We  must  not  attempt  to  decide  whence  his  worship  was  brought  to 
Greece,  whether  from  Egypt,  the  East,  or  the  Hyperboreans ;  in  fact,  if 
sun-worship  is  a  natural  product,  there  is  no  necessity  to  regard  it  any- 
where as  imported.  The  settled  tradition  was,  that  he  was  born  of  Leto  in 
the  island  of  Delos,  though  several  other  places  claimed  his  birth.  Not  long 
after  his  birth  he  suddenly  appeared  as  a  full-grown  youth  of  divine  strength 
and  beauty,  demanded  a  lyre  and  a  bow,  and  announced  that  he  would 
thenceforth  make  known  to  mortals  the  will  of  Zeus ;  whereupon  he  at 
once  ascended  to  Olympus. 

Apollo  is  described  as  the  punisher  and  destroyer  of  the  wicked  and 
insolent,  as  the  god  of  medicine  and  warder-off  of*  plagues  and  epidemics 
(father  of  Asclepios,  the  god  of  the  healing  art),  as  the  god  of  prophecy, 
song,  and  music,  as  the  protector  of  flocks  and  herds,  and  the  founder  of 
cities  and  leader  of  colonists,  no  colony  being  founded  without  consulting 
his  oracle.  Many  of  these  characteristics  are  explicable  in  reference  either 
to  the  sun  as  the  great  light  of  the  earth,  or  to  the  heavenly  illumination 
given  to  the  spirit  of  man.  "We  can  see  how,  like  the  fierce  sun  of  summer, 
he  could  be  a  bringer  of  pestilence  and  death,  or  like  the  genial  orb, 
he  could  give  pasture  to  preserve  the  flocks.  The  rising  sun  awaking 
nature  to  life  and  rousing  the  birds  to  sing,  gave  foundation  to  Apollo's 
being  the  god  of  music,  and  hence  of  poetry.  Prophecy  was  his,  for  nothing 
escaped  his  all-seeing  eye.  Not  long  after  his  ascent  to  Olympus,  he  again 
came  back  to  earth  and  travelled  through  many  countries,  seeking  a  place 
in  which  to  establish  his  oracle.      It  was  fixed  at  Delphi,  after  he  had 

oyed  the  dragon  Python  (whence  the  epithet  Pythian  Apollo) ;  but  this 


THE  ANCIENT  GREEK  RELIGION:    THE   GODS.  379 

was  not  his  only  oracle,  though  by  far  the  most  famous  one.  It  actually 
became  the  national  Greek  oracle,  which  was  even  consulted  by  foreigners, 
Eomans,  Lydians,  and  others ;  and  no  Greek  would  undertake  an  important 
enterprise  without  consulting  the  oracle,  whose  priestess,  as  interpreted  by 
the  priests,  gave  utterances  of  world-famed  dubiousness.  No  doubt  the 
highest  aspect  of  Apollo  was  that  in  which  he  appears  as  the  pardoner  of 
sin  after  repentance  and  the  protector  of  those  who  expiated  their  crimes  by 
long  years  of  suffering.  No  evil  deed  escaped  him,  and  hence  expiatory 
offerings  were  often  made  to  him. 

The  extraordinary  abundance  and  often  beautifully  idyllic  character  of 
myths  and  stories  about  Apollo  show  how  his  nature  had  become  part  of  the 
Greek  mind  and  spirit.  In  sculpture  and  in  the  poets  he  is  represented  as 
gifted  with  eternal  youth,  joyous,  and  perfectly  beautiful.  His  deep  blue 
eyes,  somewhat  low  but  broad  forehead,  golden  or  bright  chestnut  hair 
falling  in  wavy  locks,  well  suited  this  ideal.  Laurel-crowned,  wearing  a 
purple  robe,  and  carrying  a  silver  bow,  he  looks  the  perfection  of  manly 
beauty.  The  celebrated  Apollo  in  the  Belvedere  of  the  Vatican  is 
a  naked  statue  seven  feet  high  copied  from  one  at  Delphi.  Among  the 
appropriate  surroundings  or  implements  of  Apollo  are  the  bow  and  quiver, 
the  lyre  and  plectrum,  the  raven,  the  shepherd's  crook,  the  tripod,  and  the 
laurel.     Wolves  and  hawks  were  sacrificed  to  him. 

The  Delphian  temple  was  one  of  the  most  famous  and  magnificent  of 
all  Greek  temples ;  its  foundation  dated  before  historic  record,  and  it  was 
for  centuries  the  recipient  of  vast  offerings  from  kings,  States, 
and  private  persons  who  sought  its  counsel.  The  Pythian  games 
were  held  at  Delphi  every  fourth  year,  in  honour  of  his  victory  over  the 
Python ;  and  two  annual  festivals  celebrated  the  god's  supposed  departure 
at  the  beginning  of  winter  to  the  Hyperborean  region,  and  his  return  at  the 
beginning  of  summer.  Athens,  Sparta,  Delos,  Thebes,  etc.,  all  had  their 
distinctive  festivals  for  Apollo. 

In  many  ways  the  idea  of  Apollo  represents  an  elevated  aspect  of 
Greek  religion,  having  so  much  distinct  moral  teaching ;  for  Apollo  could 
only  be  rightly  approached  by  those  of  pure  heart  who  had  duly  examined 
themselves,  and  who  practised  self-control,  though  without  any  austerity. 
It  is  held  that  the  Delphian  oracle  maintained  a  really  high  standard  of 
moral  and  political  conduct  for  several  hundred  years.  Apollo  is  certainly 
one  of  the  highest  ideals  of  the  Greek  mind. 

Artemis  is  the  twin  and  correlative  of  Apollo,  the  goddess  of  night  and 
of  the  moon,  of  hunting  and  of  chastity.  In  several  of  her  functions  she 
resembles  Apollo,  as  in  her  relieving  the  sufferings  of  mortals,  and  ^g^ 
her  power  of  sending  plagues  and  destruction.  She  devotes  her- 
self passionately  to  the  chase,  and  always  carries  a  bow  and  quiver  and  is 
attended  by  huntress-nymphs.  Under  this  form  she  is  especially  termed 
the  Arcadian  Artemis,  her  temples  being  more  numerous  in  Arcadia  than  in 
other  parts  of  Greece.  She  especially  protected  the  young,  both  children  and 
animals.     All  her  priests  and  priestesses  were  required  to  live  chaste  lives. 


38o  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 


Artemis  is  represented  as  a  head  taller  than  her  nymphs,  slender  and 
youthful,  beautiful  in  feature  but  not  gentle  in  expression,  her  figure  grace- 
ful but  somewhat  masculine.  Her  hair  is  loosely  knotted  at  the  back  of 
her  head,  and  her  short  robe,  not  reaching  to  the  knees,  gives  her  abundant 
freedom  for  hunting.  Of  the  many  existing  statues  of  Artemis,  the  most 
famous  is  in  the  Louvre,  in  which  she  is  depicted  rescuing  a  hunted  deer 
from  its  pursuers.  The  bow,  quiver,  and  spear  belong  to  her  equipment ; 
and  the  hind,  dog,  and  wild  boar  are  specially  sacred  to  her.  In  Thrace 
dogs  were  sacrificed  to  Artemis. 

Another  form  of  Artemis  was  named  the  Tauric  or  Brauronian,  from 
the  statue  of  her  at  Brauron  in  Attica,  said  to  have  been  brought  by  Orestes 
from  Taurica  (the  Crimea),  where  human  sacrifices,  especially  of  strangers, 
were  offered  to  her.  This  is  probably  connected  with  bear-worship.  The 
little  Athenian  girls  imitated  bears  in  her  honour.  These  sacrifices,  what- 
ever their  origin,  were  kept  up  both  in  Attica  and  Sparta  till  the  days  of 
Lycurgus.  Afterwards  at  Sparta  boys  were  cruelly  scourged  at  her  altar. 
Stags  and  goats  were  sacrificed  to  her. 

The  Ephesian  Artemis  was  very  distinct,  being  in  fact  identical  with 
the  old  Chaldasan  divinity  Mitra  (or  Anaitis),  the  goddess  at  once  of  love  and 
of  the  light  of  heaven.  It  was  owing  to  this  latter  character  that  the  Asiatic 
Greeks  adapted  this  deity  to  the  name  of  Artemis ;  but  she  retained  her 
other  character,  also  exercising  sway  in  the  land  of  Hades  and  permitting 
departed  spirits  to  visit  this  world  sometimes  for  counsel  or  for  warning. 
Contrary  to  any  Greek  custom,  her  priests  were  eunuchs,  and  she  was 
represented  with  many  breasts.  Her  magnificent  temple  at  Ephesus,  often 
termed  that  of  Diana  (see  Acts  xix.),  was  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world,  being  425  feet  long  by  220  wide,  having  127  columns,  each  60  feet 
high,  a  great  ebony  statue  of  the  goddess  with  a  crown  of  turrets  on  the 
head,  the  body  pillar-like  and  sculptured  with  rows  of  animals,  and  count- 
less other  rich  treasures,  statues,  and  paintings.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire 
in  356  B.C.  by  Herostratus ;  but  afterwards  rebuilt,  burnt  by  the  Goths  in 
262  a.d.,  and  utterly  destroyed  by  the  end  of  the  fourth  century. 

The  moon-goddess  Selene  became  identified  with  Artemis.  Hecate 
was  a  moon-goddess  of  the  Thracians,  at  one  time  identified  with  Selene, 
at  another  with  Persephone  (see  later). 

There  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  worship  of  Aphrodite  was  origin- 
ally derived  from  that  of  the  Phoenician  Astarte.  But  she  became  thoroughly 
Aphrodite  Hellenised,  and  in  Homer  takes  a  natural  place  as  daughter  of 
Zeus  and  Dione,  a  sea-nymph  ;  while  we  have  already  referred  to 
Hesiod's  account  of  her  origin  from  Ouranos,  her  rising  from  the  sea-foam, 
and  her  landing  at  Cyprus.  In  the  popular  creed  of  the  Greeks,  Aphrodite 
represented  love,  excited  it  in  human  beings,  and  by  her  special  power  ruled 
all  creatures.  In  the  Greek  mind  love  and  beauty  were  associated;  and  thus 
Aphrodite  is  perfectly  beautiful  and  the  goddess  of  beauty,  which  she  could 
grant  to  her  votaries.  She  was  married  to  Hephaistos  (Vulcan),  but  was 
unfaithful  with  Ares  (Mars)  and  others;  these  traditions  representing  the 


THE  ANCIENT  GREEK  RELIGION:    THE    GODS. 


38i 


gradual  decay  of  Greek  morals,  which  at  last  made  Aphrodite  the  patroness 
of  courtesans.  Her  magic  girdle  was  held  capable  of  inspiring  love  for  any 
one  who  wore  it.  Her  principal  festivals  were  held  in  spring,  among  flowers 
and  sweet  scents  ;  some  of  them  were  undoubtedly  of  a  licentious  character. 
Eros  (Cupid)  is  generally  represented  as  her  son  and  chief  companion. 

Aphrodite  is  variously  represented  in  ancient  art  as  clothed,  half 
clothed,  or  nude,  as  bathing,  or  as  armed  (the  latter  at  Cythera,  Corinth, 
and  Sparta).  In  every  respect  she  is  depicted  as  possessing  the  most  perfect 
beauty  of  form  and  expres- 
sion. The  finest  existing 
statues  of  her  are  those  of 
Melos  (Milo)  in  the  Louvre, 
of  Capua  at  Naples,  and  of 
the  Medici  at  Florence.  The 
principal  sacrifices  made  to 
Aphrodite  were  incense  and 
garlands  of  flowers ;  but 
sometimes  various  animals 
were  offered.  The  dove, 
swan,  swallow,  and  spar- 
row were  sacred  to  her. 

Demeter  is  another 
great  goddess,  intimately 
associated  with 
the  natural  opera- 
tions of  agriculture,  sowing 
and  reaping.  In  this  waj' 
she  was  associated  with 
subterranean  working ;  and 
many  stories  about  her  re- 
late to  the  periodic  death 
and  quietude  of  nature  and 
the  recurring  spring-time 
and  harvest.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Kronos  and 
Rhea,  and  became  one  of 
the  wives  of  Zeus,  to  whom 
she    bore   Persephone    and 

Dionysos.  The  great  myth  about  Demeter  and  Persephone  relates  to  the 
carrying  off  of  the  latter  to  the  subterranean  regions  by  Pluto,  to  whom 
Zeus  had  promised  her.  Demeter  travelled  far  to  seek  her,  but  on  finding  out 
the  truth  abandoned  Olympus  and  came  to  dwell  among  men,  blessing  those 
who  received  her  kindly,  and  punishing  those  who  repelled  her.  At  last, 
however,  unable  to  recover  her  daughter,  she  produced  a  famine  on  earth. 
Zeus,  failing  otherwise  to  reclaim  her  to  Olympus,  or  restore  fertility  to  the 
earth,  sent  Hermes  to  fetch  back  Persephone,  and  arranged  that  she  should 


Dematsr. 


3g2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


spend  only  a  part  of  the  year  (namely  the  winter)  in  the  subterranean 
regions.  Thus  Demeter  was  conciliated.  "We  may  see  in  this  story  a 
representation  of  the  concealment  or  dormancy  of  the  reproductive  powers 
of  tin1  earth  during  the  winter  season.  Some  of  the  later  Greek  philo- 
sophers interpreted  the  disappearance  and  return  of  Persephone  as  referring 
to  the  burial  and  resurrection  of  man.  She  was  looked  upon  not  only 
as  a  goddess  of  agricultural  fertility,  but  also  of  marriage,  and  as  a  law- 
giver  and  friend  of  peace.  She  was  worshipped  in  Crete,  Delos,  Attica, 
and  especially  in  Sicily.  The  worship  was  carried  out  by  secret  rites  at 
the  Eleusinian  mysteries  every  five  years,  of  which  nothing  certain  is 
known,  except  that  they  were  conducted  by  torchlight  and  with  great 
solemnity. 

Demeter  is  depicted  as  of  noble  stature  and  bearing  and  matronly 
appearance  ;  her  hair  was  golden-yellow  falling  in  curling  locks.  Sometimes 
she  is  represented  sitting  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  winged  horses  ;  sometimes 
she  is  standing,  with  a  sheaf  or  a  bunch  of  poppies  in  one  hand  and  a  lighted 
torch  in  the  other.  She  is  always  fully  clad,  and  wears  a  garland  of  ears 
of  corn  or  a  simple  riband  round  her  hair.  The  appropriate  offerings  to 
her  were  figs,  pine,  fruits,  etc.  Her  temples,  known  as  Megara,  were  often 
in  groves  near  towns. 

Hephaistos  (Vulcan),  son  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  was  the  god  of  fire,  as  a 

natural  phenomenon  and  as  useful  in  the  arts.     He  was  fabled  to  possess  a 

workshop  with  an  anvil  and  twenty  pairs  of  bellows  in  Olympus ; 
Hephaistos. 

there  he  made  arms,  utensils,  etc.,  of  marvellous  workmanship ; 

yet  in  the  court  of  the  gods  he  was  the  object  of  laughter,  being  lame, 
deformed,  and  slow.  Various  volcanic  islands  were  also  termed  his  work- 
shops. He  gave  skill  to  human  artists,  and  taught  them  to  make  their  tools 
and  other  products.  He  was  also  reputed,  like  Athene,  to  have  great  healing 
powers.  He  was  depicted  as  a  man  of  powerful  muscular  frame,  bearded, 
and  wearing  a  small  cap,  his  right  arm  raised  to  strike  the  anvil  with  a 
hammer,  while  with  the  left  he  is  turning  a  thunderbolt  which  he  is  forging 
for  Jove.  In  several  temples  he  was  jointly  worshipped  with  Athene.  He 
was  specially  worshipped  at  Lemnos. 

Hestia  (Vesta)  was  a  goddess  of  fire,  being  a  daughter  of  Kronos  and 
Rhea,  and  especially  the  patroness  of  the  domestic  hearth  and  home  life. 
Her  worship  became  distinct  from  that  of  Zeus  rather  late  ;  she 
is  not  mentioned  in  Homer.  As  represented  at  the  house  and 
temple  altar  fire,  she  shares  in  the  sacrifices  of  all  the  gods.  To  her  the 
first  and  last  libations  of  the  sacrificial  meal  were  poured  out.  Her  fire 
was  always  kept  burning,  or  if  extinguished  it  was  again  kindled  by  friction 
or  from  the  sun's  rays.  As  the  goddess  of  the  hearth,  she  also  became  the 
goddess  of  house-building ;  she  was  worshipped,  not  in  special  temples,  but 
in  the  prytaneum  or  city  hall,  the  city  hearth,  so  to  speak ;  there  the  city 
entertained  its  benefactors,  and  thence  colonists  took  a  portion  of  the  fire  to 
their  new  abode. 

Ares,  the  god  of  war,  son  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  is  represented  as  rejoicing 


THE  ANCIENT  GREEK  RELIGION:    THE   GODS.  383 


in  the  actual  business  of  war,  its  tumult  and  carnage,  wild  and  destructive 
and  bloodthirsty.  His  worship  nourished  in  Thrace,  and  is  re- 
puted  to  have  reached  Greece  from  the  north.  He  does  not  fight 
always  on  the  same  side,  nor  is  he  uniformly  victorious.  He  is  represented 
as  youthful,  athletic,  and  muscular,  carrying  a  great  sword,  with  a  shield. 
He  had  comparatively  few  temples  ;  but  it  is  related  that  human  sacrifices 
were  offered  to  him  at  Sparta. 

Hermes  (Mercury),  the  messenger  and  herald  of  the  gods,  was  the  son 
of  Zeus  and  Maia,  one  of  the  Pleiades  ;  but  there  are  traces  of  his  being 
modified  from  an  early  Pelasgian  nature  divinity,  the  god  of 
festivity  and  bestower  of  flocks  and  herds.  As  messenger  of  the 
gods,  he  is  the  ideal  skilful  and  eloquent  speaker ;  and  hence  the  tongues 
of  sacrificed  animals  were  offered  to  him.  He  was  prudent  and  cunning, 
sagacious  and  shrewd,  the  promoter  of  social  intercourse,  and  the  reputed 
inventor  of  the  alphabet,  numbers,  astronomy,  weights  and  measures,  etc. 
He  was  charioteer  and  cupbearer  to  Zeus,  the  imparter  of  dreams  to  men, 
the  giver  of  sleep,  the  conductor  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead  to  the  lower 
world,  the  maker  of  treaties,  the  helper  of  commerce,  the  god  of  words, 
and  protector  of  travellers.  He  watched  over  the  rearing  of  children,  and 
encouraged  gj^mnastic  exercises  ;  as  the  giver  of  gain,  he  was  regarded  as 
the  author  of  any  stroke  of  good  luck,  and  as  presiding  over  the  dice-box. 
He  was  said  to  have  performed  many  acts  of  mischief  and  dexterity,  and 
even  to  be  the  god  of  thieves. 

Hermes  is  represented  in  art  as  young  and  handsome,  without  beard, 
often  in  the  attitude  of  running.  He  may  wear  a  travelling  hat  with  little 
wings,  a  herald's  staff  (caduceus)  with  entwined  serpents,  and  wings  at  the 
top,  and  golden  sandals.  He  was  worshipped  anciently  in  Arcadia,  whence 
his  worship  spread  to  Athens  and  throughout  Greece.  Little  images  of  him, 
known  as  Hermae  (being  busts  upon  pillars  of  stone),  were  set  up  at  cross 
roads  and  in  streets  and  apparently  before  the  door  of  each  house.  Lambs 
and  kids  were  among  his  special  offerings,  with  incense,  honey,  and  cakes. 
The  palm-tree  and  the  tortoise  were  sacred  to  him. 

Dionysos,  the  god  of  wine,  son  of  Zeus  and  Semele  (called  Bacchus  in 
late  Greek  and  Roman  times),  was  related  to  have,  accidentally  discovered 
the  making  of  wine  from  the  juice  of  the  grape.  The  exhilara-  Dionysos, 
tion  produced  by  drinking  it  caused  both  Dionysos  and  his  com-  or  Bacchus, 
panions  to  burst  into  song,  joyful  exclamations,  and  dancing.  The  god 
extended  the  gift  to  all  mankind,  that  they  might  have  more  enjoyment, 
and  forget  care  and  sorrow.  Consequently  he  journeyed  through  the  world, 
planting  the  vine  and  instructing  people  how  to  make  wine.  Lycurgus, 
king  of  Thrace,  disapproved  of  his  wild  revels,  and  banished  him  from  his 
kingdom.  Midas,  king  of  Plnygia,  was  one  of  his  most  noted  worshippers. 
The  stories  about  Dionysos  are  extremely  numerous,  and  many  give  accounts 
of  the  riotous  exploits  of  his  followers.  But  other  accounts  of  him  elevate 
his  character.  From  being  associated  with  the  vine,  he  becomes  the  pro- 
tector of  trees  in  general ;  the  wine-giver  is  an  inspired  being  and  a  source 


3«4 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


of  inspiration,  and  reveals  the  future  by  oracles;  at  the  same  time  he  heals 
diseases  by  revealing  remedies  in  dreams.     Thus  he  is  accounted  a  pro- 


moter of  peace  and  the  well-being  of  States.     His  worship  probably  had  a 
Phoenician  origin.     Later  he  was  regarded  as  the  patron  of  the  drama. 


THE  ANCIENT  GREEK  RELIGION:    THE   GODS.  3*5 

Bacchus  is  represented  in  early  times  as  a  grave  manly  figure,  bearded 
and  robed  like  an  oriental  monarch  ;  but  later  he  appears  as  a  beautiful  but 
effeminate  youth,  his  long  curling  hair  adorned  with  vine  or  ivy  leaves,  his 
expression  pleased  and  gentle.  He  carries  in  one  hand  a  drinking-cup  with 
two  handles,  in  the  other  a  thyrsus,  or  pole  terminated  with  vine-leaves,  a 
fir-cone,  or  other  ornament.  Human  sacrifices  are  said  to  have  been  offered 
to  him  in  early  times  ;  later,  rams  and  goats  were  offered.  Tigers,  panthers, 
and  dolphins  were  among  his  sacred  animals.  His  attendant  women  are 
usually  known  as  Bacchantes,  and  they  are  generally  represented  in  violent 
enthusiasm  or  madness,  with  dishevelled  hair. 

Poseidon  (Neptune),  son  of  Kronos  and  Ehea,  was  the  god  of  the  sea, 
especially  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  took  the  place  of  the  older  Oceanus. 
His  most  distinctive  attribute  was  that  of  causing  and  quieting  poseidon 
storms  ;  and  hence  mariners  poured  out  a  libation  to  him  before 
beginning  a  voyage,  and  made  offerings  on  their  safe  return.  He  is  re- 
presented as  riding  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  sea-horses,  at  whose  approach  the 
waves  became  smooth.  Hence  he  is  greatly  famed  as  the  creator  and  tamer 
of  horses,  and  the  originator  of  horse  races.  He  was  the  patron  of  fisher- 
men, and  had  the  power  of  sending  great  inundations  and  horrible  sea- 
monsters  on  States  which  displeased  him. 

Poseidon  is  depicted  in  varying  forms,  a  good  deal  resembling  Zeus, 
without  benignity,  the  hair  usually  disorderly,  the  figure  massive,  the  eyes 
bright.  His  special  symbol  was  the  trident,  a  three-pointed  fork  with 
which  he  could  stir  up  or  allay  storms  and  shake  the  earth.  As  signifying 
the  contest  between  sea  and  land,  he  is  fabled  to  have  disputed  the  posses- 
sion of  several  countries  with  other  gods.  He  was  accompanied  by  a  crowd 
of  minor  divinities  and  attendants,  including  his  wife  Amphitrite,  the 
Tritons,  Nereids,  dolphins,  etc.  He  was  specially  worshipped  in  Pelo- 
ponnesus and  the  coast  towns  of  Greece.  Black  and  white  bulls  were  his 
appropriate  sacrifices.  We  can  only  briefly  refer  to  his  wonderful  palace 
beneath  the  waters,  of  which  marvellous  descriptions  were  given. 

Hades,  or  Pluto,  son  of  Kronos  and  Ehea,  and  monarch  of  the  land  of 
shades,  is  connected  with  a  very  important  part  of  our  study,  the  question 
of  the  future  life  :  we  shall  therefore  postpone  details  about  his  Hades,  or 
kingdom,  merely  noting  that  it  was  inhabited  not  only  by  the  Plut0- 
shades  or  spirits  of  deceased  mortals,  but  also  by  dethroned  deities.  The 
name  of  this  god  was  habitually  left  unmentioned  ;  and  those  who  invoked 
him  struck  the  earth  with  their  hands,  and  averted  their  faces  when  they 
sacrificed.  According  to  Homer,  he  was  the  most  detested  of  all  the  gods. 
He  is  depicted  as  very  much  like  Zeus  in  feature,  but  stern  and  gloomy- 
looking,  his  hair  and  beard  being  black.  His  wife  Persephone  is  seated 
beside  him,  and  he  holds  a  staff  with  which  he  drives  the  shades  into  the 
lower  world.  He  was  worshipped,  though  with  fear,  throughout  Greece  ; 
and  his  sacrifices,  consisting  of  black  sheep,  whose  blood  was  allowed  to  run 
into  a  trench,  were  offered  at  night.  Even  his  priests  wore  black  robes. 
At  a  comparatively  late   period  Pluto,  as   god   of  the   lower   world,  was 

c  c 


386 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


regarded  as  giver  of  all  things  dug  out  of  the  earth,    and  hence    of  the 

precious  metals  ;  so  he  became  confounded  with  Plutus  (wealth),  originally 

quite  a  distinct  divinity. 

"We  have  not  space  to  describe  a  crowd  of  minor  divinities,  many  of 

them  important  in  the  Greek  way  of  looking  at  things,  and  connected  with 

Minor      distinctive  circumstances   or   events   pertaining  to   human   life. 

divinities,   s^h  are  the  Fates,  the  Furies,  the  Gorgons,  the  Nereids,  the 

Sirens,  Nemesis,  Thanatos  (Death),  Hebe,  the  Muses,  the  Graces,  etc. 

In  the  Greek  religion,  the  gods  are  very  generally  represented  with 

human  characteristics,  though 
characters  usually  heightened 
of  gods.  anc[  ennobled;  they 
required  food  and  sleep,  and 
married  and  had  children.  In 
passions  they  were  like  men, 
and  frequently  committed  the 
same  evil  deeds  as  men.  They 
are  represented  as  punishing 
evil-doers,  although  in  most 
cases  the  heaviest  punishment  is 
for  neglecting  to  worship  them. 
Their  visits  to  and  friendships 
for  human  beings  are  frequent ; 
and  the  children  of  gods  and 
mortals  were  heroes  or  demi- 
gods. If  we  invert  this  process, 
it  will  be  seen  that  many  gods 
have  been  imagined  as  a  mode 
of  accounting  for  the  courage 
or  prowess  of  real  heroes.  Of 
course,  in  addition  to  mortal 
powers,  the  Greek  gods  were 
gifted  with  all  kinds  of  super- 
natural faculties,  and  many  of 
these  represent  natural  phe- 
nomena. In  fact,  while  ac- 
knowledging that  many  attri- 
and  achievements  of  deities  are  derived  from  those  of  heroes,  and 


HEAD  OF  THE  BELVEDERE  APOLLO. 


butes 

that  some  gods  are  deified  heroes,  we  must  admit  that  a  great  number  of 
individual  gods  and  of  their  attributes  represent  departments  of  nature  and 
nature's  workings,  as  idealised  by  the  most  imaginative  and  highly  cultured' 
people  that  ever  lived. 

Sir  G.  W.  Cox,  "Mythology  of  the  Aryan  Nations";  Grote,  Curtius,  and  Duncker's  Histories 
ol  Greece;  Berens,  "Myths  and  Legends  of  Greece  and  Rome " ;  A.  Lang,  "Myth,  Eitual,  and 
Religion."] 


TEMPLE   OF   POSEIDON   AT   P^STUM. 


CHAPTER    II. 
(grerfe  Sacrifices,  priests,  Cemples  anti  jfesttbals,  antr  ittorals. 

Sacrifice— Votive  offerings— Kinds  of  sacrifices— Description— Slight  consciousness  of  sin— The 
priests— State  aspect  of  religion— Duties  of  priests— Their  position— Private  temples— A  Greek 
festival— Wealth  of  temples— Early  temples— The  Greek  styles— Sculpture— Altars— Oracles— 
The  Delphian  Oracle— Various  beliefs— The  great  festivals— Religious  origin  and  purpose- 
Rise  of  the  drama— Marriage— Death  and  the  future  life— Funeral  rites— Moral  state  of  the 
Greeks. 

IN  presenting  a  picture  of  Greek  religion,  we  are  in  the  presence  of  diffi- 
culties of  a  kind  more  liable  to  mislead  than  in  the  case  of  any  other 
people.  Worship  and  ideas  about  the  gods  not  only  changed  considerably 
from  one  age  to  another,  but  they  varied  largely  from  place  to  place,  from 
State  to  State  at  the  same  time,  no  doubt  in  dependence  upon  the  original 
ideas  about  local  deities,  but  also  in  accordance  with  the  great  fertility  of 
the  Greek  mind.  Thus  it  would  be  impossible,  without  more  space  than  we 
can  give,  to  present  a  clear  idea  of  the  religious  observances  of  any  one 
State  or  city.  T  herefore  what  we  say  must  be  understood  to  be  generalised 
to  a  considerable  extent,  and  perhaps  inapplicable  to  special  localities. 

Inasmuch  as  sacrifice  is  the  essential  element  of  religious  acts  in  such 
a  religion  as  the  Greek,  we  will  begin  the  account  of  the  practical  side  of 
it  with  this  subject.  The  Greek,  as  far  back  as  we  know  any- 
thing about  him,  offered  gifts  to  his  gods,  in  gratitude  for  their 
protection,  to  obtain  their  favour,  either  generally  or  in  some  particular 
instance,  or  to  expiate  some  offence  or  appease  the  anger  of  the  gods.  The 
gratitude  of  individuals  and  of  States  led  to  the  building  of  temples,  the 


Sacrifice. 


:87 


3SS 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


donation  of  statues,  the  offering  of  garlands,  locks  of  hair,  costly  garments, 
vases,  cnps,  candelabras,  pictures,  arms,  etc.  After  successful  wars  a  tenth 
votive  Pai't  °f  the  sP°il  was  0^en  dedicated  to  the  gods.  On  recovery 
offerings.  fY0m  illness  votive  tablets  and  presents  were  given  to  temples  of 
A.sclepios.  Persons  who  had  escaped  from  shipwreck  dedicated  to  Poseidon 
the  dress  which  they  had  worn  when  in  danger  ;  and  many  other  presents 
of  gratitude  for  escape  or  for  prosperity  are  recorded  in  Greek  authors,  show- 
ing that  the  Greek  religion  was  real,  and  founded  not  merel}"  on  fear,  but 
also  on  a  sense  of   humble   dependence  on  Divine  protection  and  on  the 

acknowledgment  of  gratitude 
for  benefits  received.  Fre- 
quently the  finest  of  flocks 
and  herds  or  the  firstfruits 
of  agricultural  produce  were 
thus  offered. 

No  doubt  the  early  Greek 
gods,  like  dead  human   be- 

Kindsof    ings,      were     con- 
sacrifices,    ceived  as  needing 

food,  or  capable  of  deriving 
pleasure  from  it ;  and  early 
sacrifices  consisted  largely  of 
grains,  either  cooked  or  un- 
cooked, and  fruits ;  though 
with  the  increase  of  flocks 
these  gained  a  predominant 
place  among  the  offerings. 
The  gods  of  the  seas,  rivers, 
etc.,  were  fed  by  offerings 
thrown  into  the  water,  and 
the  offerings  to  gods  of  the 
subterranean  regions  were 
buried.  Ordinarily,  when 
the  deity  is  looked  upon  as 
benign,  the  meal  offered  is 
one  which  the  god  and  his 
worshippers  can  share  at  the 


HEAD    OF    ZEUS    (FROM    OTEICOLI 


same  time  ;  and  often  ordinary  meals  were  sanctified  by  invoking  the  gods 
to  be  present.  Even  in  St.  Paul's  day  most  of  the  meat  sold  for  ordinary 
food  had  been  dedicated  to  the  gods,  small  parts  having  been  specially 
assigned  to  the  god.  It  was  an  appropriate  accompaniment  of  sacrifice 
to  drink  wine,  part  of  which  was  poured  on  the  altar  or  on  the  ground 
for  the  gods  (compare  the  Soma  and  Haoma  offerings  of  the  Hindus  and 
Parsis),  to  listen  to  music,  or  to  dance.  The  entire  sacrifice,  by  burning, 
of  the  animal  offered  was  rare,  though  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  how 
extensively  it  once  prevailed.     "We   cannot   here    discuss   the   relation   of 


GREEK  SACRIFICES,   PRIESTS,    TEMPLES,    ETC. 


;89 


special  animal  sacrifices  to  the  totem  system  and  totem  worship  by  clans  ; 
but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  many  special  features  of  the  early  Greek 
sacrifices  are  due  to  it.  The  Greek  religion,  as  accepted  nationally,  repre- 
sents the  combination  of  the  beliefs  of  many  diverse  tribes,  maritime, 
mountainous,  pastoral,  agricultural ;  and  the  discordant  or  strange  features 
sometimes  seen  in  the  characters  and  sacrifices  appropriate  to  the  several 
gods  are  attributable  to  this  combination. 

In  Homer  we  find  that  the  legs  were  burnt,  enclosed  in  fat,  together 
with   part  of    the  intestines, 

and  the  worshippers  Description 
consumed  the  rest. of  sacrifices. 
The  smoke  from  the  burning 
victims  was  believed  to  be 
peculiarly  pleasing  to  the 
gods,  and  the  greater  the 
number  of  animals  sacrificed 
the  more  meritorious  was  it. 
Hence  States  and  wealthy 
individuals  would  frequently 
sacrifice  "  hecatombs  "  (not 
necessarily  meaning  a  hun- 
dred victims) ;  and  such  sacri- 
fices were  much  in  vogue  at 
Athens.  The  head  of  a  victim 
was  usually  sprinkled  with 
roasted  barley-meal  mingled 
with  salt,  and  adorned  with 
garlands ;  a  portion  of  hair 
from  its  head  was  thrown  into 
the  fire  before  it  was  killed. 
The  head  of  the  animal  was 
drawn  upwards  when  the 
offering  was  to  one  of  the 
Olympian  gods,  and  down- 
wards if  to  the  gods  of  the 
lower  regions,  or  to  deceased 
heroes.  While  the  flesh  was 
burning,  wine  and  incense  were  cast  upon  it.  At  the  time  of  sacrificing, 
opportunity  was  taken  to  judge  whether  the  god  was  propitious,  for,  if  not, 
he  would  certainly  give  signs  recognisable  by  the  priests  ;  these  being  de- 
rived from  the  movements  of  the  still  warm  intestines,  the  phenomena 
of  the  altar  fire,  etc.  The  singing  or  chanting  of  hymns  in  praise  of 
the  gods  or  recounting  their  actions  was  a  frequent  accompaniment  of  the 
sacrifices  ;  but  few  of  those  have  come  down  to  us.  In  general,  the  longer 
hymns  are  narratives  of  the  principal  stories  current  relating  to  the  gods. 
Few  of  them  can  properly  be  compared  with  the  "  scriptures  "  we  have 


THE    EAHNESE    UEKA. 


39° 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


already  noticed.     We  may  quote,  however,  the  hymn  to  Athene,  as  trans- 
lated by  Chapman. 


;t  Pallas  Athene  only  I  begin 
To  give  my  song,  that  makes  war's  terrible 

din ; 
Is  Patroness  of  cities,  and  with  Mars 
Marshalled  in  all  the  care  and  cure  of  wars  ; 
And  in  everted  cities  fights  and  cries, 


But  never  doth  herself  set  down  or  rise 
Before  a  city,  but  at  both  times  she 
All  injured  people  sets  on  foot  and  free. 

Give,  with  thy  war's  force,  fortune  then 
to  me ; 

And  with  thy  wisdom's  force,  felicity." 


THE    BELVEDERE    APOLLO. 


The  remainder  of 

the  hymns  are  just  as 

_,.  . .      much  or  as 

Slight 
consciousnesslittle   "de- 

0  sm"  votional"  as 
this  specimen  ;  and 
taken  by  themselves 
they  would  indicate  a 
race  comparatively 
little  conscious  of  "  sin  " 
as  understood  in  mo- 
dern times.  To  have 
displeased  the  gods 
was  grievous,  but  the 
gods  were  not  supposed 
to  be  governed  by  any 
inexorable  standard  of 
right  and  wrong  ;  they 
could  be  appeased  and 
persuaded,  and  even 
grievous  faults  could 
be,  as  it  were,  paid  for 
or  expiated  by  a  pro- 
portionate animal  sac- 
rifice. The  "  The- 
ogony  "  and  the 
"  Works  and  Days  "  of 
Hesiod  are  two  of  the 
most  important  poems 
which  have  come  down 
to  us,  giving  accounts 


of  the  gods  and  their  doings,  portions  of  which  probably  were  chanted  in 
their  services. 

That  there  were  priests  in  ancient  Greece,  and  that  they  exercised 

important  functions  and  filled  important  positions  in  the  Greek  States,  is 

The  priests.  evi^ent  fr°m  a  very  slight  study  of  Greek  literature  ;  but  it  is 

difficult  to  realise  their  precise  status  without  a  knowledge  of  the 


GREEK  SACRIFICES,   PRIESTS,    TEMPLES,   ETC. 


391 


entire  social  and  political  condition  of  the  Greeks.  The  priests  did  not 
constitute  a  distinct  and  ordained  order ;  there  was  no  fixed  or  regular 
principle  about  the  priesthood.  Religion  was  above  all  an  affair  of  the 
communit}'',  whose  first  business  it  was  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  the  State 
towards  the  gods.  Such  duties  must  be  performed  for  all  by  certain  ap- 
pointed persons,  or  by  the  head  of 
the  State,  whether  king  or  general. 
In  early  Greece  we  find  that  the 
king  frequently  sacrificed  on  behalf 
of  the  people ;  and  when  kings 
ceased  to  reign,  the  priestly  func- 
tions were  given  to  elected  leaders 
or  magistrates,  such  as  the  archon 
basileus  at  Athens.  Where  this 
course  fell  into  abeyance,  we  find 
the  priest  as  the  elected  or  here- 
ditary minister  of  a  temple,  charged 
to  fulfil  all  the  due  rites  of  the 
worship  there  celebrated,  and  paid 
from  the  temple  revenues  or  by  the 
gifts  of  worshippers.  Subordinate 
bodies,  such  as  the  phratnce,  had 
common  religious  duties  which 
were  discharged  by  chosen  mem- 
bers. The  State  kept  watch  over 
any  infraction  of  duty  towards  the 
gods  by  private  persons,  and  each 
family  discharged  its  private  re- 
ligious duties  through  its  head. 
The  priesthood  of  certain  gods  be- 
came hereditary  in  particular  fami- 
lies on  account,  sometimes,  of  the 
supposed  hereditary  transmission  of 
prophetical  power,  or  of  the  know- 
ledge of  certain  traditional  rites. 
Some  priests  were  merely  appointed 
for  a  term  of  years  ;  in  some  cases 
the  succession  was  to  brothers,  and 
to  the  sons  of  the  eldest  brother ; 
sometimes  the  priesthood  was  pur- 
chased, or  was  granted  for  special  services. 

In  Greece  we  have  the  spectacle  of  a  people,    with  strong  religious 
feelings,  in  whom  the  public  or  State  aspect  of  religion  permanently  pre- 
dominated over  the  ecclesiastical.    The  priesthood  did  not  become  state  aspect 
the  ruling  power ;  art,  literature,  and  politics  used  religion  as  part  of  region. 
of  their  inheritance,  without  placing  their  consciences  in  commission  to  an 


APHRODITE    (MELOS). 
(Commonly  termed  the  Venus  of  Milo.) 


392 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


order  of  priests.  Although  the  priests  claimed  and  gained  the  benefit  of 
protection  from  the  gods  they  served,  they  were  by  no  means  exempt  from 
criticism,  and  they  were  not  in  general  allowed  to  control  the  funds  of  the 
temples.  The  tenure  of  the  priesthood  by  unworthy  persons  was  jealously 
guarded  against,  and  persons  of  high  birth  were  preferred. 

The  priest  of  a  temple  had  specially  to  superintend  the  ritual  of  his 
temple,  to  protect  it  from  improper  intruders,  and  to  see  that  the  sacrifices 

Duties  of  were  properly 
priests,  performed.  He 
was  also  charged  with  all, 
or  nearly  all,  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  will  of  the 
gods,  and,  especially  in  re- 
gard to  the  sacrifices,  he 
had  to  note  all  signs  in- 
dicating the  approval  or 
disapproval  of  the  gods. 
In  this  he  had  the  aid  of 
skilled  soothsayers,  who 
noted  the  manner  in  which 
the  victim  approached  the 
altar,  and  whether  he  made 
sounds  or  not ;  the  colour 
and  smoothness  of  the  in- 
testines, the  appearances  of 
the  flame  and  smoke  of  the 
altar,  etc.  It  was  specially 
important,  too,  that  no  ir- 
reverent or  frivolous  words 
should  be  uttered  by  the 
bystanders.  The  flight  of 
birds  and  the  phenomena 
of  the  heavens  were  also 
observed  for  the  purposes 
of  drawing  omens.  The 
diviners  who  interpreted 
dreams  and  told  fortunes, 
though  they  enjoyed  con- 

AKES    (MAJiS).  .  ,  1  i        n  •        rv 

siderable  favour  m  Greece, 
had  no  regular  connection  with  the  temples  or  the  priests.  Within  their 
temples  the  priests  had  great  authority,  being  able  to  excommunicate  those 
who  broke  their  regulations,  and  invoking  curses  on  them  before  which  the 
stoutest-hearted  Greek  quailed.  Such  offences  were  stigmatised  as  impiety, 
and  often  heavily  punished  by  fines  or  boycotting. 

Notwithstanding  the  limitations  we  have  mentioned,  a  Greek  priest 
bad  no  mean  position,  especially  in  virtue  of  his  office  as  interpreter  and 


GREEK  SACRIFICES,    PRIESTS,    TEMPLES,   ETC. 


393 


representative  of  the  god.  The  priests  could  solve  the  State's  difficulties 
when  disaster  or  pestilence  occurred,  and  in  the  case  of  the  position  of 
greater  oracles  which  were  consulted  by  all  Greece,  they  occupied  Priests- 
a  position  which  no  great  man  in  a  single  State  could  attain.  At  public 
festivals  they  occupied  special  seats  of  honour,  and  sometimes  appeared 
decked  with  the  costume  and  attributes  of  the  god  they  served.  Con- 
sequently the  position  was  sought  after  by 
the  wealthy,  who  in  their  turn  could  gratify 
the  people  by  splendid  ceremonies  and  costly 
festivals.  Naturally  such  persons  tended  to 
gather  about  them  assistants  to  perform  the 
more  laborious  or  irksome  portions  of  their 
duty,  such  as  revealers  of  the  mysteries  to 
the  uninitiated,  torch-bearers,  proclaimers  of 
rites,  bearers  of  sacred  water,  etc. ;  and  not 
a  few  slaves  were  attached  to  the  temples  to 
perform  menial  offices.  Each  temple  had  its 
appropriate  series  of  services,  according  to 
the  character  of  the  god  and  the  State. 

But  public,  national,  or  State  temples 
were  not  the  only  ones  in  which  the  services 
of  priests  were  required.  They  private 
were  not  infrequently  founded  by  temPtes. 
private  persons  or  societies,  and  endowed 
with  estates  to  keep  up  a  succession  of  priests 
and  services.  They  might  be  founded  in 
honour  of  success  in  an  enterprise,  in  honour 
of  a  deceased  friend  or  relative,  in  obedience 
to  dreams  or  oracles.  Xenophon,  for  in- 
stance, devoted  a  tenth  of  certain  spoil  of 
war  to  buy  an  estate  in  Lakonia,  on  which 
he  built  a  temple  to  the  Ephesian  Artemis, 
surrounded  by  a  forest  full  of  wild  animals, 
let  to  a  tenant  who  had  to  give  one-tenth 
of  the  produce  to  a  festival  in  honour  of 
Artemis,  and  also  to  keep  the  temple  in  re- 
pair. In  other  cases  rites  for  the  dead  were 
associated  with  a  temple,  and  periodical 
gatherings  of  a  family  were  enjoined,  which  hebka. 

remind  us  of  Chinese  ancestral  worship.  There  were  also  numerous 
religious  corporations  or  associations  devoted  to  the  worship  of  some 
particular  divinity,  holding  assemblies,  building  temples,  choosing  priests, 
making  regulations  enforced  by  fines.  Really  these  assemblies  formed 
limited  churches,  governed  by  the  church  assembly.  Many  of  these  were 
founded  in  large  cities  for  the  worship  of  gods  not  worshipped  by  that 
particular  city. 


394 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  most  complete  account  of  the  ritual  of  a  Greek  festival  is  given  in 
an  inscription  from  Andania  in  Messenia.     The  twin  gods  known  as  Kabiri 


OFFERING    SACRIFICE   TO   THE    GODS    (AFTER   FLAXMANj. 

were  there  celebrated,  together  with  Demeter,  Apollo,  Hermes,  and  a  local 
a  Greek  nymph,  by  a  body  of  priests  and  priestesses  chosen  by  lot  out  of 
festival.  ^\ie  tribes  of  the  city,  who  had  to  swear  to  conduct  the  ritual  in 
accordance  with  prescribed  form.  They  had  the  custody  of  the  sacred 
books  and  the  chest  in  which  they  were  kept.  Strict  regulations  are  laid 
down  as  to  the  dress  of  the  priests  and  priestesses,  limiting  the  cost,  pre- 
scribing the  absence  of  paint  and  of  gold  ornaments.  The  procession 
included  a  leader,  the  priest  of  the  deities,  the  president  of  the  games,  the 
sacrificers  and  flute-players  ;  then  sacred  virgins,  priestesses,  and  priests. 
The  victims  were  also  led  in  procession  ;  they  included  a  large  number  of 
lambs,  a  sow  for  Demeter,  a  two-year-old  pig  to  the  Kabiri,  a  ram  to  Hermes, 
etc.,  and  all  victims  were  to  be  without  blemish.  After  the  sacrifices,  the 
portions  not  given  to  the  gods  were  eaten  by  the  priests,  priestesses,  and 

virgins,  the  musicians  and  other  assistants. 
Complete  provision  was  made  for  a  market  to 
supply  the  crowds  gathered  to  the  festival,  and 
for  the  judgment  of  offenders  during  its  con- 
tinuance, as  well  as  for  public  warm  baths.  All 
brawlers  and  sacrilegious  persons  were  sternly 
denounced  ;  and  there  is  every  sign  that  in  the 
best  period  of  Greece  public  opinion  was  strongly 
against  any  unseemly  conduct  at  the  festivals. 

The  wealth  of  temples  became  very  great 

from  the  accumulated  offerings  of  devout  wor- 

weaithof   shippers    and    States.     As    a    temple 

temples.    grew  jn  fame7  it    attracted    wealthy 

foreigners  and  even  foreign  kings  to  its  worship. 

The  place  being  sacred,  money  was  often  deposited  there,  and  invested 

either  in  loans  or  in  property.     The  State  undertook  the  management  of 


GREEK  SACRIFICES,   PRIESTS,    TEMPLES,   ETC. 


395 


all  the  property  of  the  civic  temples,  issuing  commissions  from  time  to  time, 
or  regularly  appointing  officers  to  supervise  the  temple  accounts.  Apart 
from  property  which  could  be  dealt 
with,  the  temples  became  very  rich  in 

.  votive  offerings,  and  as  these  varied  ex- 
tremely with  the  taste  of  the  giver  or 
of  his  time,  the  temple  was  in  fact  a 
museum  of  art ;    and  wherever  it  has 

i  been  possible  to  explore  the  site  of  an 
ancient  temple,  it  has  yielded  many 
treasures  and  much  valuable  informa- 
tion, especially  in  the  form  of  dedicatory 
inscriptions. 

We  must  now  briefly  refer  to  the 
Greek   temples,    which   succeeded   the 
early  open-air  altars  on  hills      Early 
and     in    sacred    enclosures.    temPles- 

We  see  a  strange  likeness  to  the  fetish  enclosures  of  the  African  negro  in 
the  placing  of  the  images  of  gods  and  heroes  in  hollow  trees  as  a  habita- 
tion in  early  times.  Then,  as  architecture  developed,  the  sacred  image  was 
covered  and  protected  in  dark  buildings  only  lighted  from  the  door,  or  by 
lamps.  This  period  of  the  history  of  Greek  temples  is  almost  entirely 
prehistoric,  for  the  Greeks  in  early  times  had  so  far  progressed  as  to  build 
fine  temples  of  the  well-known  oblong  form,  almost  always  adorned  with 
a  row  or  rows  of  columns  in  various  styles  or  arrangements.  Certain  types, 
associated  with  or  invented  by  a  particular  state  or  tribe,  became  peculiar  to 

'l  certain  gods,  probably  from  having  been  early  used  for  their  temples.    Thus 
the  Doric  style  was  used  in  the  temples  of  Zeus  and  Ares  ;  the  The  Greek 
Ionic,  in  those  of  Apollo,  Artemis  and  Dionysos;  the  Corinthian,      styles. 
of  Hestia.     Most  of  the  chief  temples,  besides  the  porch  with  columns,  had 
a  vestibule,  a  large  cella  or  habitation  of  the  god 
or  gods,  in  which  the  statues  of  the  gods  were 
placed,  facing  the  entrance,  and  a  chamber  in  the 

:  rear,  often  used  as  a  treasury.     When  the  temple 

'  was  a  famous  oracle,  the  cella  was  kept  closed  to 
all  but  priests  and  the  initiated,  and  its  violation 
by  others  brought  the  severest  punishments.  The 
temples  afforded  the  Greeks  the  utmost  scope  for 
their  sculpture,  in  the  capitals,  friezes, 
pediments,  etc. ;  and  while  no  light  was 
admitted  into  the  cella  from  the  sides,  it  was 
frequently  partly  open  above.  The  entire  series 
of  legends  about  the  gods  was  represented  in 
sculpture,  and  the  highest  skill  and  costliest  ma-  asclepios  (jesculapius). 

:  terials  were  lavished  on  the  statues  of  the  gods,  which  are  in  reality  only 
to   be    distinguished   from   the  "  idols "  of  other  religions   in  the  greater 


Sculpture. 


396 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


I 


beauty  and  imaginative  power  they  displayed.  This  is  not  degrading  the! 
beautiful  images  of  the  gods ;  for  few  so-called  idols  have  ever  been  imag- 1 
ined  to  be  anything  in  themselves,  apart  from  the  spirit  of  a  god  believed  I 
to  reside  in,  or  to  visit  them ;  yet  the  rudest  image  made  by  a  savage  may! 
represent  as  true  an  act  of  devotion  and  submission  of  himself  to  the  unseen  I 

powers  as  the  most  magnin-I 
cent  Greek  statue.     Who  canji 
assign  relative  merits  in  this  i  J 
the  most  difficult  of  all  fields  II 
But   as   we   have    shown  theij 
savage    as    not     destitute    of< 
genuine  religion,  so  do  we  de- 
monstrate the   same   fact   fori 
the  Greek,  whom  St.  Paul  re- 
cognised as  "very  attentive  toi 
religion."     Among   the    most 
notable   Greek    temples   wereffl 
those  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  of 
Athene  Parthenos   (known  as] 
the  Parthenon),  and   Theseus ' 
at  Athens,  of  Zeus  at  iEgina,h 
Artemis   at   Ephesus,   Athene  j 
at  Syracuse,  the  Erechtheumj: 
and     Propyleum    at    Athens.; 
The  Spartans  were  conspicuous^ 
for  their  lack  of  grand  temples.! 
"We  must  not  omit  to  note  thatl: 
the  porch  of  every  temple  hadp 
a  font  containing  holy  watery 
consecrated  by  dipping  into  it, 
a  burning  torch  from  the  altar.. 
With  this  water,  all  those  who 
entered   to   take   part   in   the| 
sacrifices  were  sprinkled. 

The  altar  was  an  indis-; 
pensable  part  of  the  temple,; 
and  indeed  existed 
before  there  were 
temples.  The  early  Greet1 
word  for  altar  signifies  any; 
elevation,  and  then  came  tcj 
mean  any  elevation  used  for  worship.  Originally  it  was  always  in  the  open 
air  ;  but  when  temples  were  built,  the  altar  for  burnt  sacrifices  continued  in  I 
the  open  in  front  of  the  temple,  while  a  smaller  altar  was  placed  in  front  oi 
the  statues  of  the  gods  in  the  cella.  They  might  be  made  of  earth,  turf 
or  stones,  and  might  be  built  anywhere  on  occasion,  especially  during  war  j 


TEE    FAIi.NESE    HERCULES. 


GREEK  SACRIFICES,   PRIESTS,    TEMPLES,   ETC. 


397 


but  in  the  temples  they  were  built  of  regular  masonry,  raised  several  feet, 
either  of  a  round  or  of  an  oblong  shape.  They  were  decked  with  flowers 
and  ornamented  with  appropriate  sculpture,  and  either  bore  the  name  of  the 
god  or  gods  to  whom  they  were  devoted,  or  some  representation  of  them. 
The  inner  altars  were  used  for  kneel- 
ing in  prayer,  and  for  the  offering  of 
incense  and  other  non-living  sacri- 
fices. Altars  were  universally  held 
to  be  places  of  refuge  for  criminals 
or  unfortunate  persons ;  the  altars 
had  horns,  of  which  refugees  took 
hold.  Solemn  oaths  were  also  taken 
at  altars.  Some  altars,  as  that  of 
Zeus  at  Olympia,  on  which  offerings 
of  hundreds  of  animals  were  made, 
were  of  great  size.  The  gods  of  the 
lower  world,  however,  had  no  altars, 
the  blood  of  the  sacrifices  made  to 
them  being  received  in  ditches  or 
trenches. 

No  part  of  the  Greek  religion 

was  more  devoutly  believed  in  than 

the  oracular  utterances  de- 
livered  at  many   shrines. 

The   gods   were   believed   to  make 

communications  to  mankind  through 

some  medium,  an  inspired  priestess 

or   priest,  or  by  dreams   or    signs. 

There     were      comparatively     few 

oracles  of  Zeus,,  who  was  supposed 

to  be  too  far  from  men's  affairs  to 

enter  into  close  relations  with  them. 

Thus  his  will  was  revealed  through 

Apollo   and   other   gods,    and   even 

through   heroes.      Oracles   of    Zeus 

were  given  at  Olympia  from  the  in- 
spection of  victims,  and  at  Dodona 

from  sounds  produced  by  the  wind 

in  a  grove  of  trees. 

The  oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi 

so  far  outgrew  all  others   in  fame 


Oracles. 


PALLAS-ATHENE. 


that  it  has  become  the  typical  example.     Here,  in  the  innermost  sanctuary, 
in  front  of  the  statue  of  Apollo,  was  an  altar  fire  always  burning,  The  Delphian 
and  in  the  centre  was  a  small  opening  in  the  ground,  from  which     oracle- 
at  times  an  intoxicating  or  sulphureous  smoke  arose.     Over  this  was  placed 
a  tripod,  upon  which  the  prophetess,  known  as  Pythia,  took  her  seat.     The 


398  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

smoke  ascending  produced  a  kind  of  delirium  in  the  prophetess,  who,  while! 
it  lasted,  uttered  various  sounds  which  were  believed  to  contain  revelations  | 
from  Apollo.     These  being  taken  down  by  the  priests  were  interpreted  by! 
them  to  the  people,  being  often  given  in  hexameters,  and  conveyed  in  Ian- J 
guage  that  admitted  of  more  than  one  interpretation.     Many  oracles,  how-l 
ever,  were  quite  direct  and  plain,  so  that  the  modern  meaning  attached  to! 
"  oracular  utterances  "  is  not  quite  just  to  the  originals.     The  oracle  was! 
believed  to  give  answers  to  every  one  of  pure  heart,  but  no  answer  could  be)j 
obtained  by  a  criminal  until  he  had  atoned  for  his  crime.     At  first  oracles  J 
were  only  given  once  a  year ;  later,  certain  days  were  set  apart  every  month,  i 
when  the  oracle  could  be  consulted  on  payment  of  a  fee,  and  sacrifice  of  a! 
goat,  an  ox,  or  a  sheep.    The  Pythia  prepared  for  her  function  by  fasting  fora 
three  days,  bathing,  and  sacrificing  laurel  leaves  and  barley  flour  to  Apollo.  | 
The  priests  of  this  oracle  belonged  to  certain  noble  families  of  Delphi,  and! 
were  appointed  for  life.    No  doubt  the  credit  of  the  oracle  was  principally  due  j 
to  them ;  they  were  of  high  birth,  and  had  the  most  advantageous  oppor-| 
tunities  for  gaining  education  and  worldly  wisdom,  especially  as  Delphi! 
was  visited  by  embassies  from  every  Greek  city,  as  well  as  others;  and  thereto 
are  grounds  for  believing  that  for  a  long  period  they  were  actuated  by  lofty; 
ideas  and  constituted  a  means  of  elevation  and  of  religious   conservation.! 
"  In  the  earliest  time  we  can  trace  the  influence  of  the  oracles  discouraging 
the  relentless  blood-feud,  distinguishing  classes  of   murder,  and  allowing 
purification  and  expiation  in   certain  cases.     They  make  the  sanctity  of 
oaths  between  man  and  man  a  special  duty ;  Apollo  regards  even  hesita^a 
tion  to  keep  a  pledge  as  already  a  sin.     They  are  the  centre  of  unions  or 
amphictyonies  which  bind  their  members  to  observe  certain  duties,  and  show: 
mercy  to  their  fellow-members;  and  Delphi,  as  the  oracle  of  an  amphictyony; 
including  great  part  of  Greece,  had  an  important  share  in  promoting  the: 
ideal  unity  of  the  whole  country "  (Ency.  Brit.,  "Oracle").    During  the  greati 
struggle  for  supremacy  between  Athens  and  Sparta  the  Delphic   oracle! 
showed  an  increasing  partiality  towards  Sparta,  and  gradually  the  Athen-j 
ians  and  their  allies  lost  their  respect  for  it ;  but  it  continued  to  be   con- 
sulted down  to  the  time  of  the  emperor  Julian. 

At  an  early  time  the  spirits  of  the  dead  were  believed  to  appear  and 
give  counsel ;  later  the  inquirer  went  to  sleep  over  the  grave  of  a  hero,  who 
various  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream.  At  the  oracle  of  Amphiaraus  neai 
beliefs.  Oropus,  where  the  hero  had  risen  from  the  earth  to  become  al 
god,  the  inquirer  slept  in  the  temple  on  the  skin  of  a  ram  which  he  had 
sacrificed,  after,  abstaining  from  food  for  twenty-four  hours.  Oracles  were, 
also  at  one  time  believed  to  be  given  by  Mother  Earth,  being  the  abode  ol 
the  dead,  who  could  still  give  counsel  to  their  descendants.  The  conception 
that  Themis  and  Apollo  gave  oracles  at  Delphi  appears  to  have  been  later 
than  this. 

In  addition  to  regular  or  occasional  religious  worship  at  the  temples, 
the  Greeks  had  a  religious  bond  and  influence  of  a  yet  more  powerful' 
nature,  in  the  public  festivals  kept  by  every  State  of  any  importance,  or  by1 


399 


400  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


numerous  States  in  common.     So  far  as  their  origin  can  be  discerned,  they 
are  shared  between  celebrations  of  ancestral  heroes  and  of  the 

festivals,    seasons  or  their  successive  phenomena,  usually  associated  with  a 

god  or  gods  whose  worship  was  specially  appropriate  to  the  season. 

origin  and    There   is  evidence,  however,  that    their  number    and  splendour 

purpose.  jncreasec[  during  the  early  historic  period,  and  at  last  we  find  the 
Greeks  of  Tarentum  keeping  more  festivals  than  working  days.  At  Athens 
in  the  height  of  its  prosperity  fifty  or  sixty  days  were  kept  free  from  all 
business  by  magisterial  order.  The  chief  of  these  were  the  greater  and 
the  lesser  Dionysiac,  the  Eleusinian,  the  Panathenaic,  and  the  Thesmo- 
phorian.  Thebes  celebrated  the  Daphnephoria  every  ninth  year.  But  the 
most  influential  of  all  the  great  meetings  of  the  Greeks  were  the  four 
pan-hellenic  festivals,  known  as  the  Olympic,  the  Pythian,  Nemean,  and 
Isthmian  games.  Whatever  the  origin  of  the  Olympian  festival  might  be, 
it  was  lost  in  obscurity,  and  at  a  very  early  date  the  games  had  assumed 
such  importance  that  during  their  celebration  all  warfare  was  stayed  for  a 
month,  and  the  territory  of  Elis  was  regarded  as  sacred  for  the  time  being. 
One  great  part  of  the  festival  consisted  of  sacrifices  to  the  gods  by  the 
Eleans,  by  the  conquerors  in  the  games,  by  representatives  of  other  States, 
and  by  private  persons.  We  cannot  here  refer  to  the  contests  of  strength 
and  artistic  skill  which  formed  so  celebrated  a  part  of  the  festival,  but  note 
that  they  expressed  the  strong  Greek  feeling  that  men  honoured  Zeus  best 
by  the  harmonious  discipline  of  both  body  and  mind ;  and  consequently"  it 
is  not  surprising  that  the  Olympic  festival  continued  long  after  the  Greeks 
had  succumbed  to  Rome,  the  last  being  held  in  a.d.  393.  The  German 
excavations  at  Olympia  in  1875-81  have  made  known  the  elaborate  nature 
of  the  buildings  and  appliances,  of  the  sculptures  and  works  of  art  which 
existed  in  connection  with  these  great  games.  The  honours  given  to  victors 
on  their  return  home  show  how  deeply  these  contests  affected  the  national 
sentiment;  some  extolled  their  lot  as  divine.  It  is  even  recorded  that 
altars  were  built  and  sacrifices  offered  to  some  victors. 

The   Pythian   games   and   numerous   other   festivals   were   of  special 
interest  from  their  including  poetic  recitations,  often  original,  and  from  their 

Rise  of  the  connection  with  the  rise  of  the  drama.  As  Dr.  Donaldson  says, 
drama.  -n  j^g  «  Qreek  Theatre  "  :  "  The  susceptible  Athenian,  whose 
land  was  the  dwelling-place  of  gods  and  ancestral  heroes,  to  whom  the 
clear  blue  sky,  the  swift-winged  breezes,  the  river  fountains,  the  iEgean 
gay  with  its  countless  smiles,  and  the  teeming  earth  from  which  he  believed 
liis  ancestors  were  immediately  created,  were  alike  instinct  with  an  awe- 
pervading  spirit  of  divinity ;  the  Athenian,  who  loved  the  beautiful,  but 
loved  it  because  it  was  divine,  who  looked  upon  all  that  genius  could  invent, 
or  art  execute,  as  but  the  less  unworthy  offering  to  his  pantheism ;  and 
considered  all  his  festivals  and  all  his  amusements  as  only  a  means  of  with- 
drawing the  soul  from  the  world's  business,  and  turning  it  to  the  love  and 
worship  of  God, — how  could  he  keep  back  from  the  object  of  his  adoration 
the  fairest  and  best  of  his  works  ?  "     The  dramatic  features  in  the  stories  of 


GREEK  SACRIFICES,    PRIESTS,    TEMPLES,   ETC. 


401 


the  gods  and  heroes  suggested  most  natural  subjects  for  dramatic  represen- 
tation, and  these  were  most  conspicuous  in  the  festivals  of  Apollo  at  Delphi, 


INXKK1UK    Oi1    PAKTHENUN, 


As  restored  by  Prof.  H.  Muller. 

of  Demeter  and   Persephone   at   Eleusis,  and   of  Dionysos  at  Eleusis  .and 
Delphi.     The  Eleusinian  mysteries  were  the  most  famous  and  popular   of 

D    D 


402 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


all,  and  were  specially  marked  by  magnificence  and  by  the  secrecy  of  some 
rites,  to  which  is  owing  our  ignorance  about  them.     Their  importance  does 

not  seem  to  have  de- 
pended upon  any  dog- 
matic instruction,  but 
they  were  believed  to 
educate  the  people  in 
reverence  for  the  deity. 
Silence,  excitement,  and 
rapt  devotion  were  typi- 
cal of  the  spectators,  and 
the  fasting,  long  cere- 
monies, and  night  wan- 
derings which  preceded 


THE    MOSES — CALLIOPE,    CLIO,    LKA10,    EUTLUPE,    MLLPOMENE. 


Marriage. 


the  actual  mysteries,  heightened  their  effect.  The  touching  and  kissing  of 
holy  things,  the  hearing  and  repeating  of  traditional  songs,  the  dramatic 
representation  of  incidents  in  the  lives  of  the  gods,  appear  to  have  formed 
important  parts  of  the  ceremonial.  The  worship  of  Dionysos  had  similar 
variations  to  that  of  the  sun-god.  His  sufferings  and  misfortunes  were 
dramatically  bewailed,  and  his  gifts  of  light  and  wine,  etc.,  were  celebrated 
with  rites  which,  at  first  licentious,  remained  so,  because  of  the  conservatism 
of  ritual.  We  cannot  further  follow  this  most  interesting  topic,  and  simply 
remark  that  we  find  in  Greece,  as  in  India,  that  everything,  especially  every 
invention,  every  art,  every  faculty,  was  under  the  patronage  of,  and  inti- 
mately connected  with,  the  popular  religion.  We  must  acknowledge  that 
the  Greeks,  in  their  best  periods,  were  true  to  their  religious  beliefs,  and 
carried  them  out  most  thoroughly. 

We  cannot  trace  the  stages   by  which  marriage  came   to   be  placed 
under  religious  sanctions :  but  we  may  believe  that  this  process 
was  almost  simultaneous  with  the  growth  of  belief  in  the  relation 
of  the  gods  to  human  conduct,  and  the  necessity  of  pleasing  them  if  good 

fortune  were  to  attend 
a  man.  Cecrops  was 
fabled  to  have  instituted 
marriage  in  Athens,  as 
well  as  the  worship  of 
the  gods.  Marriages 
between  very  near  kin 
took  place  in  early 
Greece,  and  dislike  to 
such  marriages  was  the 
growth  of  a  later  age, 
though  it  never  pro- 
ceeded so  far  as  among 
Jews  and  Christians.  Celibacy  was  decidedly  frowned  upon,  and  sometimes 
punished  by  Greek  law  ;  and  one  reason  for  marriage  was  that  a  succession 


THE    MUSKS — POLVHXMNIA,  TEBPSICHOBE,    THALIA,    AND    URANIA. 


GREEK  SACRIFICES,   PRIESTS,    TEMPLES,    ETC. 


4°3 


of  descendants  might  be  kept  up  by  every  man,  as  worshippers  or  ministers 
of  the  godhead  and  of  the  family  gods ;  indeed,  they  practically  worshipped 


THE    GliACES — AGLAIA,    THALIA,    EUPHROSYNE. 


THE    FURIES TISIPHONE,    1IEG.EUA,    ALECTO. 


their  ancestors.  In  connection  with  marriages  (which  did  not  take  place 
till  an  adult  age  was  reached),  sacrifices  or  offerings  were  made  to  the  gods 
presiding  over  marriage  (Hera,  Artemis,  the  Fates,  and  sometimes  others), 
by  the  father  of  the  bride  ;  and  after  the  marriage  the  husband  offered  a 
sacrifice.  There  was  no  religious  ceremony  which  constituted  the  marriage; 
and  wives  occupied  a  comparatively  low  place  in  Greek  estimation. 

Death  and  the  events  succeeding  it  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the 
Greek  mind.  From  Homer  we  gather  that  at  death  the  spirit,  occupying  a 
shadowy  outline  of  the  body,  was  driven  by  Hades  into  his  do-  Death  and  the 
minions  in  the  lower  world  (Erebus) ;  and  we  read  that  the  shades  future  life- 
occupied  themselves  in  regretting  lost  pleasures,  or  past  changes  of  fortune, 
but  were  only  half  conscious,  except  when  roused  by  drinking  the  blood  of 
sacrifices  offered  to  them  by  living  friends.  The  heroes  enjoyed  a  more  happy 
state,  but  longed  for  their  former  life.  It 
was  not  till  Egyptian  ideas  had  influenced 
the  Greeks  that  a  doctrine  of  future  re- 
wards and  punishments  according  to  ac- 
tions was  taught.  Hermes  became  recog- 
nised as  the  guide  of  mortals  to  the  lower 
regions,  where  Hades  received  them  hos- 
pitably ;  so  that  his  kingdom  ceased  to  be 
regarded  as  one  of  gloom.  Three  rivers 
had  to  be  crossed  by  all,  namely,  Acheron 
(sorrow),  Cocytus  (lamentation),  and  Styx 
(intense  darkness),  the  latter  flowing  nine 
times  round  Erebus.  It  was  necessary  to 
be  ferried  over  the  Styx  by  a  grim  boat- 
man named  Charon,  who  would  take  none 
but  those  who  had  received  funeral  rites,  and  brought  with  them  a  coin  as 
toll ;  otherwise  they  must  wander  restlessly  for  a  hundred  years  on  the  banks 


THE    FATES — CLOTHO,    LACHESIS,   ATROPOS. 


404 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


of  the  river.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Styx  was  the  seat  of  Minos,  who 
received  confessions  from  and  judged  all  shades,  and  announced  their  sen- 
tences, whether  of  happiness  or  misery.  Cerberus,  the  three-headed  dog, 
guarded  his  tribunal,  and  allowed  no  shade  to  emerge  when  once  within  the 
portals.  The  happy  passed  first  into  the  palace  of  Hades  and  Persephone 
and  received  their  greeting,  and  then  set  out  for  the  Elysian  fields,  full  of 
all  delights,  where  they  occupied  themselves  with  their  favourite  pursuits, 
the  hunter  resuming  his  bow  and  arrows,  the  musician  his  lyre,  the  soldier 
his  arms.  According  to  the  doctrine  associated  with  the  name  of  Pythagoras, 
after  the  shades  had  remained  in  Elysium  for  a  thousand  years,  they  re- 
turned to  earth  to  occupy  fresh  bodies. 

Those  who  had  been  condemned  as  guilty  were  conducted  from  Minos 
to  the  great  judgment  hall  of  Rhadamanthus,  who  announced  in  detail  the 


TEMPLE  OF   ARTEMIS    (DIANA),    EPHESUS. 

punishments  which  each  would  receive  in  Tartarus,  a  gloomy  region  far 
below  Hades.  The  Furies  then  seized  the  culprits,  scourged  them  with 
whips,  and  hurled  them  down  into  Tartarus. 

Naturally  we  find  these  ideas  influencing  the  funeral  rites  of  the  Greeks. 
The  greatest  horror  was  felt  at  the  idea  of  not  receiving  burial,  and  any 
passer  who  found  a  corpse  felt  it  his  duty  at  least  to  throw  some 
n  es-^j.^  Up0n  ft.  Indeed,  the  deceased  were  regarded  as  having 
both  a  legal  and  moral  right  to  burial.  Burning  was  also  in  vogue  among 
the  Greeks,  but  probably  not  so  much  as  burial  in  historic  times.  The  body 
was  anointed  and  decked  with  flowers  and  dressed  in  white  ;  an  obolus  was 
put  in  its  mouth  for  Charon,  and  a  honey-cake  by  its  side  for  Cerberus. 
When  the  body  was  laid  out,  painted  vases  were  placed  by  the  side  of  the 
bed,  and  afterwards  buried  with  it.     In  early  times,  sacrifices  (and  some- 


GREEK  SACRIFICES,   PRIESTS,    TEMPLES,  ETC.  405 

Ijtimes  captives)  were  offered  previous  to  the  burial ;  but  these  had  ceased  in 
■[Plato's  time.  The  coffins  for  burial  were  usually  of  earthenware  or  baked 
llclay.  There  were  no  specially  consecrated  grounds  for  burial,  convenience 
■land  sometimes  beauty  of  situation  being  the  chief  considerations.  Those 
Bwho  had  taken  part  in  the  funeral  required  purification  before  they  could 
lienter  the  temples.  Sacrifices  were  offered  on  the  third,  ninth,  and  thirtieth 
■days  after  the  funeral,  the  latter  ending  the  mourning.  On  certain  days 
■the  tombs,  which  were  often  very  handsome,  were  decked  with  flowers,  and 
■offerings  of  flowers  and  sometimes  of  food  were  made  to  the  deceased. 

"We  may  now  briefly  endeavour  to  comprehend  the  moral  state  pro- 

IJduced  by,  or  co-existent  with,  the  Greek  religion.     In  the  Homeric  poems 
|the   cardinal  virtue  of   truth  does  not   appear   to  be    in  great  M 
•esteem.      "  To   deceive  an   enemy  is  meritorious,   to   deceive   a      of  the 
.  n  .        .  Greeks 

stranger  innocent,  to  deceive  even  a  friend  perfectly  unobjection- 

ble,  if  any  object  is  to  be  gained."  (M.)  Most  of  the  leading  characters  in  the 
Qiad  and  Odyssey  do  not  hesitate  to  lie,  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the 
;ods.  "  Zeus  deceives  both  gods  and  men,  the  other  gods  deceive  Zeus." 
The  one  check  on  deceit  is  the  presence  of  the  gods,  who,  if  adjured  by  an 
)ath,  will  certainly  punish  falsehood.  Apollo  and  Menelaus  are  truthful 
maracters,  but  even  they  have  their  defects.  Might  was  practically  right, 
md  while  Homer  describes  persons  guilty  of  manslaughter  or  murder  as 
oing  into  exile  or  paying  pecuniary  compensation,  it  is  not  till  after  the 
[omeric  period  that  a  guilty  person  requires  purification  by  special  religious 
;eremonies.  It  would  be  easy  to  show  that  courage  was  really  defective 
n  the  Homeric  times,  and  could  not  readily  be  produced  even  by  appeals 
;o  the  gods.  The  sad  condition  of  orphans,  widows,  and  old  people  is 
graphically  depicted  in  Homer,  and  the  possession  of  women  by  the  stronger 
md  the  conqueror  is  an  acknowledged  fact.  The  Homeric  world,  far  from 
•epresenting  an  early  age  of  pure  morality,  is  one  of  still  rudimentary 
noral  and  religious  ideas.  The  gods  are  but  larger  copies  of  men,  and 
;he  best,  if  high  in  comparison  with  some  conceptions  of  gods,  are  low 
vhen  compared  with  the  highest.  The  best  character  among  the  gods, 
Pallas- Athene,  is,  as  Mr.  Hayman,  in  his  "  Odyssey,"  says,  without  ten- 
derness or  tie  of  any  sort,  never  owns  obligation,  is  pitiless,  unscrupulous 
a.  partisanship,  and  full  of  dissimulation ;  she  whispers  base  motives  of  the 
;ood,  beats  down  the  strong,  and  mocks  the  weak,  while  true  to  a  comrade 
>r  friend.  Practically,  the  power  of  the  chiefs,  or  of  the  aristocratic  caste, 
vas  supreme  in  the  Homeric  and  Hesiodic  times,  and  their  morals  were  on 
■he  whole  selfish,  and  the  common  people  followed  their  example.  So  there 
vas  every  chance  for  the  religious  pretenders  or  believers  who  attributed 
roubles  to  the  displeasure  of  the  gods,  and  brought  forward  their  prescrip- 
ions  for  appeasing  or  persuading  them.  Thus  religion  not  based  on  morals 
;rew  in  strength,  and  in  time,  and  by  the  aid  of  importations  from  Egypt, 
he  East,  and  Thrace  became  full  of  excitements  and  orgies,  sensuality  and 
•mmorality.  At  the  same  time,  and  even  down  to  the  time  of  Herodotus, 
>here  lingered  in  parts  of  Greece  horrible  customs  of  human  sacrifice. 


4o6  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 

The  age  of  the  tyrants  was  to  some  extent  favourable  to  morals,  for  the 
tyrants  put  down  excesses  of  immorality  and  prepared  the  way  for  wide- 
spread improvements  such  as  those  introduced  by  Solon  and  Pisistratus. 
In  some  minds  a  higher  morality  arose  ;  poets  and  philosophers  began  to 
doubt  the  old  mythologies,  and  to  rest  in  a  general  belief  in  the  Deity,  in 
divine  virtue  and  justice,  confessing  themselves  unable  to  reconcile  this 
belief  with  the  facts  of  life.  Theognis  says  that  no  man  works  with  a  sure 
knowledge  whether  the  result  will  be  good  or  evil ;  and  the  general  view 
of  the  moralists  of  the  time  was  that  although  Providence  rewarded  virtue, 
the  reward  was  often  withheld,  and  it  was  therefore  best  to  follow  the 
stream,  and  to  gratify  the  passions  of  love  and  revenge.  The  lower  orders 
thus  had  no  elevating  influence  to  raise  them.  It  was  held  to  be  a  shame 
to  remain  sober  among  men  who  were  drunk.  Romantic  friendships  were 
however  not  uncommon,  and  women  were  perhaps  better  esteemed  and 
treated  than  in  the  Homeric  days.  Avarice  and  selfishness  were  common, 
and  pleasure  was  universally  sought.  In  most  places  old  age  was  little 
honoured,  though  Lycurgus's  ordinance  to  honour  the  old  stands  out  in 
marked  contrast.  Honesty  was  largely  honoured  in  the  breach,  and  from 
the  times  of  Herodotus  to  that  of  Cicero  we  hear  of  Greek  untruthful- 
ness and  want  of  fidelity  to  then  word.  At  the  same  time  there  was  much 
kindly  care  of  and  affection  for  the  young,  and  honourable  justice. 

The  great  period  of  Athens  was  warlike,  and  led  to  a  greater  ferocity, 
cruelty,  and  unscrupulousness  of  feeling.  Oaths  and  promises  were  less 
kept  than  ever ;  party  and  state  were  everything.  The  ideal  of  woman- 
hood was  lowered ;  but  there  was  a  greater  kindliness  towards  slaves.  Many 
of  the  richer  Athenians,  however,  set  all  morality  at  defiance,  and  their 
example  was  sufficient  to  start  and  maintain  a  degradation  of  morality 
which  led  to  the  ruin  of  Greece.  "When  the  old  mythology  was  undermined 
there  was  not  enough  that  was  solid  in  the  Greek  religion  to  keep  morals 
pure.  "While  the  oracles  were  respected  and  managed  by  impartial  priests 
who  represented  the  best  ideas  current,  the  moral  standard  was  much  better 
than  at  a  later  period  when  they  had  become  partial  and  subservient  to 
state  factions,  and  when  the  best  minds  of  Greece  were  engaged  in  politics, 
art,  poetry  and  philosophy.  The  philosophers  were  raising  their  heads,  it 
is  true,  and  seeking  for  the  true  good,  and  many  of  them  gave  systematic 
instruction  in  conduct ;  but  meanwhile  the  people  were  going  to  ruin,  and 
the  philosophers  had  little  as  yet  to  communicate. 

[Mahaffy,  "  Social  Life  in  Greece,"  "  Greek  Life  and  Thought."  (M.)  C.  T.  Newton,  "  Greek 
Religion  illustrated  by  Inscriptions,"  Nineteenth  Century,  vols.  iii.  and  iv.  Articles,  "  Mysteries," 
"  Priest,"  "  Sacrifices,"  "  Temple,"  "  Encyclopedia  Britannica,"  Grote's,  Curtius's,  and  Duncker's 
"  Histories  of  Greece. "] 


CHAPTER   III. 
donates,  piato,  anti  otftrr  £vnk  flbilostopbrrs. 

Socrates— His  mode  of  life— His  discharge  of  religious  duties — His  sign  or  dsemon— Socrates  not 
really  a  sceptic— Socrates  and  the  Deity — His  views  of  Providence — Socrates  a  teacher  of 
morals— His  ardour  for  knowledge — His  personal  appearance— Socrates  before  his  judges 
His  condemnation — The  death  penalty — Socrates  on  the  future  life— His  death- -Plato— His 
view  of  the  body  as  evil— Virtue  the  highest  good— Morals  and  the  State— Views  of  the  Deity— 
Aristotle— The  Megarians — The  Cynics — The  Cyrenaics— Epicurus — The  Stoics— Morals -Greeks 
in  other  lands— Polybius. 

BEFORE  Socrates,  Greek  philosophers  like  Tkales,  Pythagoras,  Hera- 
clitus,  Democritus,  and  Protagoras  had  vainly  tried  to  get  at  the 
secret  of  the  universe  and  the  true  basis  of  conduct,  and  Protagoras  had 
arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  human  consciousness  is  the  only  standard  of 
what  is  and  what  is  not.  It  was  reserved  for  Socrates  the  Athenian 
(circ.  470-399  b.c.)  to  start  a  new  era  by  exhaustively  showing 
how  little  men  really  knew,  especially  about  divine  government.  He  re- 
jected all  the  popular  mythology,  which  represented  the  gods  as  having 
committed  actions  which  would  be  disgraceful  in  the  worst  of  men.  But 
he  was  no  despiser  of  the  gods  ;  in  fact,  his  friends  claimed  that  he  was  "  so 
pious  that  he  did  nothing  without  taking  counsel  of  the  gods ;  so  just  that 
he  never  did  an  injury  to  any  man,  whilst  he  was  the  benefactor  of  his 
associates ;  so  temperate  that  he  never  preferred  pleasure  to  right ;  so  wise 
that  in  judging  of  good  and  evil  he  was  never  at  fault.  His  self-control 
was  absolute  ;  his  powers  of  endurance  were  unfailing ;  he  had  so  schooled 
himself  to  moderation  that  his  scanty  means  satisfied  all  his  wants.  To 
want  nothing,  he  said,  is  divine  ;  to  want  as  little  as  possible  is  the  nearest 
possible  approach  to  the  divine  life  ;  "  and  he  practised  what  he  taught,  yet 
knew  how  to  enjoy  himself  heartily.  Like  almost  all  the  greatest  teachers 
and  reformers  we  have  written  of,  his  teaching  was  mainly  conversational, 
and  he  left  no  books  ;  but  like  them,  also,  his  memory  impressed  itself  upon 
his  pupils  and  friends,  so  that  we  have  more  than  one  striking  record  and 
picture  of  the  greatest  soul  among  the  Greeks. 

Highly  educated  in  Greek  learning  and  a  sculptor  in  early  life,  Socrates 
soon  gave  up  statuary  for  his  public  mission,  believing  that  he  had  a  divine 
commission  to  convict  other  men  of  their  ignorance,  and  so  help  his  mode 
them  to  improve.  His  wife,  Xanthippe,  led  him  an  unhappy  life  of  life, 
with  her  shrewish  temper,  and  his  sons  appear  to  have  been  unworthy  of 
him.  He  showed  bravery  as  a  soldier  at  Potidaea  and  elsewhere,  and  on 
several  important  occasions  he  manifested  great  public  spirit  and  courage 
in  withstanding  popular  and  aristocratic  sentiment  or  commands.  But  most 
of  his  life  was  spent  in  his  sacred  duty,  that  of  showing  men  their  ignorance 
and  helping  them  to  choose  right  paths  in  practical  morality.     As  Xenophon 

407 


408 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


represents  him,  he  caused  many  to  turn  from  evil  ways  by  inducing  them 
to^seek  after ]  virtue.  In  every  way  he  could  discover  to  be  beneficial,  he 
disciplined  both  his  mind  and  his  body,  and  he  refused  all  payments  for  his 
instruction.  "We  shall  perhaps  best  elucidate  his  character,  so  far  as  it 
relates  to  morals  and  religion,  by  referring  to  the  accusation  brought  against 
him  in  B.C.  399,  that  he  was  guilty,  first,  of  denying  the  gods  recognised  by 
the  State  and  introducing  new  divinities,  and  secondly  of  corrupting  the 
young.     In  answer  to  this,  Xenophon  alleges  that  he  was  fre- 

Sis  ciisclicir^G 

of  religious  quently  seen  sacrificing  both  at  his  own  house  and  on  the  public 
duties.  a]tars  .  anc[  it  appears  that  he  accepted  the  established  beliefs  so 
far  as  the}'"  did  not  plainly  conflict  with  his  conscience,  especially  where 
they  dealt  with  matters  of  which  the  gods  seemed  to  have  reserved  all  real 
knowledge  to  themselves.  It  was  on  human  conduct  and  knowledge  that  he 
concentrated  his  attention.  Yet  he  incurred  opposition  as  being  an  inno- 
vator, for  he  sought  to  expunge  from 
popular  belief  the  fictions  of  the  poets  ; 
and  he  avowed  that  he  derived  guid- 
ance from  au  inward  "  divinity,"  or 
"  divine  sign,"  often  spoken  of  as  the 
"  daemon  "  of  Socrates,  and  sometimes 
as  an  intelligent  spiritual  companion  or 
guardian  spirit.  But  it  is  not  correct 
to  say  that  he  regarded  himself  as 
possessed  by  a  divinity  or  a  guardian 
spirit.  "  According  to  Xenophon,"  says 
Dr.  Henry  Jackson  (Encyclopaidia  Bri- 
mssignor  tannica,  9th  ed.),  "the  sign 
daemon.  was  a  Warning,  either  to  do 
or  not  to  do,  which  it  would  be  folly 
to  neglect,  not  superseding  ordinary 
prudence,  but  dealing  with  those  un- 
certainties in  respect  of  which  other  men  found  guidance  in  oracles  and 
tokens  ;  Socrates  believed  in  it  profoundly,  and  never  disobeyed  it.  Accord- 
ing to  Plato,  the  sign  was  a  '  voice  '  which  warned  Socrates  to  refrain  from 
some  act  which  he  contemplated ;  he  heard  it  frequently  and  on  the  most 
trifling  occasions ;  the  phenomenon  dated  from  his  early  years,  and  was,  so 
far  as  he  knew,  peculiar  to  himself."  It  has  been  suggested,  with  consider- 
able plausibility,  by  Mr.  Jackson,  that  the  rational  suggestions  of  his  own 
brain,  except  ionally  valuable  in  consequence  of  his  accuracy  and  intelligence, 
appeared  to  be  heard  by  him  as  a  voice  speaking  to  him  ;  others  see  in  the 
"  divine  sign  "  the  voice  of  conscience  and  instinct  combined ;  while  some 
may  regard  it  as  a  direct  Divine  voice.  This  difficulty  we  cannot  solve  ; 
but  Xenophon  uses  this  phenomenon  to  show  that  Socrates  had  a  personal 
sign  which  was  parallel  to  the  divination  of  the  other  Greeks  by  birds  and 
voices  and  sacrifices.  Bat  Socrates  declared  those  bereft  of  their  senses  who 
had  recourse  to  divination  with  a  view  to  solving  questions  upon  which  the 
gods  had  given  men  power  to  decide  themselves. 


SOCKATES. 


SOCRATES,   PLATO,    AND    OTHER    GREER'  PHILOSOPHERS.    409 

Socrates,  seeming  to  his  contemporaries  to  be  a  sceptic,  was  the  most 
genuine  believer  of  his  time,  so  far  as  he  thought  lie  had  grounds  for  belief. 
When  the  Delphian  oracle  pronounced  him  the  wisest  of  men,  Socrates  not 
he  sought  to  discover  some  one  wiser  than  himself,  and  succeeded  really  a 
only  in  finding  people  who  thought  the}'  knew,  whereas  they  were 
self-deluded.  Still  Socrates  felt  that  he  did  not  possess  the  wisdom  with 
which  he  was  credited,  for,  said  he,  God  only  is  wise,  and  the  oracle  only 
meant  to  say,  "  He  is  the  wisest  who,  like  Socrates,  knows  that  his  wisdom  is  in 
truth  worth  nothing."  About  the  Deity  Socrates  would  put  for- socrates  and 
ward  little  that  was  dogmatic.  He  believed  in  a  Supreme  Being  the  Deity- 
who  was  an  intelligent  and  beneficent  Creator  of  all  things,  and  he  prayed 
to  the  gods  to  grant  him  good  gifts,  believing  that  they  best  knew  what  was 
good.  He  gave  as  proofs  of  the  existence  of  "  the  divine,"  the  providential 
order  of  nature,  the  universality  of  the  belief  in  it,  and  the  revelations  and 
warnings  given  to  men  by  signs  and  oracles.  He  appealed  very  strongly 
to  the  argument  from  design,  proclaiming  that  the  evident  purpose  of  vast 
numbers  of  things  showed  that  they  were  produced  by  intelligence.  The 
arguments  of  Socrates  on  these  subjects  have  been  made  familiar  to  genera- 
tions of  schoolboys  in  Xenophon's  ''Memorabilia."  We  will  quote  part  of  one 
of  his  central  arguments  from  Mr.  Levien's  translation. 

"  It  did  not,  however,  satisfy  the  Deity  to  take  an  interest  in  man's 
body  only,  but,  what  is  the  most  important  point  of  all,  He  also  implanted 
in  him  that  most  excellent  essence — his  soul.  But  in  the  first  His  views  of 
place,  of  what  other  animal  does  the  mind  comprehend  the  fact  Providence, 
of  the  existence  of  the  gods  as  the  organisers  of  so  stupendous  and  excellent 
a  system  ?  and  what  other  race  except  that  of  men  offers  service  to  the 
gods '?  or  what  intelligence  exists  more  adapted  than  that  of  man  to  make 
provision  against  cold  and  heat,  or  hunger  and  thirst,  or  to  alleviate  disease, 
or  to  practise  feats  of  strength,  or  to  labour  for  instruction,  or  more  capable 
of  remembering  what  it  may  have  heard  or  seen  or  learned  ?  For  is  it  not 
clearly  manifest  to  you  that  men  pass  their  lives  like  gods  as  compared 
with  other  creatures,  and  excel  them  in  the  nature  both  of  their  minds 
and  bodies  ?  For  neither  could  a  creature  endowed  with  the  body  of  an 
ox  and  the  feelings  of  a  man  accomplish  its  wishes ;  nor  do  such  animals  as 
possess  hands,  but  are  devoid  of  intelligence,  obtain  any  benefit  thereby. 
But  do  you,  who  enjoy  both  these  stupendous  advantages,  think  that  the 
gods  have  no  regard  for  you  ?  "  Again,  "  You  must  not  imagine  that  while 
your  vision  is  capable  of  ranging  over  a  distance  of  many  furlongs,  the  eye 
of  the  Deity  is  unable  to  survey  the  universe  at  a  glance.  Nor  should  you 
suppose  that  while  your  mind  can  contemplate  things  that  are  taking  place 
at  home  and  in  Egypt  and  Sicily,  the  Divine  Intelligence  is  insufficient 
to  regard  all  things  simultaneously.  ...  So  with  regard  to  the  gods, 
you  should  make  the  experiment  whether,  if  you  cultivate  them,  they  will 
not  vouchsafe  to  you  their  guidance  in  matters  which  are  unrevealed  to 
mankind  in  general  ;  and  you  may  thus  recognise  the  fact  that  the  nature 
of  the  Deity  is  so  stupendously  constituted  as  to  be  able  to  see  all  things 


4io  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


at  once,  and  to  hear  all  things,  and  to  be  present  everywhere,  and  to  take 
cognisance  of  everything  at  the  same  time." 

It  will  at  once  be  evident  that  we  here  have  a  style  and  matter  of 
teaching  never  reached  by  any  of  the  religions  we  have  previously  spoken 
of,  and  perhaps  only  approached  by  that  of  Zoroaster.  To  speak  of 
Socrates  simply  as  the  greatest  of  the  heathens  does  him  injustice,  unless 
it  is  clearly  understood  that  the  term  heathen  simply  means  a  non-Christian. 
We  cannot  but  rank  him  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  men,  pre-eminent  as  an 
original  thinker  and  independent  character,  and  as  a  teacher  of  divine 
things. 

He  was  equally  eminent  as  a  moral  teacher.     Far  from  being  a  cor- 
rupter of  youth,  we  have  abundant  testimony  that  he  was  a  corrector  of 
Socrates  a   y°unS  men's  morals,  and  always  tried  to  raise  them,  to  inspire 

teacher  of  in  them   a  sense  of  duty,  of  responsibility  for  the  use  of  their 
morals        .  «/»*•/ 

intellect  and  conscience,  and  to  lead  them  to  spend  their  lives 

usefully  and  nobly.  His  moral  teachings,  if  followed  out,  would  have  saved 
many  a  king  or  state  or  parliament,  in  presumably  more  enlightened  times, 
from  disaster.  He  did  not  believe  in  appointing  men  who  succumbed  to 
gluttony,  crime,  sensuality,  and  other  vices  to  posts  of  difficulty  and  danger ; 
in  committing  the  education  of  children  or  the  care  of  property  to  in- 
temperate men.  He  regarded  temperance  (in  the  broad  sense)  as  the 
foundation  of  virtue,  and  any  one  who  accepted  money  readily  from  others 
as  setting  up  masters  over  himself  and  binding  himself  to  a  most  degrading 
slavery  ;  rather  he  preferred  to  live  more  humbly  than  a  slave.  He  rejoiced 
especially  in  having  estimable  friends  ;  and  if  he  knew  of  any  good  thing, 
he  thought  it  a  great  joy  to  impart  it  to  them.  To  him  justice  and  every 
kind  of  virtue  was  wisdom,  and  he  had  a  belief,  too  sanguine,  that  those 
who  recognised  this  would  never  prefer  to  do  any  but  just  and  virtuous 
actions.  For  a  man  not  to  know  himself,  and  to  imagine  he  knew  things 
of  which  he  was  ignorant,  he  considered  to  be  a  very  near  approach  to 
insanity.  And  therefore  he  did  his  utmost  to  cure  that  kind  of  insanity,  and 
to  lead  men  not  merely  to  like  abstract  goodness  or  intelligence,  or  know- 
ledge, but  to  be  good  inwardly  and  to  gain  acquirements  which  were  of 
practical  value.  But  this  man  who,  chief  among  his  fellows,  sought  to  raise 
and  benefit  youth,  was  charged  with  being  a  corrupting  influence. 

"  In  Socrates,"  says  Professor  Sidgwick,  "  for  the  first  time,  we  find 

the   combination   of  a   genuine   ardour   for  knowledge,  and  a  paramount 

His  ardour  interes^  in  conduct."     By  his  dialectic  art  he  brought  home  their 

for        ignorance  to  those  who  talked  with  him,  and  then  hammered 

kn  o  wl  6  d  °*  6 

home  his  conviction  that  their  ignorance  of  the  good  and  evil  in 
human  life  was  the  source  of  all  practical  error.  He  was  above  all  practical, 
for  "  he  knew  no  good  that  was  not  good  for  something  in  particular ;  " 
he  taught  that  good  is  self-consistent,  that  the  beautiful  is  also  profitable 
and  useful,  and  the  virtuous  also  agreeable,  in  every  instance.  He  demanded 
that  every  man  should  know  what  he  was  doing  and  why,  should  act  on 
consistent   principles,  and  should  carry  them  out  firmly  and  vigorously. 


SOCRATES,   PLATO,    AND    OTHER    GREEK  PHILOSOPHERS.    411 

This  most  trying  of  all  demands,  persistently  enforced  by  criticism  of  those 
who  acted  contrariwise,  was  at  last  sufficient  to  bring  about  his  ruin. 

The   great  teacher   was   not   of  gainly  or   prepossessing   appearance. 
Short,  thick-necked,  with  prominent  eyes,  broad,  upturned  nostrils,  large/ 
mouth  and  thick  lips,  he  in  fact  embodied  the  opposite  of  beauty    Socrateg. 
of  form.     He  lived  meanly  that  he  might  carry  out  his  mission,    personal 
and  took  a  sort  of  delight  in  making  himself  out  to  be  the  dullest  appea 
person,  or  the  most  ignoble,  or  the  most  vile,  and  thus  blunted  the  force 
of  any  shafts  that  might  be  levelled  against  him.     He  was  willing  to  be 
of  no  account,  to  be  despised,  to  be  misjudged,  in  order  that  he  might  win 
those  who  could  rise  by  his  teaching.     And  he  was  willing  to  die  rather 
than  give  up  truth  and  conscience  or  curry  favour  with  his  judges. 

When  brought  before  a  dikastery  (consisting  of  between  500  and  600 

citizens),    to    answer   a   charge   of  which    the   penalty  sought  was  death, 

Socrates  delivered  in  his  defence  the  noble  speech  of  which  we     _ 

r  Socrates 

have  the  substance  in  the  "  Apology  "  of  Plato.  The  accusers,  before  his 
he  said,  had  hardly  uttered  a  word  of  truth,  and  had  been  most  JU  ees' 
shameless.  He  condescended  so  far  as  to  expound  his  course  of  life  and  the 
reasons  for  it,  as  we  have  already  partially  detailed  them.  He  would  use 
no  arts  to  secure  an  acquittal,  but  relied  on  truth  alone.  "  For  if,  0  men  of 
Athens,  by  force  of  persuasion  and  entreaty,  I  could  overpower  your  oaths, 
then  I  should  be  teaching  you  to  believe  that  there  are  no  gods,  and 
convict  myself,  in  my  own  defence,  of  not  believing  in  them.  But  that 
is  not  the  case  ;  for  I  do  believe  that  there  are  gods,  and  in  a  far  higher 
sense  than  that  in  which  any  of  my  accusers  believe  in  them.  And  to  you 
and  to  Grod  I  commit  my  cause,  to  be  determined  by  you  as  is  best  for  you 
and  me."  He  had  refrained  from  preparing  a  set  defence,  believing  that 
his  just  and  blameless  life  were  the  best  defence,  and  also  because  his 
divine  sign  had  forbidden  him.  If  he  were  condemned,  he  would  be 
condemned  unjustly,  which  would  disgrace  his  judges,  but  not  him  ;  rather 
it  would  gain  him  sympathy  and  praise.  He  even  seems  to  have  thought 
that  the  fit  end  of  his  life,  as  divinely  determined,  had  come.  In  any  case 
he  would  not  beseech  his  inferiors  to  let  him  live. 

The  die  was  cast,  and  by  a  majority  of  five  Socrates  was  adjudged 
guilty.  He  disdained  now  to  suggest  any  less  penalty  than  the  extreme 
one,  a  penalty  which  the  majority  would  gladly  have  mitigated.  HiS  con- 
Bather,  he  loftily  expressed  his  belief  that,  inasmuch  as  he  had  demnation. 
been  engaged  for  many  years  in  conferring  the  greatest  benefits  on  Athens 
and  its  people,  he  deserved  a  public  maintenance  in  the  Prytaneum  at  the 
cost  of  the  State.  At  last,  in  compliance  with  his  friends'  entreaties,  he 
proposed  that  he  should  be  fined  the  small  sum  of  thirty  nrinse. 

The  conclusion  of  the  "  Apology,"  after  his  condemnation  to  death  had 
been  pronounced,  is  one  of  the  most  affecting  and  sublime  of  all  speeches. 
"  The  difficulty,  my  friends,"  he  says,  "  is  not  in  avoiding  death,    The  deatn 
but   in   avoiding    unrighteousness ;     for   that    runs   faster   than     Penalty- 
death."     His  accusers  were  condemned  by  the  truth   to  suffer  the  penalty  of 


4i2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

villainy  and  wrong.  He  supposed  that  these  things  were  fated ;  and  he 
thought  that  they  were  well.  There  was  great  reason  to  hope  that  death 
is  a  good ;  it  was  either  a  state  of  nothingness  or  a  migration  of  the  soul 
from  this  world  to  another.  Even  considered  as  a  perfect,  peaceful  sleep, 
he  said,  "  to  die  is  gain,  for  eternity  is  then  only  a  single  night.  But  if 
death  is  the  journey  to  another  place,  and  there,  as  men  say,  all  the  dead 
are,  what  good,  0  my  friends  and  judges,  can  be  greater  than  this  ?  .  .  . 
Above  all,  I  shall  then  be  able  to  continue  my  search,  into  true  and  false 
knowledge  ;  and  I  shall  find  out  who  is  wise,  and  who  pretends  to  be  wise 
and  is  not.  ...  In  another  world  they  do  not  put  a  man  to  death  for 
asking  questions,  assuredly  not.  For  besides  being  happier  in  that  world 
than  in  this,  they  will  be  immortal,  if  what  is  said  is  true.  Wherefore,  0 
judges,  be  of  good  cheer  about  death,  and  know  of  a  certainty  that  no  evil 
can  happen  to  a  good  man,  either  in  life  or  after  death.  He  and  his  are 
not  neglected  by  the  gods ;  nor  has  my  own  approaching  end  happened  by 
mere  chance.  But  I  see  clearly  that  to  die  and  be  released  was  better  for 
me.  ...  I  am  not  angry  with  my  condemners,  or  with  my  accusers ; 
they  have  done  me  no  harm,  although  they  did  not  mean  to  do  me  any 
good ;  and  for  this  I  may  gently  blame  them.  .  .  .  The  hour  of 
departure  has  arrived,  and  we  go  our  ways — I  to  die  and  you  to  live. 
Which  is  better,  God  only  knows." 

Having  refused  to  take  advantage  of  an  opportunity  which  his  friends 
had  provided  for  his  escape,  especially  because  he  will  not  break  the  laws  of 
Socrates  ^e  State  under  which  he  has  lived  peaceably  so  long,  on  the  last 
on  the  day  of  his  life  Socrates  is  represented,  in  Plato's  dialogue  en- 
titled "Phsedo,"  as  having  delivered  his  opinions  on  the  future  life. 
He  disapproves  of  suicide  ;  "  a  man  should  wait,  and  not  take  his  own  life 
until  God  summons  him."  Yet  he  acknowledges  that  he  ought  to  be 
grieved  at  death,  if  he  were  not  persuaded  that  he  was  going  to  gods  who 
are  wise  and  good,  and  to  men  departed  who  are  better  than  those  he  would 
leave  behind.  By  death  the  foolishness  of  the  body  would  be  cleared  away, 
and  those  who  loved  wisdom  and  purity  in  this  life  would  be  pure  and  hold 
converse  with  other  pure  souls,  and  know  the  light  of  truth.  The  impure 
souls  at  death  have  to  pay  the  penalty  of  their  evil  life,  and  he  supposes  that 
they  wander  among  tombs  and  sepulchres,  till  finally  they  are  born  again  in 
another  body,  probably  of  a  fierce  or  evil  animal.  He  believes  indeed  that  the 
soul  exists  before  the  body,  as  proved  he  thinks  by  the  apparent  reminiscences 
of  previous  states.  Hence  that  which  pre-existed  cannot  be  destroyed  by 
the  mere  death  of  the  body.  The  lesson  is  drawn  that  the  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  of  the  soul,  and  that  the  danger  of  neglect  is  truly  awful. 
There  is  no  release  or  salvation  from  evil  except  the  attainment  of  the 
highest  virtue  or  wisdom.  He  accepts  the  essence  of  the  current  doctrine  of 
Hades  and  Tartarus,  and  of  the  sentences  of  reward  and  punishment  there 
awarded.  Those  who  have  duly  purified  themselves  with  philosophy 
"  live  henceforth  altogether  without  the  body  in  mansions  fairer  than  these, 
which  may  not  be  described,  and  of  which  the  time  would  fail  me  to  tell." 


SOCRATES,    PLATO,   AND    OTHER    GREEK  PHILOSOPHERS.    413 


He  does  not  venture  to  say  that  his  description  is  exactly  true,  but  he  thinks 
something  of  the  kind  is  true,  and  the  pure  man  who  has  arrayed  the  soul 
in  her  own  proper  jewels — temperance,  justice,  courage,  nobility,  and  truth — 
is  ready  to  journey  to  the  other  world.  He  would  not  have  his  friends 
sorrow  at  his  hard  lot,  or  say  at  his  burial,  "  Thus  we  lay  out  Socrates," 
or  "  Thus  we  follow  him  to  the  grave  or  bury  him  ;  "  they  must  say  to  them- 
selves that  they  are  burying  his  body  only. 

But  their  sorrow  was  not  taken  away  by  his  words  ;  they  felt  as  if 
they  were  being  bereaved  of  a  father,  and  that  they  should  spend  the 
rest  of  their  lives  as  orphans.  The  jailer  coming  in  to  tell  him  that  the 
appointed  time  for  drinking  the  cup  of  hemlock  had  come,  called  him  the 
noblest  and  gentlest  and  best  of  all  who  ever  came  there,  and  burst  into 
tears.  "  Then,"  said  Socrates,  "  I  may  and  must  ask  the  gods  to  prosper 
my  journey  from  this  to  that  other  world — even  so — and  so  be 

His  death 

it  according  to  my  prayer."  Then  he  drank  the  poison  quite 
cheerfully  and  readily.  As  the  poison  was  taking  effect,  he  said,  "  Crito,  I 
owe  a  cock  to  Asclepios  ;  will  you  remember  to  pay  the  debt?  "  "  The  debt 
shall  be  paid,"  answered  Crito.  Possibly  the  philosopher  meant  that  he  was 
now  restored  by  death  to  health,  and  would  make  the  usual  offering  to 
the  god  of  health. 

Thus  died  the  man  whom  Plato  terms  the  wisest,  greatest,  and  best  man 
he  had  ever  known.  Truly  he,  being  dead,  yet  speaketh.  The  life  and 
death  of  Socrates  did  not  indeed  produce  a  new  religion  in  Greece,  but  as 
represented  by  Plato  and  Xenophon,  he  became  the  true  founder  of  most 
of  the  greatest  philosophies  of  life  and  mind,  and  the  influence  of  his  life 
and  death  can  never  die.  Of  no  man  can  it  more  truly  be  said  that  he  lived 
up  to  the  light  he  had,  gained  all  the  light  he  could,  conquered  human  evil 
and  the  fear  of  death,  and  fearlessly  trusted  the  Divine. 

Having  thus  given  in  outline  an  account  of  Socrates  and  his  teaching, 
we  can  give  much  less  space  to  Plato,  whose  significance  as  a  religious 
teacher  is  far  less  than  his  importance  as  a  philosopher.      As  the  pupil  and 
friend  of  Socrates,  he  is  of  the  utmost  value  as   a  recorder,  more  or  less 
literal,  of  his  teachings.     His  life  (427-347  b.c.)  is  of  less  special 
note  because  he  lived  very  quietly  and  unobtrusively,  teaching 
in  the  grove  named  after  Academus,  whence  his  school  is  known  as  the 
Academy,  and  in  his  own  garden.     In  dealing  with  those  portions  of  his 
extensive  writings  which  belong  most  clearly  to  our  subject,  we  must  begin 
with  the  moral  teachings,  for  with  him  religion  and  morals  are  one.     Plato, 
seeing  that  earthly  life  can  never  be  free  from  evil,  says  that  Hig  ^^  of 
we  must  flee  away  as  quickly  as   possible  to  God,  by  making  the  hody  as 
ourselves  like  Him  through  virtue  and  wisdom.     The  body  is  an 
evil,  the  grave  of  the  higher  life  ;  unrighteousness,  arising  in  the  soul,  allies 
itself  to  the  lower  elements  of  the  body,  and  develops  all  kinds  of  evil. 
Every  man  must  seek  the  highest  good,  which  is  virtue.     The   virtue,  the 
virtuous  man  alone  is  free.    Only  he  who  takes  hold  on  the  Eternal Mghest  g00d- 
can  be  truly  satisfied.    True  philosophy  is  one  with  perfect  morality.    Virtue 


414 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


is  its  own  reward,  as  vice  is  its  own  punishment.  Virtue  is  rewarded  in 
the  life  to  come,  and  vice  punished.  The  just  man  must  do  only  good, 
even  to  his  enemies  ;  but  the  State,  Plato  held,  might  use  untruth  as  a 
means  of  government.  He  also  held  views  about  marriage  which  were  by 
no  means  lofty  ;  he  considered  the  question  merely  as  a  means  of  providing 
healthy  youths  to  build  up  the  State.  Still  he  sought  the  elevation  of 
women,  both  physically,  mentally,  and  morally,  and  especially  by  making 
them  share  the  training  and  pursuits  of  men  to  a  considerable  extent.  In 
Morals  and  regard  to  another  evil  of  the  Greek  social  condition,  he  was  little 
the  state.  £n  a(jVance  of  his  time,  for  he  upheld  slavery,  though  he  tried  to 
improve  the  treatment  of  slaves.  He  had  a  low  opinion  of  trade  and  agri- 
culture as  occupations  for  intelligent  men.  His  political  scheme  ("  Republic" 
"  Politicus"  "  Laws")  contained  many  elements  related  to  morals,  but  they 
are  too  numerous  to  be  detailed,  and  are  seldom  made  to  depend  on  his 
religious  belief.  The  State,  as  an  ideal,  was  the  main  object  of  his  "  Re- 
public," and  to  obtain  and  maintain  good 
citizens,  he  described  conditions  of  com- 
munism in  property,  wives  and  children, 
and  of  exposure  of  sickly  new-born  infants, 
which  we  may  doubt  whether  he  would 
have  soberly  put  into  practice.  Modern 
anthropology  has  taught  us  that  numerous 
races  have  approached  Plato's  ideal  in 
some  of  these  respects,  without  securing 
the  advantages  he  desired  to  gain ;  and  we 
must  remember  that  Plato's  theoretical 
discussion  justifies  no  one  in  doing  for 
private  ends  what  he  imagined  a  State  to 
ordain  solely  for  the  common  good.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  occupy  space  in  condemning 
what  no  civilised  race  is  at  all  likely  to  enforce  or  sanction. 

Plato  recognises  one  Eternal  and  Invisible  God,  perfectly  true  and 
good,  the  highest  ideal,  the  Maker  and  Father  of  all.  He  is  unchangeable 
views  of  an(l  perfect,  and  will  never  show  Himself  to  man  other  than  as 
the  Deity.  jje  js>  Thus  he  is  absolutely  against  all  mythological  stories 
of  the  gods  which  fall  below  this  ideal.  God  being  pure  and  good  can 
produce  or  originate  no  evil ;  He  does  anything  that  can  be  done  ;  He  has 
wisely  adapted  means  to  ends  ;  He  knows  everything,  cares  and  provides 
for  all  in  the  best  way,  rewards  virtue  and  punishes  vice.  He  recognises 
also  certain  created  gods,  who  represent  or  are  the  universe  and  the  heavenly 
bodies.  He  uses  the  name  Zeus  for  the  soul  of  the  universe,  and  frequently 
when  he  speaks  of  gods,  he  is  evidently  describing  the  Supreme  Deity.  He 
again  and  again  combats  the  popular  beliefs.  The  gods  are  above  pleasure 
and  pain,  and  cannot  be  bribed  and  persuaded  by  prayers  and  offerings. 
Divine  Providence  looks  after  small  as  well  as  great  things  and  persons, 
and  all  things  conduce  to  the  true  welfare  of  those  whom  the  gods  love. 


SOCRATES,   PLATO,    AND    OTHER    GREEK  PHILOSOPHERS.    415 


According  to  Plato  the  worship  of  God  consists  especially  in  a  desire  to  be 
good,  and  the  strenuous  endeavour  to  attain  the  ideal.  God  is  good,  and 
man  must  strive  to  be  like  Him.  He  would  maintain  the  old  forms  of 
religious  worship,  made  pure  and  moral ;  and  he  would  not  only  reverence 
guardian  spirits  (daemons),  but  would  have  distinguished  men  reverenced  as 
such  after  their  death.  He  would  punish  atheism  and  other  offences  against 
religion,  but  would  allow  the  young  to  be  taught  by  myths  and  stories 
which  he  did  not  himself  believe,  regarding  such  as  necessary  stages  towards 
the  truth. 

Aristotle  (384-322  b.c.)  is  often  regarded  as  the  great  practical  and  scien- 
tific philosopher  as  opposed  to  Plato  the  idealist ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  remem- 
ber that  he  was  a  pupil  of  Plato,  and  that  much  of  their  teaching 

...  Aristotle 

is  in  agreement.     We  shall  only  refer  to  the  teaching  of  Aristotle 

upon  morals  and  religion,  which  forms  but  a  small  part  of  his  works.  He 
makes  man's  highest  good  to  consist  in  the  exercise  of  his  reason,  which  he 
places  above  the  exercise  of  the  moral  virtues.  He  describes  the  brave  man 
consciously  encountering  death  for  a  worthy  object,  because  he  feels  that  it 
is  beautiful  to  do  so ;  and  this  illustrates  his  somewhat  artistic  conception 
of  the  excellence  of  virtue.  He  maintains  that  slavery  is  based  on  nature, 
and  that  certain  races  are  intended  to  be  subject.  "Women  are  distinctly 
inferior  to  men,  and  he  objects  to  Plato's  scheme  for  their  education  and 
elevation. 

As  to  the  cause  of  all  things,  Aristotle  is  not  very  clear.  He  speaks  of 
a  personal  mover  of  all  things,  enjoying  bliss  for  ever,  wrapt  in  lofty  con- 
templation upon  Himself.  Man  is  too  inferior  to  God  for  Him  to  concern 
Himself  about  his  affairs  ;  and  thus  Aristotle  can  give  us  no  light  upon  a 
future  life,  immortality,  Providence,  and  prayer. 

The  chief  schools  beside  the  Platonic,  which  owed  their  origin  to  the 
pupils  of  Socrates,  were  the  Megarian,  the  Cynic,  and  the  Cyrenaic.     The 
former,  of  which  Euclid  (not  the  geometer)  was  the  founder,  held        The 
that  what  is  not  good  has  no  real  existence,  and  that  God  sums  Me&arians. 
up  all  intelligence,  reason,  and  goodness.     The  Cynics,  of  whom  Antisthenes 
and    Diogenes  were  the   greatest,   deprecated  theory  and  glori-  . 

fled  action  and  self-control.     Virtuous  conduct  based  on  wisdom 
and  prudence  was  the  only  thing  to  make  men  happy ;    pleasure  was   the 
greatest  evil.     Their  virtue  being  sufficient  for  them,   they  became   self- 
sufficient  boasters.     They  lived  as  beggars,  with  no  property  at  all,  and  were 
more  arrogant  than  the  rich  and  powerful ;  and  in  contempt  for  convention 
they  despised  much  of  ordinary  morality.     The  Cyrenaics,  re-        x^g 
presented  first  by  Aristippus,  made  pleasure  the  chief  good,  but  Cyrenaics. 
kept  a  mastery  over  the  desires.      To  Aristippus  no  possession  was  more 
valuable  than  contentment,  no  disease  worse  than  avarice  ;  he  valued  free- 
dom above  everything.     He  cared  nothing  for  the  popular  notions  about 
the  gods.     Epicureanism  was  the  natural  successor  of  the  Cyrenaic  philo- 
sophy, as  Stoicism  was  of  the  Cynic. 

Epicurus  has  too  often  been  referred  to  as  the  type  of  the  sensualist, 


416 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Epicurus. 


The  Stoics. 


but  he  was  far  from  being  so.  "While  he  regarded  pleasure  as  the  need  and 
end  of  every  one,  he  lived  a  sparing  and  quiet  life,  preferring 
pleasures  of  the  mind  to  those  of  the  body,  and  making  virtue  his 
aim  because  it  conferred  the  most  permanent  and  truest  pleasure.  He 
however  places  the  family  at  a  discount.  "  The  sage,"  he  says,  "  will  not 
marry  and  beget  children,  nor  will  he  take  part  in  State  affairs.  He  will 
not  form  hard  and  fast  judgments  ;  he  will  not  believe  all  sinners  to  be 
equally  depraved,  nor  all  sages  equally  wise."  He  gathered  around  him  a 
society  of  intimates,  who  lived  in  simple  community,  eating  barley  bread 
and  drinking  chiefly  water.  A  remarkable  degree  of  attachment  subsisted 
between  him  and  his  pupils,  who  were  exceedingly  numerous.  After  his 
death  statues  were  erected  in  his  honour  at  Athens,  where  he  lived  for 
thirty-six  years.  Epicurus  does  not  figure  as  a  religious  teacher.  He  does 
not  deny  the  existence  of  the  gods,  but  believes  that  human  affairs  are 
beneath  their  ken,  and  that  they  do  not  interfere  even  in  the  grand  phe- 
nomena of  nature.  His  philosophy  found  a  remark- 
able exponent  in  the  Roman  Lucretius,  and  had 
great  influence  at  Rome  for  centuries. 

The  Stoics,  with  Zeno  at  their  head,  took  up 
the  Cynic  views  of  self-control  as  the  means  of  re- 
generating  the   soul  of   man,  and  urged 
the  discovery  of  the  laws  governing  the 
world  as  indicating  man's  best  path  to  perfect  happi- 
ness.    The  whole  world  was  under  a  Divine  order  or 
Providence,  of  which  all  the  gods  were  but   tem- 
porary or  local  manifestations.     Passion  was  neces- 
sarily wrong,  giving  an  erroneous  judgment  of  what 
is  desirable  or   to  be   shunned.      Pain  was  not   to 
disquiet  a  man,  and  all  the  causes  that  disturb  man's 
spirit  were  not  to  ruffle  the  sage.    Yet  conformity  to 
KiicuKus.  nature  was  their  motto  ;  and  if  desire,  passion,  and 

pain  are  not  part  of  nature,  what  is  ?  So  the  Stoics  were  as  little  consistent 
as  many  other  schools ;  but  they  had  a  multitude  of  adherents.  And  well 
it  might  be  so,  for  their  views  gave  consolation  to  many  an  unfortunate  or 
downtrodden  man,  by  giving  him  a  kingdom  within  himself,  where  no 
tyrant  could  control  his  thoughts  or  hinder  him  from  having  serene  delights. 
Pyrrho,  the  Sceptic,  is  perhaps  most  interesting  to  us,  since  he  taught 
what  is  practically  a  philosophy  of  feeling,  the  cultivation  of  good  feel- 
ings, thus  approaching  somewhat  to  Christianity ;  at  the  same  time  he  de- 
nied that  any  safe  criterion  of  intellectual  judgment  had  ever  been  found, 
though  he  did  not  go  so  far  as  to  say  there  was  none. 

Up  to  and  beyond  the  Christian  era,  the  philosophic  schools  of  Greece 
held  sway,  and  attracted  most  of  the  best  intellect  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
There  arose  a  sharper  distinction  than  ever  between  the  learned, 
and  the  common  people  whom  they  contemned ;  and  we  have  little 
to  show  that  the  latter  were  in  any  way  elevated  by  the  teachings  or  influ- 


Morals. 


SOCRATES,   PLATO,    AND    OTHER    GREEK  PHILOSOPHERS.   417 

ence  of  the  former.  The  morals  of  the  people  continued  to  degenerate,  or  at 
least  ceased  to  improve,  with  the  decay  of  real  faith  in  the  gods  ;  while  the 
philosophic  schools  became  more  and  more  recognised  and  honoured  by  the 
great  and  powerful.  At  the  same  time  the  traditional  beliefs  wsre  kept  up. 
Public  oaths  were  made  in  the  names  of  many  gods,  and  the  comedians 
were  styled  priests  of  Dionysos. 

In  the  wider  Greece  developed  after  the  death  of  Alexander  are  many 
interesting  phenomena  relating  to  Greek  religion.  Thus  Zeus  Hades  was 
imported  from  Sinope  to  Alexandria,  and  identified  with  the  Greeks  in 
Egyptian  god  Serapis.  The  Museum  and  the  Library  founded  other  ^nds. 
there  by  the  same  great  Ptolemy  (Soter)  were  alike  precursors  of  the  wide 
diffusion  of  Greek  learning  which  was  one  day  to  have  so  great  an  influ- 
ence on  and  through  Christianity.  We  find  hymns  written  to  order  for  the 
Greek  monarchs  of  Egypt,  celebrating  Greek  feasts  and  lauding  the  kings 
as  almost  on  a  level  with  the  gods,  and  expressing  a  commonplace  view 
of  the  old  Greek  religion.  Later,  the  Ptolemies  learnt  to  build  temples  to 
the  old  Egyptian  gods  ;  but  Greek  did  not  by  any  means  fuse  with  Egyptian 
religion. 

We  may  conclude  this  chapter  by  an  account  of  the  views  of  Polybius, 
who  lived  through  the  greater  part  of  the  second  century  B.C.,  and  the  irre- 
trievable subjugation  of  Greece  by  Rome.  He  may  be  taken  as 
a  type  of  the  best  Greeks  of  the  time.  He  was  devoted  to  truth, 
and  believed  in  the  moral  government  of  the  world,  and  in  retributive  pro- 
vidence. He  hated  meanness  and  lack  of  self-respect.  But  he  had  no 
great  inspiration  to  regenerate  his  people  ;  and  his  teaching  of  the  lessons 
of  history,  while  of  much  interest,  roused  no  enthusiasm.  Whether  from 
a  decay  that  was  inevitable  or  not,  in  Greece  religion  and  national  life  were 
dead. 

[Xenophon's  "  Memorabilia  " ;  Plato's  works  (Jowett's  translation) ;  Grote's  "  History  of  Greece," 
vols.  iv.  and  vii. ;  Zeller's  "Socrates  and  the  Socratic  Schools"  and  "Plato  and  the  Older  Academy."] 


E   E 


MONUMENTS    ON    THE    APPIAN   WAY    NEAR    ROME. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
€\)t  Ionian  Bdigiom 

Early  Roman  religion— Origin— The  Latins— Etruscan  religion— Jupiter— Festivals— Juno — Mars- 
Janus— Minerva— Vesta—  Flora—  Vertumnus— Pales— Terminus— Comus  and  Libitina— Other 
gods— Prophetic  nymphs— The  Greek  gods  Romanised— The  Penates  or  household  gods— The 
Lares— The  Manes— The  Lemures — The  Genii— Roman  temples  -  Priests— The  Vestal  virgins— 
The  Flamens— The  Pontiffs— Divination— The  Augurs— Relation  to  the  magistrates— Funeral 
ceremonies— The  calendar  of  festivals —Abstract  deities— Essence  of  the  religion— Keepers  of 
the  Sibylline  books— Moral  character  of  early  Romans— Hellenism— Cybele— Bacchus— Degrada- 
tion of  morals— The  later  republic— Decay  of  religion— Julius  Csesar— The  Empire— Imperial 
apotheosis— New  beliefs— Seneca— Moral  state  of  the  empire. 

ALTHOUGH  the  Romans  were  akin  in  stock  to  the  Greeks,  and  were 
originally,  to  some  extent,  similar  in  religion,  the  divergences  in 
political  history  and  in  personal  and  civic  temperament  were  so  great  as 
Early  Roman  to  develop  concurrently  a  decidedly  distinct  type  of  religion, 
religion.  »pne  disuni0I1  0f  Greece  was  contrasted  with  the  gradual  achieve- 
ment of  unity  in  Italy  ;  the  variety  of  Greek  gods  was  represented  in  Rome 
by  a  compendious  worship,  tribal  gods  being  retained  by  the  combined 
people  of  early  Rome,  and  later  the  Greek  gods  being  either  adopted  de 
novo,  or  identified  with  some  of  the  old  Italian  divinities.  Many  of  the 
deities  most  familiar  to  us  by  Roman  names  were  scarcely  known,  and 
certainly  were  not  worshipped  at  Rome  during  the  period  when  the  little 
city  was,  by  slow  and  stern  discipline,  rendering  certain  its  future  conquest 
of  the  world. 

418 


THE  ROMAN  RELIGION.  419 

Yet,  to  begin  with,  the  Roman  and  the  Greek  religious  notions  were  the 
same.  Nature  worship,  personification  of  natural  forces,  hero  and  ancestor 
worship,  were  combined  in  various  degrees.  Spirits  were  imagined 
in  every  natural  phenomenon,  and  concerned  in  the  perpetual  re- 
production of  creation  and  creatures ;  but  from  an  early  time  the  Romans 
viewed  their  religion  more  seriously  than  the  Greeks,  were  less  gay  and 
confident,  more  gloomy  and  prudent.  Their  worship  was  much  more 
marked  by  fear  and  awe,  and  they  dared  not  handle  the  persons  and  names 
of  their  gods  so  freely.  Consequently  their  mythology  is  very  deficient  in 
imagination,  and  there  is  almost  an  entire  lack  of  those  marvellous  stories  in 
which  Greece  was  so  prolific.  Yet  Rome  in  its  way  was  prolific  in  regard 
to  religion,  for  a  special  spirit  was  designated  in  relation  to  every  action, 
every  place,  every  object ;  each  man,  each  family,  each  clan  had  its  own 
guardian  spirit ;  and  for  every  State  or  city  separate  gods  were  recognised, 
who,  however,  might  be  admitted  into  the  Roman  worship  by  resolution  of 
the  people.  One  feature  may  be  taken  as  common  to  the  Roman  religious 
ideas,  that  of  naming  them  according  to  their  qualities,  and  by  abstract 
terms.  The  Roman  gods  do  not  marry  and  have  children,  and  do  not  walk 
about  unseen  among  mortals.  Yet  they  unquestionably  gained  a  powerful 
hold  on  the  minds  of  the  people  who  reverenced  them,  and  we  owe  to  them 
the  most  significant  word  Religion. 

That  Alba  was  a  more  primitive  religious  and  national  centre  than 
Rome  was  borne  witness  to  even  during  the  time  of  Rome's  greatness  by  the 
continuation  of  the  Latin  festival  on  the  Alban  mount,  when  an  __■  .. 

.  ill        m©  J-j3.lihs. 

ox  was  sacrificed  to  Jupiter  as  the  god  of  the  Latins,  and  cattle, 
milk,  and  cheese  were  contributed  by  various  communities  to  a  joint 
festival.  It  is  impossible  now  to  trace  accurately  the  constituents  which 
combined  to  form  the  Roman  religion,  but  at  least  three  tribes  took  part  in 
it  very  early,  and  the  oldest  religious  bodies  consisted  of  a  number  divisible 
by  three  ;  and  the  earliest  festivals,  derived  from  times  before  the  existence 
of  towns,  show  the  people  as  being  pastoral  and  agricultural.  AVe  will  not 
recite  the  familiar  legend  of  Romulus,  but  we  may  note  that  it  was  on  the 
Palatine  Hill  that  various  supernatural  events  connected  with  the  founding  of 
Rome  were  believed  to  have  occurred ;  and  there  the  priest  of  Jupiter  lived, 
there  was  the  sanctuary  of  Lupercus,  and  the  meeting-place  of  the  Leaping 
Priests  of  Mars  ;  but  there  were  no  temples  in  early  times.  It  is  probable 
that  the  Quirinal  Hill  was  at  first  the  seat  of  a  distinct  community,  later 
incorporated  with  the  Palatine ;  and  in  its  stronghold  or  Capitol  was  a  sanc- 
tuary of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva,  and  of  the  goddess  of  Fidelity  (later  re- 
placed by  the  new  Capitol  and  its  temples).  Mars  and  Lupercus  too  had  their 
bodies  of  priests  on  the  Quirinal.  Within  recent  years  a  discovery  has  been 
made  of  pre-historic  remains  on  the  Esquiline — tombs  of  the  most  primitive 
type,  going  back  at  least  to  the  fifth  century  B.C. ;  this,  then,  was  doubtless 
the  seat  of  a  third  settlement. 

At  a  later  period,  but  still  early  as  regards  authentic  history,  the  Romans 
incorporated  much  that  had  been  Etruscan,  or  identified  the  gods  they 


42o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

already  had  with  Etruscan  gods.  We  will  not  attempt  to  discuss  the  racial 
Etruscan  connection  of  the  Etruscans ;  but  there  is  little  in  their  religious 
religion.  remains  to  negative  their  being  Arj^ans  like  the  Romans.  They 
recognised  two  classes  of  gods — those  who  directly  managed  the  affairs  of  the 
world  (Dii  consentes),  and  others  who  were  nameless — but  controlled  the  rest. 
The  former  included  Tinia  (identified  with  Jupiter  by  the  Romans),  Uni 
(Juno),  Meurfa  (Minerva) ;  but  we  find  that  their  functions  differed  in  some 
respects  from  those  of  the  corresponding  Roman  gods.  Jupiter  was  their  god 
of  war,  though  he  ruled  over  all  during  peace,  and  caused  the  fertility  of  the 
earth.  Minerva  was  winged  as  well  as  armed,  represented  Fate,  and  was 
symbolised  by  a  serpent.  Venus  was  known  as  Turan,  Bacchus  as  Phuph- 
luns,  Mercury  as  Turms,  and  many  other  Greek  gods  were  adopted  by  the 
Etruscans.  They  had  also  Janus,  Saturnus,  Silvanus,  Mantus,  Voltumna 
among  nature  deities;  and  the  Lares,  Penates,  etc.,  which  figure  prominently 
at  Rome,  appear  to  have  been  Etruscan.  No  doubt  the  reigns  of  the  Tar- 
quins  had  much  to  do  with  establishing  these  at  Rome.  We  have  no  re- 
mains of  their  temples,  but  they  appear  to  have  approached  a  square  shape. 
Many  of  their  tombs  have,  however,  been  preserved,  and  the  sculptures,  in- 
scriptions and  paintings  on  them  constitute  our  most  important  source  o± 
information  as  to  their  religious  as  well  as  other  customs.  Their  religious  rites, 
which  were  gloomy  and  fantastic,  and  abounded  in  repulsive  practices,  were 
described  in  certain  lost  books.  Divination,  from  animals'  entrails,  from 
natural  phenomena  and  lightning,  was  much  practised  under  fixed  rules. 
There  were  families  charged  with  the  interpretation  of  them,  and  consti- 
tuting a  priesthood.  The  Etruscans  undoubtedly  had  a  vast  influence  on 
Roman  religion — in  augury,  teleology,  and  even  the  architecture  of  their 
temples. 

Commencing  with  Jupiter,  we  will  now  give  an  account  of  the  Roman 
gods,  and  more  particularly  of  those  which  are  special  to  the  Romans.  The 
word  Jupiter  stands  for  Jen  piter,  Dieu  piter — the  first  part  of  the 
word  being  identical  in  root  with  divus  and  dyaus,  heaven. 
Thus  Jupiter  means  the  heavenly  father ;  and  in  keeping  with  this 
the  Romans  ascribed  to  him  all  changes  in  the  heavens,  rain,  storms, 
thunder,  etc.,  and  indeed  gave  him  a  special  name  for  each,  as  Jupiter 
Pluvius  (Rainer),  Fulgurator  (Lightener),  Tonans  (Thunderer).  He  is 
termed  best  (optimus)  and  highest  (maximus).  Capitolinus  from  his  dwelling 
on  the  Capitol,  Imperator,  Victor,  Triumphator,  etc.,  and  he  had  temples 
under  many  of  these  distinctive  names.  His  enthronement  on  the  Capito- 
line  Hill  dates  from  the  time  of  Tarquin ;  but  long  afterwards  he  continued 
to  be  the  object  of  separate  worship  at  various  other  shrines.  One  marked 
peculiarity  of  Jupiter  was  that  of  revealing  his  will  by  portents,  which  he 
sends  to  all  who  diligently  seek  them,  especially  by  signs  in  the  heavens 
and  the  flight  of  birds.  He  was  originally  the  god  both  of  the  dead  and 
the  living ;  but,  as  in  Greece,  the  former  character  dropped  out  of  recogni- 
tion. Jupiter  was  the  patron  and  protector  of  human  society,  guarding 
the  sanctity  of  oaths,  the  rights  of  strangers,  the  unity  of  the  State,  etc. 


THE  ROMAN  RELIGION. 


421 


Jupiter  also  led  the  people  to  war  as  Victor ;  and  to  him  thanks  and  sacrifice 
were  offered  by  the  general  on  returning  from  battle.  In  concluding  a 
treaty,  the  Eomans  took  the  symbols  of  Jupiter,  a  flint  stone  and  a  sceptre 


and  some  grass  from  his  temple.  The  consuls  sacrificed  to  Jupiter  on  taking 
office,  and  young  men  did  the  same  when  they  put  on  the  toga  mrilis— 
the  man's  gown.     He  was  invoked  at  the  beginning  of  every  undertaking. 


422 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Festivals. 


The  principal  festivals  to  Jupiter  were  the  Roman  and  the  Great,  the 
Capitoline  and  the  Plebeian :  all  of  these  included  a  feast  of  the  magistrates 
and  senators  in  the  Capitol.  At  these  feasts  seats  were  left  for 
Jupiter,  Juno  and  Minerva,  as  though  they  were  family  feasts  of  a 
tribe  and  its  gods.  There  were  numerous  peculiar  features  attaching  to  the 
worship  of  Jupiter,  which  were  derived  from  the  Etruscans.  The  priest  of 
Jupiter  (called  Flamen  Dialis)  was  forbidden  to  touch  a  corpse ;  and  if  his 
wife  died,  he  lost  his  office.  He  was  the  subject  of  many  taboos ;  thus  he 
must  not  see  an  army,  nor  leave  the  city  for  a  night,  nor  take  off  his  cap  of 
office,  nor  touch  a  dog,  etc. 

As  the  god  of  light,  the  colour  white  was  sacred  to  Jupiter ;  and  white 
animals  were  sacrificed  to  him.  The  consuls  wore  white  when  they  sacri- 
ficed to  him,  and  his  priests  wore  white  caps.     The  god  was  represented  as 

seated  on  an  ivory  throne,  with 
a  bundle  of  thunderbolts  in  his 
right  hand  and  a  sceptre  in  his 
left,  an  eagle  standing  beside 
his  throne.  We  need  not  en- 
large on  the  Greek  aspect  given 
to  the  god  after  the  introduction 
of  Greek  learning  to  Rome. 

Juno,  identified  later  with 
the  Greek  Hera,  was  originally 
very  unlike  the  wife 
of  Zeus.  She  was 
introduced  to  Rome  from  Etrus- 
can cities,  where  she  was  the 
goddess  of  the  State  and  of 
society,  and  had  no  naturalistic 
functions.  At  Rome  she  was 
to  the  female  sex  what  Jupiter 
was  to  the  male,  and  was  especi- 
ally the  goddess  of  everything 
connected  with  marriage,  as  well  as  of  young  girls  ;  hence  she  was  known  as 
Juno  Virginalis  and  Matrona,  and  also  as  Lucina,  from  the  help  she  afforded 
in  childbirth.  A  variety  of  other  names,  often  associated  with  distinct 
shrines,  were  given  to  her.  At  her  great  festival,  the  Matronalia,  on  the 
Kalends  of  March,  a  grand  procession  of  wives  and  maidens  of  spotless 
character  was  made  to  the  temple  of  Lucina  on  the  Esquiline  Hill. 

It  is  probable  that  at  an  early  period  Mars  was  the  chief  god  of  at  least 
one  of  the  States  which  combined  to  form  Rome.  He  was  worshipped  under 
the  name  of  Marspiter  (father  Mars),  or  Maspiter,  also  Mavors  or 
Maurs.  Mamers  was  his  name  among  the  Sabines.  It  is  ques- 
tionable whether  he  was  not  at  first  purely  an  agricultural  divinity,  the  god 
of  spring,  overcoming  the  evil  effects  of  winter  ;  but  the  necessity  of  war 
to  preserve  the  fruits  of  agriculture  no  doubt  aided  in  the  transformation  of 


THE  ROMAN  RELIGION. 


423 


Mars  into  the  god  of  war,  without  his  losing  all  his  old  characters.  He  was 
still  god  of  heaven,  giver  of  light,  hurling  thunder  and  sending  rain.  In 
olden  times,  there  were  pro- 
pitiatory ceremonies  to  Mars, 
to  ward  off  drought,  pesti- 
lence, etc.  At  one  festival 
a  sheep  and  a  reddish  dog 
were  sacrified  by  the  flamen 
of  Mars,  to  avert  mildew 
from  the  crops.  In  times  of 
calamity  a  "  sacred  spring  " 
(ver  sacrum)  was  consecrated 
to  Mars,  all  things  born 
then  being  sacrificed  to 
him.  Like  Jupiter,  he  gave 
oracles  and  portents,  and 
was  a  god  of  the  dead  and 
of  death. 

The  Palatine-priests  of 
Mars,  for  many  days  after 

the  first  of  March,  were  accustomed  to  dance  in  armour  through  parts  of 
Rome,  singing  a  certain  song,  mentioning  all  the  gods  of  the  city,  but 
especially  referring  to  Mamurius  or  Mamers.  The  name  Quirinus  (a  Sabine 
word)  was  also  applied  to  Mars,  as  reputed  father  of  Romulus  and  Remus ; 
and  his  sacred  wolf  was  their  foster-mother.  The  old  goddess  Bellona, 
goddess  of  war,  was  said  to  be  sister,  or  daughter,  or  wife  of  Mars.  As  going 
to  battle  with  his  people,  Mars  was  known  as  Gradivus ;  as  an  agricultural 
god,  he  was  termed  Silvanus.  In  late  times  the  attributes  of  the  Greek 
Ares  were  ascribed  to  Mars. 

With  regard  to  Janus, 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  old- 
est of  the  Roman 
divinities,     there 

much  doubt,  both  as  to 

origin  and  his  true 
He  is  variously 
represented  as  a  dual-god, 
personifying  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  as  simply  a  god 
of  opening  and  beginning, 
typified  in  the  old  begin- 
ning of  the  year  with  Jan- 
uary, and  by  the  opening  of 
the  gates  of  Janus  at   the 

beginning  of  war,  and  closing  them  when  peace  prevailed.  The  earliest 
representations   of  the  god  were  simply  two-faced  heads;  later  complete 


Janus. 


IS 

his    „„& 

character 


424  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

statues  of  him  were  made  with  four  faces.  Such  a  statue  was  placed 
under  a  double  covered  gateway,  known  as  the  temple  of  Janus :  the  open 
gates  in  war  signified  that  the  god  had  gone  out  with  the  people  to  battle. 
But  Janus  was  also  regarded  as  the  god  of  the  beginning  of  all  occupations 
and  actions ;  and  it  was  a  marked  feature  of  the  Romans  to  attribute  ill- 
success  to  an  ill-beginning,  necessitating  recommencement.  As  Jupiter 
by  favourable  augury  gave  his  sanction  and  Janus  blessed  the  beginning, 
these  two  gods  were  invoked  first  in  every  undertaking.  New  Year's  Day 
was  the  special  festival  of  Janus,  on  which  the  people  were  anxious  that 
every  word  and  action  should  be  pure  and  favourable.  Consequently  they 
gave  presents  to  one  another,  abstained  from  cursing  and  quarrelling,  began 
some  of  their  work  for  the  year,  etc.  His  appropriate  sacrifices  were  cakes, 
barley,  incense,  and  wine,  which  were  offered  to  him  at  the  beginning  of 
every  month.  His  name  was  always  invoked,  and  a  libation  was  poured 
out  to  him  before  sacrificing  to  the  other  gods.  Possibly  Janus  represents  a 
very  early  ruler  of  one  of  the  Italian  tribes,  who  showed  such  powers  of 
memory  and  foresight  that  he  came  to  be  credited  with  full  knowledge  both 
of  the  past  and  the  future,  and  was  deified  after  death.  This  is  confirmed 
by  the  story  that  the  Greek  Kronos,  whom  they  identified  with  Saturnus  7 
one  of  their  own  agricultural  gods,  took  refuge,  after  his  defeat  by  the 
Titans,  with  Janus,  king  of  Italy,  who  shared  his  throne  with  him,  and  so 
introduced  a  golden  age  of  prosperity.  Saturnus  had  a  temple  at  the  bottom 
of  the  Capitoline  Hill,  in  which  the  State  laws  and  the  public  treasures  were 
preserved.  The  name  Saturnus  is  really  derived  from  the  word  for  sowing 
(sero,  sevi,  satum),  and  probably  represents  the  introducer  of  agriculture,  his 
character  resembling  that  of  Demeter  rather  than  Kronos.  His  wife  was 
Ops,  goddess  of  plenty,  afterwards  identified  with  Rhea,  wife  of  Kronos. 

Minerva,  the  third  of  the  early  Roman  triad  (Jupiter,  Juno,  and 
Minerva — derived  from  the  same  root  as  mens,  mind),  is  the  impersonation  of 
thought  and  invention,  or  even,  according  to  Varro,  of  all  ideas.  She 
is  said  to  have  invented  numbers,  and  was  the  patroness  of  all  arts 
and  trades.  She  specially,  as  a  virgin  goddess,  protected  women,  to  whom 
she  gave  skill  in  sewing,  spinning,  weaving,  etc.  But  she  was  also  a  war 
goddess,  supplying  the  mental  qualities, — cunning,  prudence,  courage,  and 
perseverance, — needed  for  success  ;  consequently  she  wore  a  helmet,  shield, 
and  coat  of  mail.  As  the  inventor  of  musical  instruments,  especially  of  wind, 
she  was  of  great  importance  to  festival  celebrations ;  and  the  instruments 
used  in  them  were  purified  on  the  last  day  of  Minerva's  festival  in  March. 
She  was  the  guardian  of  schools  ;  and  during  her  festival  boys  had  holiday, 
and  brought  a  special  gift  to  their  master,  known  as  the  Minerval. 

Vesta,  the  goddess  of  the  hearth,  an  early  divinity  at  Rome,  was  very  like 
the  Greek  Hestia  in  attributes.     She  was  honoured  at  every  Roman  family 
meal,  together  with  the  Penates ;  but  her  great  sanctuary  was  be- 
tween the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  Hills,  where,  instead  of  a  statue, 
there  burned  an  eternal  fire,  kept  up  by  her  virgin  priestesses,  the  Vestals.    A 
great  festival,  the  Vestalia,  was  celebrated  in  her  honour  on  the  9th  of  June. 


THE  ROMAN  RELIGION. 


425 


Numerous  other  gods  may  be  mentioned  as  among  the  early  objects  of 
Roman  worship,  principally  connected  with  agriculture ;  such  as  Flora,  the 
goddess  of  flowers,  represented  as  a  beautiful  girl  decked  with      Flora 
flowers,  and  honoured  at  a  mirthful  festival  at  the  end  of  April ;     Pomona. 
Pomona,  the  goddess  of  fruit-trees  and  representative  of  autumn  ;  Vertumnus, 
god  of  garden  and  field  produce,  to  whom  gardeners  offered  the 
first  produce,  with  garlands  of  budding  flowers ;  he  was  also  con- 
nected with  various  circumstances  of  change  (verto,  I  turn),  the  change  of 


Vertumnus. 


Pales. 


SACRIFICING    TO    THE    LARES,    OR    GODS    OF    THE    HEARTH. 

seasons,  purchase  and  sale,  the  return  of  rivers  to  their  beds  after  floods ; 

Pales,  a  god  of  flocks  and  shepherds,  and  also  of  husbandry.     The 

name  of  the  Palatine  Hill  is  connected  with  this  god.     During 

his  festival,  on  April  21st,  shepherds  ignited  a  quantity  of  straw  and  drove 

their  flocks  through  it,  themselves  following,  as  a  purification  from  sin. 

Terminus,  the  god  of  boundaries  and  landmarks ;  Consus,  the  god  of 
secret  counsel  and  of  the  infernal  regions ;  Silvanus,  the  god  of  plantations 
and  forests ;  Picus,  the  son  of  Saturnus,  another  divinity  of  the    Terminus 
woods,    possessing   prophetic   gifts ;    Comus,    who   presided   over  suvanus,  etc. 
banquets  and  gay  festivities  generally  ;  Libitina,  the  goddess  of  funerals,  are 


426  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

other  peculiarly  Roman  divinities.     The  temple  of  Libitina  at  Rome  con- 

Comus  and  tained  all  necessaries  for  burials,  and  these  could  either  be  bought 

Libitina.    or  \{xx^  there.     Terminus  was  probably  an  appellation  of  Jupiter 

in  his  capacity  of  protector  of  property.     Picumnus  and  Pilumnus  were  two 

brother    deities    protecting    marriage    and     newborn     children. 

'  Pilumnus  warded  off  sufferings,  while  Picumnus  gave  the  infant 

health  and  prosperity.     It  does  not  tend  to  raise  our  idea  of  the  Roman 

character  when  we  learn  that  an  altar  was  suffered  to  exist  at  Rome  to 

Laverna,  the  goddess  of  thieves  and  impostors,  as  well  as  a  grove  on  the 

Salernian  road.     Robigus,  the  antagonist  of  Flora,  is  more  intelligible.     As 

he  destroyed  young  plants  by  mildew,  he  was  appropriately  propitiated  by 

Prophetic    prayers    and    sacrifices.      The    Camense     were    four    prophetic 

Nymphs.    nymphS;  analogous  to  the  Greek  Muses.     Carmenta,  one  of  them, 

was  also  a  healing  divinity,  with  a  temple  at  the  foot  of  the  Capitoline  Hill. 

Egeria  was  the  nymph  who  is  said  to  have  taught  Numa  Pompilius  the 

form  of  public  worship.     "We  shall  not  detail  the  various  beliefs  introduced 

into  Rome  from  Greece  in  the  later  ages  of  the  Republic  and  the  early  time 

The       of  the  Empire.     Ceres,  Venus,  Apollo,  Neptune,  Diana,  Vulcan, 

Greek  gods  Mercury,  Bacchus,  and  other  gods  besides  those  we  have  men- 

"  tioned  were  considerably  recognised  and  worshipped  in  this  later 

period  ;  and  the  characteristics  of  their  Greek  representatives  were  ascribed 

to  them. 

The  Penates,  or  household  gods  of  the  Romans,  were  connected  with 
inner  or  private  matters  (penus),  and  perhaps  originally  were  gods  of  the 
The  hearth  and  kitchen.  They  were  always  spoken  of  as  plural,  and 
hou^etoiaf  *w0  images  of  them  were  placed  on  the  hearth,  but  no  specific 
gods.  name  was  given  to  them.  In  late  times  they  were  identified 
with  various  gods ;  but  they  are  more  probably  derived  from  primitive 
animism,  resembling  the  early  Teutonic  household  gods,  and  the  Chinese 
god  of  the  kitchen.  The  close  connection  of  the  Penates  with  domestic  life 
is  evident  from  the  fact  that  their  name  became  synonymous  with  "  home." 
The  old  Romans  used  to  have  a  morning  family  gathering  (including  the 
slaves),  to  offer  sacrifice  and  prayer  to  the  Penates.  Their  blessing  was 
asked  before  meals,  and  after  the  meal  part  of  the  food  was  burned  upon 
the  hearth.  Sometimes  the  images  were  brought  in  and  set  upon  the  table. 
On  the  Kalends  (1st),  Nones  (5th  or  7th),  and  Ides  (13th  or  15th)  of  the 
month  a  special  family  worship  took  place,  when  the  images  were  decorated 
and  crowned,  and  offerings  of  cakes,  honey,  wine,  and  incense  were  made  to 
them  ;  and  birthdays,  marriages  and  safe  returnings  from  journeys  were 
similarly  celebrated.  There  were  also  public  or  national  Penates,  with  a 
temple  at  Lavinium  and  another  at  Rome,  in  which  were  two  images 
of  youths  holding  spears. 

The  Lares  were  the  ancestral  spirits  of  the  family,  regarded  as  still 

capable  of  protecting  it  and  giving  its  inmates  prosperity.     One  special 

Lar,  the  founder  of  the  family,  was  worshipped  in  each  house,  and 

honoured  by  an  image  beside  those  of  the  Penates.     A  part  of 


THE  ROMAN  RELIGION.  427 

every  meal  was  offered  to  it ;  and  on  every  important  occasion  the  head  and 
members  of  the  household  saluted  these  images;  and  a  bride's  first  duty 
;on  entering  her  husband's  house  was  to  sacrifice  to  the  Lar.  The  name 
\Lar,  which  is  possibly  Etruscan,  signifies  lord,  king,  or  hero.  There  were 
public  Lares,  with  temples  and  public  worship  at  Home  and  in  all  Roman 
towns;  and  there  were  also  Lares  of  the  country,  the  high  roads,  and  the  sea. 
The  Lares  were  but  special  instances  of  the  Manes  or  spirits  of  the 
departed.     The   tendency  to  think  of  the  departed  as  good  and  favourable, 


VESTALS    OFFERING    SACRIFICE. 


led  to  the  frequent  interchange  of  the  words ;  they  are  also  spoken  of  as 

the  Dii  Manes  and  worshipped  with  divine  honours.     At  certain 

.   .  The  Manes, 

seasons  sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  spirits  of  the  departed,  and 

there  was  an  annual  festival  to  them.     The  Larvae,  or  Lemures,  were  the 

shades  of  the  dead  considered  as   unfavourable,    and  as  wandering  upon 

earth  in  hideous  shapes,  seeking  to  harm  their  relatives.      On  _   . 

r     '  °  .  .  The  Lemures. 

three  nights  in  May  the  Lemuralia  were  observed,  in  order  to 

propitiate  the  Lemurs.     At  midnight  the  head  of  the  family  went  outside 

the  door  of  the  house,  making  signs  with  his  hand,  which  were  supposed  to 

keep  the  Lemurs  away.     After  three  times  washing  his  hands  in  spring- 


428 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  Genii. 


water,  he  turned  round,  and  placed  some  black  beans  in  his  mouth,  which 
he  afterwards  threw  behind  him.  It  was  believed  that  the  spectres  col- 
lected these  beans.  After  some  further  ablutions, 
the  father  cried  out  nine  times,  "  Begone,  you 
spectres  of  the  house  ! "  and  then  they  were 
harmless. 

Associated  in  thought  with  the  Lares  and 
Penates,  and  sometimes  confused  with  them, 
were  the  Genii,  or  protecting  spirits ; 
indeed,  they  were  supposed  to  preside 
at  the  origin  of,  or  to  produce  each  living  crea- 
ture, and  to  accompany  it  through  life.  As  to 
mankind,  the  genius  was  supposed  to  stimulate 
each  person  to  noble  deeds,  to  comfort  him  in  sor- 
row, and  generally  to  act  as  guide  and  guardian 
angel.  Some  held  the  belief  that  the  genius 
could  change  character,  and  now  be  a  good  and 
now  an  evil  genius  ;  while  another  belief  was,  that  an  evil  as  well  as  a 
good  genius  accompanied  each  soul  and  struggled  together  for  mastery. 
On  various  occasions,  as  birthdays,  sacrifices  of  wine,  cakes,  and  incense 
were  offered  to  a  man's  genius  ;  and  merry  meetings  were  regarded  as 
pleasures  given  to  the  genius.     Each  State  and  town  was  supposed  to  have 


its  peculiar  genius.     They  are  generally  represented  as  winged  beings. 


While  the  Romans  borrowed  much  of  their  architecture  from  the 
Greeks,  they  added  to  the  elements  thence  derived,  one  of  first-class 
Roman  importance,  namely  the  round  arch  ;  yet  they  had  not  sufficient 
temples.  gj^Qj  ^o  make  with  the  aid  of  the  latter  graceful  buildings  ;  and  it 
was  not  till  after  the  conquest  of  Greece  that  fine  temples  were  built  by  the 
Romans.  Then,  however,  they  built  them  on  a  splendid  scale,  and  with 
some  new  developments,  but  never  reached  the  perfection  of  Greece.  In 
early  times  there  were  but  few  and  small  temples  in  Rome  ;  and  the  altar  was 
the  earlier  and  more  important  structure.     Usually  the  temples  were  built 

facing  the  west,  with  the  images  of  the 
god  similarly  placed,  so  that  worshippers 
entering  faced  the  east.  The  temples 
were  also  as  far  as  possible  so  arranged 
that  passers-by  could  readily  look  into 
them  and  salute  the  god. 

Owing  to  the  absence  or  fragmentary 
nature  of  the  remains  of  Roman  temples, 
it  is  difficult  to  give  a  satisfactory  account 
of  them.  There  are  no  remains  by  which 
we  can  certainly  reconstruct  the  temple 
of  the  Capitoline  Jove.  The  great  Pantheon,  with  its  magnificent  dome,  is 
the  finest  example  of  Roman  originality  in  architecture ;  but  it  dates  from 


THE   ROMAN  RELIGION. 


429 


CASTOR    AND    POLLUX. 


the  time  of  the  early  emperors,  and  it  is  not  certain  that  it  was  ever  used 
for  public  worship. 

The  earliest  distinct 
mention  of  a  priest  at  Rome 
is  in  connection  Roman 
with  Mars  — the  priests. 
flamen  Martialis,  accom- 
panied by  twelve  leapers 
(the  salii)  who  danced  and 
sang  at  the  annual  festival 
of  Mars.  The  organisation 
of  early  Roman  worship 
seems  to  have  included  in 
some  cases  single  priests  of 
certain  gods,  and  in  others  colleges  of  priests,  often  twelve  in  number,  to 
celebrate  worship  on  behalf  of  the  people.  The  priest  of  Jupiter  (flamen 
Dialis)  with  the  flamen  Martialis  and  the  flamen  Quirinalis,  formed  the  chief 
trio  of  priests.  The  worship  of  Vesta,  attended  to  by  the  six  vestal  virgins, 
was  possibly  the  most  sacred  of  all.  The  virgins  were  chosen  between  the 
ages  of  six  and  ten  years,  and  were  of  perfect  form  and  intelligence  and 
honourable  family.  They  were  compelled  to  serve  for  thirty  years,  ten 
of  which  were  the  novitiate ;  but  mostly  the  vestals  remained  The  vestal 
priestesses  for  life.  Neglect  to  watch  and  maintain  the  sacred  v^g^s- 
fire  being  deemed  a  heinous  offence,  endangering  the  existence  of  the  city, 
the  priestess  in  fault  was  severely  scourged.  The  vestals  had  also  to 
present  offerings  to  the  goddess,  to  cleanse  and  purify  the  shrine,  to  assist 
at  all  the  great  public  festivals,  and  to  guard  the  supposed  sacred  pledge 
and  guarantee  of  the  permanence  of  Roman  power,  which  was  kept  in  the 
inmost  sanctum,  and  the  nature  of  which  is  not  known.  If  a  vestal  broke 
her  vow  of  chastity,  death  was  the  penalty,  at 
first  by  stoning,  but  later  by  burial  alive  with 
many  of  the  ceremonies  of  a  funeral.  The 
Vestals  were  maintained  at  the  public  cost, 
and  endowed  with  considerable  funds,  and 
they  received  many  honours.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  House  of  the  Vestals  shows  many 
arrangements  suited  rather  to  a  cold  climate 
than  to  Italy — which  may  be  survivals  from 
the  practices  of  the  Romans'  ancestors. 

There  were  altogether  fifteen  flamens,  who 

held  office   for  life,  unless  they  committed  a 

breach  of  duty.    Thev  wore  a  special 

,,  tit  i  •      t    Tae  flamens. 

woollen  cloak,  and  a  round  or  conical 

cap  called  the  apex,  fastened  by  strings,  and 

terminated  by  a  pointed  piece  of  olive-wood,  the  base  of  which  was   sur- 
rounded by  a  lock  of  wool.     The  flamen  Dialis,  though  highly  honoured, 


43°  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


was  subject  to  many  restrictions.  He  might  never  be  absent  from  the  city 
for  one  night ;  the  legs  of  his  bed  were  smeared  with  earth,  perhaps  an 
indication  that  he  once  slept  on  the  ground ;  he  might  not  touch  a  horse,  a 
dog,  a  she-goat,  ivy,  beans,  or  raw  flesh  ;  in  early  times  he  could  not  hold 
a  magistracy,  though  this  was  relaxed  later.  Thus  he  was  compelled  to  be 
always  devoted  to  his  duties.  His  wife,  called  flaminica,  gave  essential 
service  in  certain  ceremonies,  and  had  a  special  costume. 

The  priestly  colleges  were  more  important  than  the  individual  priests. 
The  pontiffs  (pontifices)  formed  an  order  or  college  to  which  supreme 
religious  authority  was  given  by  the  State.  They  were  originally 
'  five  in  number,  including  their  chief,  the  pontifex  maximus  ;  but 
the  number  was  raised  to  nine  in  b.c.  300,  and  in  81  B.C.  to  fifteen.  They 
were  elected  by  different  methods  at  different  periods ;  but  on  the  whole 
they  were  pretty  successful  in  retaining  the  right  to  nominate  their  own 
candidates  when  vacancies  occurred.  They  had  control  over  all  the  flamens 
of  particular  deities,  and  directed  all  State  ceremonies.  They  kept  the  books 
which  laid  down  the  order  of  public  and  private  worship,  and  they  were 
bound  to  give  information  to  any  one  who  consulted  them  about  religious 
matters.  They  determined  the  proper  forms  for  burials  and  for  appeasing  the 
Manes.  When  any  deficiency  was  observed  in  regulations  already  existing, 
they  made  new  ones,  generally,  however,  being  guided  by  what  was  in 
accordance  with  established  custom.  Without  being  responsible  to  the 
Senate  or  to  any  court  of  law,  they  had  the  power  of  punishing  any  one  who 
disobeyed  their  commands.  They  arranged  and  proclaimed  the  State 
calendar,  containing  the  dates  of  the  various  festivals,  of  new  and  full  moon, 
etc.,  and  thus  undoubtedly  we  must  regard  them  as  embodying  much  of  the 
historical  and  scientific  knowledge  of  the  time ;  in  fact,  they  themselves 
described  their  sphere  as  "the  science  of  things  divine  and  human."  In 
general  the  Pontifex  Maximus  was  a  distinguished  person ;  and  in  the  later 
years  of  the  republic  he  was  often  at  the  same  time  consul,  though  the 
pontifex  never  left  Italy  till  the  time  of  Crassus.  Under  the  emperors 
their  power  was  greatly  weakened,  the  emperors  exercising  the  right  to 
nominate  any  persons  pontiffs  when  they  liked,  and  always  appointing 
themselves  chief  pontiffs. 

Divination,  or  the  ascertainment  of  the  will  of  the  gods,  was  represented 

at  Rome  by  the  augurs,  a  word  at  first  applied  to  men  skilled  only  in 

divining  by  birds,  but  later  extended  very  considerably.     Their 
Divination.  i  .   .  -,  f.    ,  i 

art  was  known  as  augury  or  auspiaum  ;  and  our  use  or  the  words 

auspicious  and  inauguration  testifies  to  the  deep  impress  which  this  mode 

of  divination  has  left.     According  to  Livy,  at  Rome  everything  was  done 

according  to  auspices.      The  Romans  were  distinguished   from   numerous 

other  nations  by  their  small  regard  to  astrology,  prophecy,  and 

'  oracles  (excepting  under  Greek  influence) ;  but  they  paid  great 

attention  to  unusual  natural  events,  especially  unfavourable  ones,  which  they 

termed  prodigies— to  thunder  and  lightning,  the  flight  of  birds,  the  feeding 

of  chickens,  etc.     A  remarkable  account  of  divination  is  given  by  Cicero, 


THE  ROMAN  RELIGION.  431 


who  was  himself  an  augur,  in  his  two  books  on  that  subject.  The  regard 
given  to  the  flight  of  birds  at  Rome  was  founded  on  the  belief  that  birds 
were  the  messengers  of  Jove  ;  they  derived  from  studying  them  intimations 
of  what  they  were  to  do  or  not  to  do.  Thus,  whenever  it  was  reported  by 
an  augur  that  Jupiter  thundered  or  lightened,  the  public  comitia  could 
not  be  held. 

Birds  gave  auguries  by  flight  or  by  voice.  The  eagle  (known  especially 
as  Jove's  bird)  and  vulture  were  among  the  chief  birds  whose  flight  was 
studied,  while  the  raven,  crow,  hen,  and  owl  afforded  signs  by  voice,  a  special 
meaning  being  given  to  every  sound  they  uttered,  varying  according  to  the 
circumstances,  the  time  of  the  year,  etc.  The  feeding  of  special  chickens, 
especially  on  military  expeditions,  was  noted  ;  if  they  ate  greedily,  it  was  a 
favourable  sign ;  if  they  refused  their  food,  and  beat  their  wings,  etc.,  the 
omen  was  unfavourable.  Auspices  from  quadrupeds  were  only  used  in 
private  divination  ;  a  fox,  wolf,  dog,  horse,  or  any  quadruped  unexpectedly 
crossing  any  one's  path,  gave  an  indication,  varying  according  to  circum- 
stances. Sneezing,  stumbling,  and  other  personal  matters  were  also  con- 
sidered to  be  means  whereby  the  gods  indicated  their  will. 

In  taking  the  auspices,  the  augur  first  marked  off  with  a  wand  a  certain 
portion  of  the  heavens  which  he  was  to  observe  for  the  flight  of  birds  and 
other  phenomena,  and  set  up  a  tent  with  an  opening  in  that  direction. 
Then  he  watched  from  this  observatory,  amid  silence  and  quiet,  until  some 
indication  appeared  by  which  he  could  interpret  the  will  of  the  gods. 

Originally   the  augurs  were  persons   appointed  to  assist  the  king  or 
chief  magistrate,  and  for  a  long  period   only  patricians  were  eligible  for 
the   office.      Any   patrician   could   take   private   auspices.      The     Relation 
chief   magistrates    continued  to  be  the  possessors  of    the  right      to  the 
to  take- and    declare   the    auspices;    but   the    augurs   were   the 
continuous  representatives  of  the  art  of  augury  ;    and    as    they    acquired 
the  right  of  pronouncing  whether  the  indications  were  favourable  or  un- 
favourable, they  really  had  a  veto  upon  all  important  public  business.     Up 
to  B.C.  300  there  were  four  augurs ;    then  they  were   increased  to  nine. 
Sulla  added  six   more,  and  Julius  Csesar  made  the  number  sixteen.     New 
members  were  elected  by  the  surviving  augurs,  till  B.C.  103,  when  they  were 
elected  by  popular  vote,  after  which  there  were  variations  of  law.     Finally 
the  emperors  assumed  the  right  of  appointing  augurs  at  pleasure.     By  this 
time  augury  had  become  a  mere  farce. 

We  have  little  knowledge  of  early  Roman  marriage.  In  the  later 
Republic  the  only  form  of  marriage  celebrated  with  religious  rites  was  that 
known  as  confcu'reatio,  when  a  sheep  was  sacrificed,  and  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  sat  down  upon  its  skin,  spread  over  two  chairs.  Then  a  solemn 
prayer  was  pronounced,  followed  by  another  sacrifice.  Many  of  the  other 
forms  observed  are  of  great  significance  in  anthropology. 

Roman  funeral  ceremonies  were  not  specially  religious  in  character ; 
but  a  coin  was  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  corpse  to  pay  Charon,  as  in 
Greece.     In  early  times  burial  was  in  vogue  ;  in  the  later  Republic  burning 


432  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


took  its  place,  and  continued  in  general  use  till  Christianity  had  gained 
Funeral  cere- gr©at  influence.  In  early  times  captives  and  slaves  were  killed 
monies.  at  fae  funeraj  pile ;  later,  animals  took  their  place,  and  gladia- 
tors fought  around  the  burning  pile.  The  ashes  were  deposited  in  funeral 
urns,  which,  in  the  case  of  rich  people,  were  placed  in  fine  monuments  of 
different  forms,  which  occupied  long  distances  by  the  side  of  public  roads, 
such  as  the  Via  Appia.  All  persons  who  attended  a  funeral  were  rendered 
impure,  and  required  purifying  by  a  priest,  who  sprinkled  them  with  pure 
water  from  an  olive  or  laurel  branch.  Tombs  were  held  sacred,  and  those 
who  violated  them  were  liable  to  heavy  punishment.  The  mourning  and 
various  ceremonies  after  a  funeral  lasted  for  nine  days,  after  which  another 
sacrifice  was  offered,  and  a  feast  was  given  in  honour  of  the  dead.  The 
tombs  were  visited  at  certain  periods,  and  sacrifices  and  gifts  were  offered 
to  the  dead.  In  particular  there  was  an  annual  festival  (Feralia)  at  which 
food  was  carried  to  the  tombs. 

"We  gain  considerable  insight  into  early  Roman  religion  from  the  very 
early  calendar  of  public  festivals  which  has  come  down  to  us.  There  we 
The  calendar  see  Jupiter,  Mars,  and  Quirinus  in  the  leading  places.  Jupiter  was 
of  festivals,  celebrated  on  all  the  days  of  full  moon  (Ides)  and  on  various  wine 
festivals  and  other  days  ;  Mars  on  the  1st  of  March  and  the  great  festivals 
of  March,  as  well  as  in  autumn  after  campaigns  were  over.  In  April  there 
were  festivals  to  Tellus,  the  earth,  to  Ceres,  to  Pales,  goddess  of  flocks,  and 
Jupiter  as  protector  of  vines,  and  to  Robigus,  the  enemy  of  the  crops.  Con- 
sus  and  Ops  were  celebrated  in  harvest  time  and  in  December,  in  which 
month  also  the  Saturnalia  took  place  as  a  festival  of  seed-sowing.  In  Feb- 
ruary took  place  the  wolf  festival  of  the  shepherds  (Lupercalia),  and  the 
boundary  festival  of  the  husbandmen.  Vulcan's  was  almost  the  only  handi- 
craft festival,  in  August ;  but  there  was  a  second  festival  to  him  in  May, 
the  consecration  of  trumpets.  The  Neptunalia  in  July,  the  Portunalia  (the 
harbour  festival),  and  that  of  the  Tiber  in  August,  represented  sea  divini- 
ties. "V  esta  and  the  Penates  were  honoured  in  June  ;  the  Matralia  in  the 
same  month  celebrated  the  goddess  of  birth,  and  the  Liberalia  was  a  festival 
of  childbirth.  Departed  spirits  were  honoured  on  February  21st,  and  the 
ghosts  or  Lemures  had  a  three  days'  festival  in  May.  The  flight  of  King 
Tarquin  was  kept  in  mind  on  February  29th,  while  the  peoples'  flight  was 
noted  on  July  5th,  though  it  is  doubtful  what  event  it  commemorated. 
Several  other  festival  days  seem  scarcely  intelligible. 

The  abstractness  of  Roman  worship  is  one  of  its  most  noteworthy  fea- 
tures. Unlike  the  Greeks,  with  their  warm  imaginations,  they  did  not  give 
Abstract  elaborate  personal  histories  to  their  gods  ;  they  were  rather  names 
deities.  for  qualities  or  idea]s#  Their  festivals  had  reference  mainly  to 
practical  wants  and  considerations.  The  frugal,  legal,  and  commercial 
spirit  of  the  people  is  well  seen  in  their  early  religion.  They  were  particu- 
larly interested  in  the  departed  spirits  because  of  the  benefits  they  thought 
they  could  render  to  the  living ;  and  no  doubt  many  of  their  gods,  like 
those  of  the  Greeks,  represented  deified  heroes  who  had  conferred  great 


THE    EMPEROR    CALIGULA   WORSHIPPED    BEFORE    THE    STATUES    OF    CASTOR    AND    POLLUX. 

433  F    F 


434  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

benefits  on  the  people.  In  all  things  the  kings  or  magistrates  were  supreme. 
The  priests  never  acquired  the  supremacy  the  Brahmans  gained  in  India  ; 
and  when  the  magistrates  were  priests  also,  it  was  rather  a  sign  of  the 
temporal  power  controlling  the  spiritual  than  the  reverse. 

"We  have  received  no  verbal  ritual,  no  celebrated  sacred  book  from  the 
Romans ;  and  clearly  their  genius  did  not  go  in  this  direction.  Mommsen 
Essence  of  tnesavs  that  their  religion  depended  only  in  a  minor  degree  on  fear 
religion.  0f  natural  forces,  and  consisted  especially  in  songs  of  joy,  in  games 
and  dances,  and  in  banquets.  Yet  all  extravagant  expense  was  strictly  for- 
bidden. "At  the  very  core  of  the  Latin  religion,"  he  says,  "  there  lay  that 
profound  moral  impulse  which  leads  men  to  bring  earthly  guilt  and  earthly 
punishment  into  relation  with  the  world  of  the  gods.  .  .  .  The  execu- 
tion of  the  criminal  was  as  much  an  expiatory  sacrifice  offered  to  the 
divinity  as  was  the  killing  of  an  enemy  in  just  war.  .  .  .  The  profound 
and  fearful  idea  of  substitution  also  meets  us  here  ;  when  the  gods  of  the 
community  were  angry,  and  nobody  could  be  laid  hold  of  as  definitely 
guilty,  they  might  be  appeased  by  one  who  voluntarily  gave  himself  up  ; 
noxious  chasms  in  the  ground  were  closed,  and  battles  half  lost  were  con- 
verted into  victories,  when  a  brave  burgess  threw  himself  as  an  expiatory 
offering  into  the  abyss  or  upon  the  foe.  The  sacred  spring  was  based  on  a 
similar  view ;  all  the  offspring,  whether  of  cattle  or  of  men,  within  a  speci- 
fied period  were  presented  to  the  gods."  This  was  no  doubt  a  sacrifice  in 
view  of  the  removal  of  a  calamity,  and  at  first,  no  doubt,  all  infants  born 
within  the  assigned  periods  (March  and  April)  were  sacrificed.  In  later 
times  the  infants  were  allowed  to  grow  up  to  the  age  of  twenty,  and  then 
were  marched  out  of  the  State,  to  go  where  they  would.  Thus,  no  doubt, 
many  colonies  were  formed ;  and  the  Mamertines  of  Sicily  in  particular 
derived  their  descent  from  such  an  exodus. 

Such  a  religion,  in  the  hands  of  a  commercial  and  legal  people,  became 
very  formal.  "  The  gods  confronted  man  just  as  a  creditor  confronted  his 
its  formality  debtor — each  of  them  had  a  right  to  certain  performances  and 
andunreaUty-payments;  and  as  the  number  of  the  gods  was  as  great  as  the 
number  of  the  incidents  in  earthly  life,  and  the  neglect  or  wrong  performance 
of  the  worship  of  each  god  revenged  itself  in  the  corresponding  incident,  it 
was  a  laborious  and  difficult  task  even  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  one's  religious 
obligations,"  and  the  priests  gained  a  corresponding  influence.  Yet  the 
individual  man  had  to  discharge  his  religious  obligations  himself;  and  no 
doubt  through  this  there  came  to  be  various  ceremonies  in  which  a  sham  or 
a  literal  fulfilment  of  an  obligation  at  little  expense  was  substituted  for 
something  more  genuine.  "  They  presented  to  the  lord  of  the  sky  heads 
of  onions  and  poppies,  that  he  might  launch  his  lightnings  at  these  rather 
than  at  the  heads  of  men.  In  payment  of  the  offering  annually  demanded 
by  father  Tiber,  thirty  puppets  plaited  of  rushes  were  annually  thrown  into 
the  stream."  Legality,  not  genuine  devotion,  zeal  for  the  State  and  its 
progress,  not  for  the  righteousness  of  the  individual,  were  the  keynotes 
of  Roman  religion.     It  was  on  the  whole  a  religion  easy  to  understand  ;  it 


THE   ROMAN  RELIGION.  435 

powerfully  aided  the  State  in  its  growth  and  in  maintaining  its  stability ; 
but  it  did  not  tend  to  give  rise  to  great  works  of  imagination,  of  poetry,  of 
art,  or  even  to  great  religious  books.  Hence  it  died,  while  Hinduism  and 
Buddhism  have  lived. 

Greek  influence  may  be  credited  with  the  origin  of  the  third  college 
at  Rome,  of  men  skilled  in  interpreting  oracles,  originally  the  keepers  and 
interpreters  of  the  Sibylline   books,  which  contained  prophetic  Keepers  of 
utterances  and  oracles  in  Greek.     At  first  two  men  were  charged  the  sibylline 

•  books 

with  this  function,  who  had  two  slaves  skilled  in  Greek  ;  later 
there  were  ten  and  then  fifteen  members  in  this  college,  who  consulted  the 
books  only  by  special  command  of  the  Senate.  The  books  were  destroyed 
wheh  the  temple  of  Capitoline  Jove  was  burnt,  in  b.c.  82  ;  but  new  ones 
were  collected  and  compiled  in  later  times.  The  Delphian  Apollo  was  also 
consulted  by  the  Romans  in  comparatively  early  days  of  the  Republic  ;  and 
Hercules  was  adopted  into  current  conceptions  as  a  god  of  gain  by  special 
adventure  or  good  fortune.  Generals  gave  a  tenth  of  their  spoil,  and 
merchants  a  tenth  of  their  property,  to  Hercules  at  the  altar  in  the  cattle 
market,  and  business  agreements  were  confirmed  at  the  same  altar.  His 
altars  were  everywhere  to  be  seen  in  the  streets  and  on  country  roads. 
Castor  and  Pollux,  Hermes  as  Mercury,  and  iEsculapius  were  also  among 
the  Greek  gods  early  adopted  by  the  Romans. 

We  must  view  the  moral  character  of  the  Romans  by  the  light  of  the 
conquests  they  achieved  as  well  as  the  religion  they  believed  in.  Justice 
to  equals,  sternness  to  inferiors,  to  women,  to  children,  were 
among  its  characters.  The  religion  was  certainly  a  binding  force.racter  of  early 
but  not  one  of  affection.  Morals  were  cherished,  such  at  least  as  oman 
could  be  seen  to  affect  the  welfare  of  the  State ;  but  any  questions  of  con- 
duct which  did  not  affect  the  State  or  the  father's  rule  were  most  probably 
decided  on  selfish  principles ;  and  the  aristocrat  and  the  rich  man  did  largely 
as  they  liked,  within  the  limits  of  State  welfare.  Extravagance  was  sternly 
repressed,  however;  rich  men  were  heavily  taxed ;  and  we  may  view  Roman 
morals  under  the  earlier  Republic  as  the  most  advanced  the  world  had  yet 
seen  in  general  practice.  A  more  than  Chinese  rule  of  the  father  over  his 
family  gave  him  power  to  kill  or  to  sell  his  son ;  and  this  discipline,  loveless 
and  stern,  carried  out  in  State  and  army,  enabled  the  Romans  to  conquer 
the  world. 

In  the  third  and  second  centuries  b.c.  the  State  religion,  Hellenised,  be- 
came more  expensive ;  and  in  196  b.c.  a  new  college  of  three  banquet  masters 
was  added  to  the  other  three.    The  priests  gained  more  privileges,  nigm 

and  were  more  highly  endowed ;  and  it  was  rare  for  an  estate  to 
descend  without  a  heavy  sacrificial  obligation  as  a  perpetual  charge.  A 
tenth  of  a  man's  property  was  often  given  to  religion,  and  with  the  pro- 
ceeds a  public  feast  was  given  twice  a  month  at  Rome.  More  money  was 
spent,  and  more  pedantry  was  displayed  in  every  department  of  religion, 
and  insensibly  the  old  beliefs  were  being  undermined.  The  consuls  began 
to  arrange  the  auguries  to  suit  their  own  views ;  and  poets  and  philosophers 


436  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


began  to  explain  away  the  gods,  leading  to  belief  in  no  gods.     Then  super- 
stitions, conjuring,  charms,  and  astrology  from  the  East  began  to  make  way. 
In  b.c.   204  the  Phrygian  goddess  Cybele,  mother  of  the  gods, 
was  publicly  admitted  among  the  Roman  divinities,  and  a  rough 
stone  was  imported  as  the  real  Mother  Cybele  with  great  rejoicing ;  and  her 
eunuch  priests  in  Oriental  costume  inarched  through  the  streets  with  foreign 
music  and   begged  from  door   to  door.     A  few  years  afterwards  Bacchus 
worship  was  introduced,  and  corrupt  orgies  were  celebrated,  lead- 
ing rapidly  to  widespread  crime  and  immorality.     Though  many 
thousands  were  sentenced  to  death  for  these  crimes,  the  evil  was  not  sup- 
pressed.    Against  it  the  pure,  well-governed  life  of  the  type  of  Cato  the 
Elder  had  little  chance  of  permanence.     With  him   may  be  said  to  have 
disappeared  that  grand  morality  which  was  a  reality  in  ancient  Rome,  that 
zealous  industry  for  State  and  family  which  made  Rome  great.     Crime,  im- 
DegTadation  morality,  and  luxury  spread,  as  vividly  described  in  Mommsen 
of  morals.    (Book  iii.  chap,  xiii.);  and  the  festivals  of  the  gods  were  made  the 
occasion  for  extravagant  banquets  and  display,  women  taking  a  more  and 
more  prominent  part.    Grand  spectacles  and  gladiatorial  games  became  com- 
mon.   Money  and  pleasure  were  the  new  gods.    "All  shifts  seemed  allowable 
to  attain  rapidly  to  riches — plundering  and  begging,  cheating  on  the  part  of 
contractors  and  swindling  on  the  part  of  speculators,  usurious  trading  in 
money  and  in  grain,  even  the  turning  of  purely  moral  relations  such  as 
friendship  and  marriage  to  economic  account.     Marriage  especially  became 
on  both  sides  a  matter  of  mercantile  speculation ;  marriages  for  money  were 
common." 

Are  we  reading  the  description  of  rich  Rome  only  '?  Cannot  the  same 
things  be  said  to  a  large  extent  of  England  in  the  nineteenth  century  ;  and 
if  so,  are  we  so  much  better  than  the  Romans  ? 

Later  still,  from  150  to  100  b.c,  extravagance  and  immorality  increased 
at  Rome  to  a  frightful  extent.      Luxury  and  Hellenism,   with  scepticism 
The  later    about  the  national  gods,  were  almost  universal  among  the  educated 
Republic.    classeSj  though  there  are  signs  that  the  uneducated  were  not  so 
bad,  at  any  rate  in  many  parts  of  Italy  outside  Rome.     Yet  the  example  of 
the  leaders  was  most  evil  in  its  effects.     There  was  in  progress  a  combina- 
tion of  Greek  and  Roman  civilisation  in  which  the  old  faith  and  the  stern 
morality  were  largely  lost.     Instead  there  were  unbelief,  state-ceremonial, 
and  the  Greek  gods,  popular  superstition,  and  the  introduction  of  Asiatic 
and  Egyptian  sects.     Not  being  original  in  philosophy,  the  Romans  became 
bad  imitators  only ;  and  the  schools  we  described  in  the  last  chapter  gave 
their  names  if  not  their  thoughts  to  those  Romans  who  cared  to  think  at  all 
seriously  on  such  subjects.     The  Stoics  were  the  most  influential,  for  their 
toleration  of  popular  and  State  religion,  their  view  of  every  phenomenon  as 
Decay  of    in  its  degree  divine,  their  honour  for  deceased  heroes,  their  casu- 
reiigion.     ist,ical  morality,  suited  the  intelligent  Roman  very  well.     Many 
said,  that  while  the  intelligent  had  no  need  of  religion,  the  populace  must 
be  fed  and  controlled  by  signs  and  wonders ;  and  religious  rites  and  grand 


THE  ROMAN  RELIGION.  437 

festivals  were  kept  up  more  than  ever.  Indeed,  the  providing  of  expensive 
sacrifices  and  games  came  to  be  a  qualification  for  magistracy,  which  none 
but  the  rich  could  afford.  "We  need  not  detail  the  foreign  elements  which 
found  their  way  to  Rome  ;  it  must  suffice  to  say  that  they  were  abundant, 
varied,  and  not  in  any  way  an  improvement  on  the  beliefs  which  Rome  had 
now  laid  aside. 

These  evils  grew,  and  were  exaggerated  up  to  the  time  of  the  Caesars. 
Julius  Caesar,  at  least  in  some  respects,  endeavoured  to  stem  the  torrent  of 
evil,  making  regulations  against  extravagance,  and,  to  a  consider-  juiius 
able  extent,  enforced  them.  Morality  and  virtue  had  almost  C3esar- 
become  unknown ;  crimes  of  all  kinds,  including  murder,  were  frequent. 
Caesar's  police  at  least  checked  this  open  licence.  As  he  tolerated  the 
Egyptian  gods  in  Rome,  so  he  permitted  the  Jews  to  worship  freely  there, 
and  so  established  at  Rome  the  germ  of  the  mighty  Christian  revolution. 
But  the  spirit  of  the  people  is  shown  by  the  introduction  at  the  gladiatorial 
games  of  the  practice  of  deciding  as  to  the  fate  of  the  vanquished  by  the 
will  of  the  spectators.  Men  of  strength  and  courage  were  so  far  without  a 
field  for  their  labour,  that  free  men  were  known  to  sell  themselves  to  be 
gladiators.  Nothing  new  arose  in  Rome  itself  to  purify  morals  and  religion, 
except  so  far  as  the  rise  of  imperialism  led  to  the  adoption  of  measures 
needed  to  secure  military  unity.  The  Epicureans  and  Cynics  extended  their 
influence. 

Under  the  Empire  some  renewal  of  life  came  to  the  old  religion,  with 
its  Greek  transformation.  The  Emperor  Augustus  discerned  that  religion 
might  be  made  use  of  to  strengthen  his  empire ;  and  his  super- 
stition  about  many  things  is  well  established.  His  very  title 
embodied  an  idea  of  sacredness  allied  to  divinity.  He  rebuilt  old  temples 
and  restored  ancient  customs ;  and  he  added  three  important  new  worships 
and  temples,  those  of  Venus  Genitrix,  Mars  Ultor  (the  avenger), 
and  Apollo  Palatinus.  The  latter  he  particularly  affected,  often 
wearing  the  attributes  of  his  favourite  deity.  He  also  endeavoured  to 
reform  public  morals  as  to  expenses,  marriage,  and  the  behaviour  of  women. 
He  restored  (in  b.c.  16)  the  "  secular  games,"  which  had  previously  in- 
cluded expiatory  sacrifices  to  the  deities  of  the  lower  world,  Pluto  and 
Proserpine,  but  which  he  replaced  by  Apollo  and  Diana.  It  was  for  this 
occasion  that  Horace's  "  Carmen  Saeculare  "  was  composed,  in  magnification 
of  Rome  and  Augustus.  The  Emperor  was  made  a  member  of  all  the 
priestly  colleges,  and  supreme  pontiff;  the  latter  title  was  held  by  the 
Emperors  up  to  the  reign  of  Gratian,  that  is,  for  nearly  four  centuries.  The 
Emperors  were  supreme  in  matters  of  religion.  This  supremacy  was  recog- 
nised in  many  quarters  of  the  Roman  Empire  by  the  introduction  of  the 
Emperor's  name  into  the  old  festivals,  and  the  celebration  of  many  new  ones 
in  his  honour.  Augustus,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  built  a  new  temple 
to  Vesta  adjoining  his  temple  of  Apollo ;  and  his  own  palace  assumed  many 
of  the  characters  of  a  temple.  The  people,  who  had  already  acquiesced  in 
the  deification  of  Julius  Caesar,  made  Augustus  a  god  during  his  lifetime ; 


438  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

and  we  can  trace  in  the  history  of  early  Roman  Emperors  the  process  by 
which  many  at  least  of  the  ancient  gods  came  to  be  worshipped.  Temples 
of  Augustus,  of  Rome,  and  of  the  living  Roman  Emperor  were  rapidly  built 
in  many  cities,  served  by  priests  of  Augustus  and  of  Rome.  These  became 
in  each  province  the  heads  of  the  national  religion,  and,  as  such,  played  a 
great  part  in  endeavouring  to  put  down  Christianity.  Space  does  not 
permit  us  to  follow  here  the  history  of  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  religion 
before  the  advance  of  Christianity.  We  can  but  note  the  singular  accord 
between  some  of  the  teachings  and  beliefs  of  Seneca  (died  a.d.  65)  and 
several  of  the  Christian  doctrines,  such  as  the  forgiveness  of  injuries  and 
the  overcoming  of  evil  with  good ;  and  the  lofty  moral  tone  of  the 
Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  (121-180),  whose  practical  wisdom,  control  of 
bodily  passions,  and  belief  in  the  necessity  of  obeying  conscience,  make 
him  very  remarkable  among  Roman  Emperors. 

Seneca,  though  far  from  offering  a  bright  example  of  moral  conduct, — 
for  he  was  the  confidential  adviser  of  the  notorious  Agrippina,  and  his 
having  been  the  tutor  of  Nero  does  not  redound  to  his  credit  as  a  success- 
ful inculcator  of  moral  precepts, — must  be  judged  in  the  light  of  his 
evil  surroundings.  Though  he  made  happiness  the  main  object  of  life,  his 
statement  of  his  aim  is  not  an  ignoble  one :  "  True  happiness  is  to  be  free 
from  perturbations,  to  understand  our  duties  toward  God  and  man ;  to 
enjoy  the  present,  without  any  anxious  dependence  upon  the  future ;  not 
to  amuse  ourselves  with  either  hopes  or  fears,  but  to  rest  satisfied  with 
what  we  have,  which  is  abundantly  sufficient ;  for  he  that  is  so  wants 
nothing."  But,  he  adds,  there  is  no  condition  of  life  that  excludes  a  wise 
man  from  discharging  his  duty :  and  in  everything  a  man  is  to  be  honest 
and  conscientious.  Seneca  has  a  comfortable  belief  in  Providence,  saying 
that  God  deals  with  us  as  a  good  father  does  by  his  children ;  tries  us, 
hardens  us,  fits  us  for  himself;  chastises  some  under  the  appearance  of 
blessing,  and  blesses  some  when  appearing  to  chastise  them.  He  teaches 
that  men  ought  to  live  for  others,  and  be  kind  to  slaves ;  and  that  the 
mind  ought  to  rule  the  body.  He  strenuously  denounced  gladiatorial 
exhibitions.  Marcus  Aurelius,  as  Emperor,  was  an  upholder  of  the  Roman 
State  religion  and  a  persecutor  of  the  Christians  who  denied  it,  and  who 
especially  denied  the  deity  of  the  Roman  Emperor.  Yet  he  did  many  noble 
acts,  and  regarded  mankind  as  a  brotherhood,  bound  to  strive  for  the 
common  good.  "  No  man,"  he  says,  "  can  do  me  a  real  injury,  because  no 
man  can  force  me  to  misbehave  myself ;  nor  can  I  find  it  in  my  heart  to 
hate  or  be  angry  with  one  of  my  own  nature  and  family."  He  had  not 
such  a  particular  belief  in  Providence  as  Seneca,  though  he  thought  the 
gods  directed  all  for  the  best ;  and  neither  he  nor  Seneca  had  a  very  confi- 
dent faith  in  a  future  life. 

[Mommsen's  "Rome";  Boissier's  "  Roman  Religion  from  Augustus  to  the  Autonines";  Smith's 
Dictionaries;  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  under  names  of  gods.] 


CHAPTER  V. 

COe  fteligfon  of  tbe  (Teutons  (including  ^rantunabians). 

Imperfect  materials— Grimm's  Teutonic  mythology — Animism  and  ancestor  worship— Woden,  or  Odin 
— His  attributes  —  Trigg,  or  Frigga — Thor,  or  Donar — His  hammer—  His  worship  in  Norway  -  Tiu, 
or  Ziu— Fro,  or  Frey— His  temple  at  Trondheim— Freyja— Njord— /Eger- Balder— His  death- 
Explanations  of  the  Balder  myth — Heimdal— Bragi— Goddesses — Erda  or  Nerthus-  Loki  -  Hel 
and  her  domain- The  Teuton  cosmogony— Origin  of  the  gods— Valhalla  Its  influence— The  ash- 
tree  Ygdrasil— The  Supreme  Deity — Prayer  and  sacrifice— Human  and  animal  victims  —  Fruit  and 
drink  offerings— Worship  in  woods — The  temple  Tanfana— Images  of  the  gods— Destruction  of 
Irminsul— The  priests— Beliefs  in  spirits,  etc.— Ragnarok,  or  the  end  of  the  world— Doubtful 
points— Moral  condition. 

ALTHOUGH  the  native  religion  of  the  Teutons, — including  in  that  name 
Scandinavians  and  Anglo-Saxons,  as  well  as  Germans, — was  practised 
much  later  than  that  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  we  know  far  less  about  it, 
because  the  Teutons  were  less  literary  and  cultivated  than  the  imperfect 
Mediterranean  peoples,  and  because,  apparently,  the  northern  materials, 
religion  was  less  fully  and  definitely  developed.  Yet  we  have  in  the 
collections  of  old  myths  known  as  the  Eddas, — the  older  believed  to  have 
been  compiled  in  the  twelfth  century  in  the  Orkney  or  Shetland  Islands 
by  an  Icelander,  the  younger  in  the  thirteenth,  by  Snorre  Sturlason,  the 
Icelandic  historian, — and  in  the  writings  of  Are,  an  Icelandic  priest  who 
wrote  in  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  in  the  "  Historia  Danica"  of 
Saxo  Grammaticus,  written  in  Latin,  and  in  various  writings  of  Tacitus, 
Dis,  Marullinus,  etc.,  extremely  valuable  materials  for  study. l 

But  it  remained  for  the  nineteenth  century  to  furnish  us  with  a  most 
important  contribution  to  the  elucidation  of  Teutonic  religion  in  the 
gigantic  work  of  Jacob  Grimm  (1785-1863),  "  Teutonic  Myth-  Grim 
ology,"2  in  which  philosophy,  folk-tales,  old  customs,  and  anti-  "Teutonic^ 
quarian  remains  were  combined  with  the  old  literature  to 
reconstruct  a  system  of  ideas  and  practices  which  had  long  vanished  from 
general  recognition.  He  demonstrated  the  close  affinity  of  speech  and 
mythology  between  the  Scandinavian  and  the  German  divisions  of  the 
Teuton  race,  the  joint  possession  by  all  Teutonic  languages  of  many  terms 
relating  to  religious  worship,  and  similar  changes  of  gods  into  devils,  of  old 
festivals  into  Christian  ones,  and  the  remains  of  old  beliefs  about  the  gods 
in  folk-tales  and  common  phrases.  Consequently  Grimm  is  a  great  source 
from  which  knowledge  on  the  subject  must  be  drawn,  although  there  is 
still  much  to  be  done  in  tracing  the  relations  between  the  Teutonic  and 
other  Aryan  mythologies. 

1  See  the  works  of  Are  (ed.  Vigfusson  and  P.  York  Powell) ;  the  Elder  and  the  Younger 
Edda;  Saxo's  "Historia  Danica";  Jacob  Grimm,  "Teutonic  Mythology";  Eydberg's 
"  Teutonic  Mythology  " ;  Rasmus  B.  Anderson's  "  Norse  Mythology." 

2  First  published  in  1835 ;  now  obtainable  in  an  excellent  English  translation. 

439 


440  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Mr.  York  Powell  ascribes  to  the  Teutons  animistic  and  anthropomorphic 

beliefs,  ^as  well   as   ancestor  worship.      They  believed  that  all  inanimate 

•Animism  and  °bjects  and  animate  beings  had  spirits  akin  to  their  own.     The 

ancestor    wizard  and    medicine-man  flourished   among  them,  and  dreams 

worship. 

were  greatty  regarded.  Thus  all  the  main  primitive  elements  or 
types  of  religion  existed  among  them.  In  addition,  certain  gods  had 
attained  prominence  under  cognate  names  in  many  tribes ;  but  each  had 
more  or  less  its  own  special  gods  and  observances.  Consequently  we  find 
many  variations  of  the  same  myths,  and  many  tales  related  of  different 
personages  in  different  localities ;  but  on  the  whole  the  general  cast  of  the 
religion  of  the  Teutonic  peoples  was  the  same. 

The  highest  deity,  by  general  consent,  among  the  Teutons,  was 
Woden,  Wodan,  or  Wuotan,  otherwise  Odin  (the  Norse  form).  The  word 
Woden,  or  means  all-powerful,  all-penetrating  ;  Woden  bestows  shape  and 
Odin.  beauty  on  man  and  things,  gives  song,  victory  in  war,  the 
fertility  of  soil,  and  the  highest  blessings.  With  such  a  warlike  people, 
he  was  prominently  the  arranger  of  wars  and  battles,  and  thus  he  was 
sometimes  confused  with  Tiu,  the  god  of  war.  He  is  sometimes  described 
as  looking  down  on  the  earth  through  a  window,  and  having  Frigga  sitting 
by  his  side.  He  took  up  the  heroes  who  fell  in  fight  into  his  heavenly 
dwelling.     In  the  North,  faring  to  Odin,  visiting  Odin,  meant  simply  dying. 

The  Norse  Odin  is  represented  as  one-eyed,  wearing  a  broad  hat  and 
wide  mantle.  He  has  a  wonderful  spear,  which  he  lent  to  heroes.  To  him 
were  attached  two  wolves  and  two  ravens,  following  the  fight  and  seizing 
on  corpses. 

Just  as  in  Gaulish  mythology  there  is  a  god  who  represents  several 
Greek  and  Roman  types,  so  we  find  Woden  also  as  a  water-spirit  or  god,  an- 
ms  swering  to  Neptune.  Others  of  his  attributes  are  more  like  Hermes 
attributes.  an(j  Apollo.  Severe  pestilences  spring  from  him,  and  also  their 
cure.  There  are  multitudinous  details  about  the  wanderings  and  journeys 
of  Woden,  or  Odin,  and  his  visits  to  giants  and  men.  The  sun  is  his 
eye.  To  him  are  traced  up  all  the  races  of  heroes  and  kings.  The  number 
of  place-names  in  various  countries  compounded  with  his  name  shows  the 
extent  over  which  places  were  sacred  to  him  or  named  after  him.  In 
England  may  be  named  Wednesbury  and  Wednesfield.  The  association  of 
the  name  with  Wednesday  ( =  Woden's-day)  is  another  evidence  of  his 
importance.  In  Southern  Germany  his  worship  died  out  sooner  than  in  the 
North,  while  the  Gotlanders  and  Danes  worshipped  him  more  than  the 
Swedes  and  Norwegians.  In  the  Norse  sagas  Thor  usually  took  precedence 
of  Odin.  The  so-called  historical  Odin,  the  leader  of  the  migration  of  the 
original  Teutons  or  Asas  from  a  land  near  the  Black  Sea  a  century  before 
Christ,  appears  to  be  mythical. 

Frigg  (Frigga)  is  the  wife  of  Odin  (distinct  from  Freyja,  the  sister  of 

Freyr),  and  represents  the  inhabited  earth,  free,  beautiful,  lovable.     It  is 

Frigg,  or    doubtful  which  of  the  two  gives  the  name  to  Friday.     Frigg,  as 

Fngga.      consort  of  Odin,  takes  highest  rank  among  the  goddesses ;    she 


442  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

knows  the  fates  of  men,  is  consulted  by  Odin,  presides  over  marriages,  and 
is  prayed  to  by  the  childless.  Balder  is  her  son,  whose  fate  she  and  Odin 
mourn  together. 

Returning  to  the  great  gods,  Thor,  Thunar,  or  Donar  occupies  the 
chief  place  after  Odin.  He  rules  over  clouds  and  rain,  lightning  and 
Tbor,  or  thunder ;  yet  he  is  a  fatherly  god,  though  a  punishing  one, 
Donax.  ancj  frequently  angiy.  This  conception  answers  well  to  that  of 
Jupiter  Tonans.  Inasmuch  as  crops  are  greatly  influenced  by  rains  and 
thunderstorms,  the  control  of  them  is  attributed  to  Thor ;  so  also  Thor,  like 
Odin,  presides  over  the  events  of  war,  and  receives  his  share  of  the  spoils. 
Indeed,  in  the  Norse  mythology  the  warlike  exploits  of  Thor  greatly 
predominate  over  his  peaceful  achievements. 

Thor  is  represented  as  enormously  strong,  with  a  long  red  beard,  fiery 
eyes,  girt  with  a  belt  of  strength,  swinging  a  hammer  in  his  hand,  wearing 
a  crown  of  stars  on  his  head.  He  rides  in  a  chariot  drawn  by 
r'  two  goats.  He  is  terrible  when  angry,  but  naturally  good-natured. 
His  hammer  (mjolner)  can  split  the  mountains  ;  the  belt  of  strength  re- 
doubles his  divine  strength;  he  always  wears  an  iron  gauntlet  when 
wielding  the  hammer.  Longfellow,  in  his  "  Tales  of  a  "Wayside  Inn,"  has 
vigorously  represented  some  of  the  characteristics  of  Thor : — 

"  The  light  thou  beholdest 
Stream  through  the  heavens, 
In  flashes  of  crimson, 
Is  but  my  red  beard 
Blown  by  the  night-wind, 
Affrighting  the  nations. 
###### 

Mine  eyes  are  the  lightning  ; 
The  wheels  of  my  chariot 
Roll  in  the  thunder, 
The  blows  of  my  hammer 
Ring  in  the  earthquake." 

Thor's  wife,  Sif,  is  a  symbol  of  the  earth,  and  gold  is  termed  her  hair, 
Loki  having  cut  off  her  hair  and  having  caused  dwarfs  to  make  golden  hair 
for  her. 

Thor  is  the  true  national  god  of  the  Norwegians ;  and  his  temples  and 
statues  were  the  most  numerous  in  Norway  and  Sweden.  Even  into 
His  worship  comparatively  modern  times  there  was  special  observance  of 
in  Norway.  Thursday  or  Thorsday  ;  and  the  Esthonians  thought  Thursday 
more  sacred  than  Sunday.  According  to  Grimm,  his  sturdy  strength 
recommended  him  specially  to  certain  peoples ;  and  "  prayers,  oaths,  curses 
retained  his  memory  oftener  and  longer  than  that  of  any  other  god."  The 
numerous  adventures  and  achievements  recorded  of  him  in  the  myths  we 
have  not  space  to  refer  to. 

As  showing  how  intensely  the  old  Teutons  valued  military  prowess,  we 
find  their  third  great  god,  Tiu,  Tyr,  or  Ziu,  associated  with  warlike  deeds, 


THE  RELIGION   OF  THE    TEUTONS. 


443 


Tiu,  or  Ziu. 


though  his  sphere  is  wider  than  that ;  and  it  is  here  that  we  find  a  name  as 
well  as  a  signification  closely  like  that  of  Zeus  and  Dyaus,  the 
cases  of  which  word  are  very  parallel  with  the  Gothic  forms  of 
Tiu.  Although  represented  in  the  Edda  as  Odin's  son,  he  becomes  equal 
with  him  as  a  war  god.  He  is  the  god  of  martial  honour,  the  most  daring 
of  all  gods,  the  giver  of  valour.  The  Romans  identified  Tiu  with  their  Mars 
from  the  prominence  of  the  martial  character.  The  name  Tuesday,  wide- 
spread among  the  Teutonic  peoples,  is  paralleled  by  the  Latin  Marti*  dies, 
French,  mardi. 

Fro,  or  Frey,  was  a  divine  being  (son  of  Njord)  presiding  over  rain  and 
sunshine   and   the   fruits  of  the   earth,  and  dispensing   wealth  and   good 
harvests.     He  had  a  ship  Skid- 
bladner,  made  by  the 
dwarfs,   and    capable 
of  containing  all  the  gods,  with 
their   weapons  and   war  stores. 
Grimm  connects  him  with  the 
Roman   Liber.      The   Edda   as- 
cribes to  him  a  sword  of  surpas- 
sing   powers,  which   could    put 
itself    in     motion    against    the 
giants. 

In  Trondheim,  during   the 
reign  of  01  af  Tryggvason  (king 


Fro,  or  Frey. 


995-1000    A.D.)    there  His  temple  at 

still  existed  a  temple  Trondheim. 
of  Frey,  in  which  he  was  zeal- 
ously worshipped.  The  king 
overthrew  the  wooden  statue  of 
the  god,  and  scolded  the  peasants 
for  their  foolish  idolatry  ;  where- 
upon they  replied  that  Frey  had 
often  talked  with  them,  foretold  TH0K- 

them  the  future,  and  given  them  good  seasons  and  peace.  There  are 
numerous  records  of  temples  of  Frey,  sanctioned  by  wonders  and  miracles, 
in  Iceland  and  Scandinavia.  At  Upsala,  Frey  was  worshipped  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Odin  and  Thor. 

Freyja,  sister  of  Frey,  as  a  goddess  ranks  next  to  Frigg,  already  men- 
tioned.    She  is  the  Teuton  Venus,  and  was  invoked  by  lovers. 
The  elder  Edda  thus  describes  Freyja  and  her  abode  in  heaven  : — 


Freyja. 


"  Folkvang  'tis  called 
Where  Freyja  has  right 
To  dispose  of  the  hall-seats. 
Every  day  of  the  slain 
She  chooses  the  half 
And  leaves  half  to  Odin." 


444  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Her  husband,  Oder,  left  her,  and  travelled  into  far  countries,  since 
which  Freyja  continually  seeks  him,  weeping  tears  of  pure  gold.  Hence 
gold  is  in  poetry  termed  Freyja's  tears.  "Women  after  death  go  to  Freyja. 
All  the  varied  emotions  of  love  are  exemplified  by  her.  The  name  of  her 
abode,  "  Folkvang,"  signifies  the  human  dwellings,  since  no  human  being 
escapes  her  influence. 

The  father  of  Frey  or  Freyja,  Njord,  is  a  water  deity,  ruling  over  the 
winds   and   controlling   the   sea,  in   its   relation  to   man.     Hence   he   was 
„.    .       invoked  by  fishermen  and  sailors.     Over  the  raging  ocean  out- 
side, iEger  (the  terrible)  reigns,  far  from  land.     He  is  rather  a 
ger'      giant  than  a  god.     He  marries  Rau,  who  has  a  net  that  catches 
those  who  venture  out  to  sea.      The  nine  daughters  of  iEger  and  Rau 
represent  the  varying  aspects  of  the  waves. 

The  story  of  Balder  (Paltar),  though  there  are  fewer  traces  of  his  worship 
than  of  that  of  the  superior  gods,  is  perhaps  the  most  attractive  in  Scandi- 
navian mythology.  Balder  is  the  son  of  Odin  and  Frigg,  and  is 
the  favourite  of  gods  and  men.  He  is  rich  in  physical  beauty,  and 
rays  of  light  issue  from  him.  He  is  mild,  wise,  and  eloquent;  and  his 
judgments,  once  pronounced,  are  unchangeable.  Into  his  heavenly  mansion 
nothing  unclean  can  enter.  The  critical  point  in  his  history  is  reached  when 
he  has  terrible  dreams  threatening  his  life.  On  his  relating  them  to  the 
gods,  Frigg  took  an  oath  from  everything  not  to  harm  Balder,  but  forgot 
the  mistletoe.  Then  the  gods  wrestled  with  and  struck  Balder  with  darts 
and  stones,  but  nothing  could  harm  him.  But  the  evil  spirit  Loki  found 
out  the  power  of  the  mistletoe,  and  guided  the  hand  of  blind 
Other  (a  god  of  war)  to  throw  it  at  Balder,  who  was  pierced  to 
the  heart  and  died.  The  gods  were  smitten  with  utter  grief,  and  at  last 
besought  Hermod  the  nimble  to  ride  into  the  lower  world  to  ask  Hel,  the 
goddess  of  the  grave,  to  release  Balder.  Meanwhile  Balder's  dead  body  was 
burned  on  a  great  ship,  amid  great  commotions  of  the  elements  ;  and  Nanna, 
Balder's  wife,  died  on  the  same  pyre.  This  is  told  with  great  elaboration 
in  the  Eddas.  Finally  Hermod  found  Balder  occupying  the  most  dis- 
tinguished seat  in  Hel's  kingdom.  Hel  granted  Balder  the  right  to  return 
to  the  gods,  if  all  things  living  as  well  as  lifeless  would  weep  for  him. 
Everything  wept  except  the  witch-giantess  Thok,  the  step-daughter  of  Loki. 
The  general  explanation  of  this  myth  is,  that  Balder  represents  summer, 
Explanations  wnicn  *s  finally  overcome  by  darkness  which  long  pervades  all 
of  the  Balder  nature,  till  the  thaw  after  frosts  makes  everything  weep,  and 
then  summer  returns.  But  a  still  deeper  significance  is  read  in 
it  by  some.  So  long  as  Balder,  the  best  and  wisest  of  the  gods,  lived,  evil 
could  not  prevail.  Loki,  and  the  powers  of  evil,  at  last,  after  fierce  contests, 
kill  Balder,  and  it  is  only  after  this  that  the  world  can  be  renovated  and 
purified,  and  Balder  can  return  to  the  upper  world  to  recommence  a  reign  of 
happiness  and  peace.  He  is  believed  to  represent  also  the  heavenly  light 
of  the  soul  and  the  mind,  purity,  innocence,  and  piety. 

Most  of  the  gods  treated  of  after  this  are  peculiar,  or  almost  so,  to  the 


THE    RELIGION  OF  THE    TEUTONS. 


445 


Bragi. 


Scandinavian  mythology.     Heimdal,  a  son  of  Odin,  is  a  bright  and  gracious 
god,  and  a  powerful  deity  of  strange  origin,  of  whom  the  elder        . 

Edda  says, — 

"  Bom  was  I  of  mothers  niue, 
Son  am  I  of  sisters  nine." 

He  is  watchman  of  the  gods,  with  a  powerful  horn  ;  and  one  of  his  functions 
is  to  keep  the  gods  from  forcing  their  way  out  of  heaven.    No  sound  escapes 
him  ;    he    sees   by 
night  as  well  as  by 
day,  etc.,  etc. 

Bragi   is  an- 
other son  of  Odin, 
and    the 
god     of 

wisdom,  poetry,  and 
eloquence.  At  the 
Scandinavian  sacri- 
ficial feasts  a  horn 
consecrated  to 
Bragi  was  often 
drunk  from  by  the 
guests,  who  at  the 
same  time  pro- 
mised to  perform 
some  great  deed,  to 
furnish  matter  for 
song. 

Several  of  the 
goddesses  have  al- 
ready been 

.  Goddesses, 

mentioned, 

together  with  their 

husbands  or  sisters. 

"  They    are,"    says 

G-rimm,    "  thought 

of  chiefly  as  divine 

mothers,  who  travel  round  and  visit  houses,  from  whom  the  human  race 

learns  the  occupations  and  arts  of  housekeeping  and  husbandry,  spinning, 

weaving,  tending  the   hearth,  sowing,  and  reaping.     These  labours  bring 

with  them  peace  and  quiet  in  the  land  ;  and  the  memory  of  them  abides  in 

charming  traditions." 

Erda,  the  earth,  appears  under  many  appellations  among  the  Teutons, 

as  the  fruitful,  teeming  mother.     Tacitus  relates  that  numerous  Teutonic 

peoples  worshipped  Nerthus,  who  was  mother  Earth.     She  was    ?&&&.,  or 

said  to  be  worshipped  in  an  island  at  a  great  festival,  during    Nertbus. 

which  the  priest  communed  with  the  goddess,  and  then  performed  a  secret 


THE    GODDESS    FREYA. 


446  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

bathing  of  the  goddess  and  her  vestments  and  vehicle  in  a  lake.  The  other 
goddesses,  numerous  enough,  are  too  indistinct,  or  too  considerably  derived 
from  Roman  sources,  to  be  dealt  with  at  length  here. 

Loke,  or  Loki,  the  spirit  of  evil,  appears  among  the  gods  in  various 
seductive  guises,  and  he  pervades  all   nature   as   a   corrupting   influence. 

Originally  he  appears  as  the  companion  and  relative  of  Odin,  and 

in  the  Elder  Edda  he  says, — 

"  Do  thou  mind,  Odin, 
That  we  in  time's  morning 
Mixed  blood  together ! 
Then  thou  pretendedst 
That  thou  never  wouldst  ask  a  drink 
Unless  it  was  offered  to  both  of  us." 

He  was  fabled  to  have  taken  part  in  the  creation  of  man,  contributing 
the  senses  and  passions,  the  sources  of  evil  desires.  He  became  sly  and 
treacherous,  beautiful  in  appearance,  but  inconstant  and  evil,  the  slanderer 
of  the  gods  and  the  contriver  of  deceit  and  fraud.  Thus  nobody  honours 
him  as  a  god.  His  name  is  variously  derived  from  air  and  flame.  In  union 
with  a  giantess  he  begot  the  wolf  Fenrer  ;  Hel,  who  presides  over  the  land 
of  death,  is  his  daughter.  He  is  represented  as  leading  the  gods  into  all 
kinds  of  predicaments  and  calamities,  though  often  extricating  them  by  his 
artifices.  Through  his  devices  gold  was  cursed  and  became  the  source  of 
many  calamities  to  mortals,  as  related  in  the  Edda,  in  the  songs  about 
Sigurd,  Brynhild,  Gudrun.  The  whole  constitutes  in  effect  a  great  epic, 
which  may  be  read  in  the  Volsunga  Saga,  as  translated  by  Eirikr  Magnusson 
and  William  Morris. 

The  goddess  or  giantess  Hel  has  a  gloomy  domain  under  one  of  the 
roots  of  Ygdrasil,  surrounded  by  a  fence,  and  watered  by  rivers.     A  dog 
Hel  and  her  stands  outside  of  a  cave  and  loudly  howls.     Hel  binds  the  dying 
domain.     man  with  chains  which  cannot  be  broken.     She  has  a  nether- 
most place  for  the  wicked,  with  a  palace  named  Anguish,  a  table,  Famine, 
and  a  bed,  Care. 

We  must  now  turn  to  the  cosmogony  current  among  the  Teutons. 
Originally  there  existed  nothing  where  the  world  is ;  there  was  simply  a 
The  Teuton  space  or  gap  between  the  two  poles,  cloud  and  fire.  In  the  cloud 
cosmogony.  was  a  springy  out  of  which  twelve  rivers  flowed.  By  a  mysterious 
process,  by  the  might  of  him  who  sent  the  heat  (i.e.  the  Supreme  Being), 
out  of  thawing  drops  of  water  Ymer  was  formed,  a  giant  and  evil  principle : 
from  him  arose  the  race  of  the  giants.  Later  a  cow  arose,  from  whose  milk 
Ymer  was  nourished.  The  cow  fed  by  licking  stones,  and  after  much  lick- 
ing there  was  born  from  the  spot  a  man,  Bor  or  Buri,  who  became  the 
father  of  Odin,  Vili,  and  Ve,  the  gods  and  rulers  of  heaven  and  earth. 
There  is  much  more  of  this  fanciful  mythology,  which  we  cannot  go  into ; 
and  moreover,  it  is  by  no  means  certain  how  far  it  was  believed  in  by  the 
people  as  a  part  of  their  religion.  The  giant  Ymer  being  killed,  his  huge 
body  supplied  material  out  of  which  the  gods  formed  all  the  world,  while 


THE  RELIGION  OF  THE    TEUTONS.  447 

mankind  were  formed  out  of  two  trees  on  the  seashore,  to  which  the  gods 
gave  breath.  In  this  mythology  the  gods,  ass  (plural  cesir),  origin  of 
appear  as  a  higher  product,  after  an  imperfect  first  creation.  the£°ds- 
They  dwell  together  in  Asgard,  with  higher  heavens  above  them.  Twelve 
gods  were  reckoned,  and  twenty-six  goddesses.  Odin  dwelt  in  a  great  hall, 
Valhal  or  Valhalla,  its  ceiling  supported  by  spears,  its  roof  formed  of  shields. 
To  it  Odin  invited  all  those  who  were  wounded  or  fell  in  battle  ; 

Vfllha.llfl. 

there  they  were  fetched  and  waited  upon  by  the  Valkyries,  Odin's 
waiting-maids.     Similarly  distinct  abodes  are  assigned   to   the   gods  and 
goddesses. 

The  belief  in  Valhalla  exercised  a  great  influence  on  the  Norsemen. 
The  warrior  was  cheered  when  dying  by  the  thought  that  the  Valkyries  had 
been  sent  to  invite  him  to  Valhalla ;  only  by  true  courage  could  influence  of 
he  win  Odin's  welcome.  The  cowards  he  would  despise  and  vai^ana- 
drive  away,  and  thus  it  was  misery  to  the  Norseman  not  to  die  valiantly  in 
battle.  In  Valhalla  there  is  a  perpetual  food,  a  miraculous  boar,  cooked 
every  day,  but  becoming  whole  again  every  night ;  and  perpetual  supplies 
of  mead  and  water  furnish  them  with  drink. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  Norse  conceptions  was  that  of  the  ash-tree 
Ygdrasil,  whose  branches  furnish  bodies  for  mankind,  whose  roots  extend 
through  all  worlds,  whose  branches  reach  through  the  heavens,  The  ash-tree 
and  which  fosters  all  living  things.  One  of  the  three  great  roots  Y&drasil- 
of  Ygdrasil  stretches  to  the  giants,  and  under  this  is  Mimer's  fountain,  in 
which  wisdom  and  wit  are  hidden.  Under  the  root  which  extended  to  the 
asa-gocls  is  a  holy  fountain,  where  the  gods  sit  in  judgment.  By  this  foun- 
tain there  dwell  three  maidens,  Urd,  Verdande,  and  Skuld  (Present,  Past, 
and  Future),  called  norns,  who  fix  the  lifetime  of  men,  and  dispense  good 
destinies  ;  while  other  evil  norns  give  men  bad  destinies  or  misfortunes. 

The  Supreme  Deity  cannot  be  identified  with  any  of  the  Norse  gods, 
but  rather  with  that  "  him  who  sent  it,"  who  was  before  the  beginning  of 
creation.  And  the  word  "God,"  which  is  a  very  old  Teutonic  The  supreme 
word,  is  not  identified  with  any  particular  named  god,  whence  Deity- 
we  may  possibly  derive  the  conclusion  that  the  named  gods  are  mainly 
ancestors  or  hero  gods,  or  personifications  of  powers  or  departments  of 
nature. 

Both  prayer  and  sacrifice  to  the  gods  date  from  the  earliest  times  we 
can  discern  among  the  Teutonic  peoples.      Sacrifices  were  not  necessarily, 
though  frequently,  of  animals.     The  gods  were  invited  to  take  prayerand 
their  share  of  human  food,  and  later,  separate  offerings  were  made    sacrifice- 
to   them.     They   were   frequently   thank-offerings,   a  share  of  the  gift  or 
gifts   bestowed    by    a   god    being   offered   to   him.      Other   sacrifices  were 
expiatory,   and   offered   on   occasions   of  disaster,  famine,    pestilence,    etc. 
Human  victims  were,  no  doubt,  occasionally  offered,  in  circum-  Humanand 
stances  of  special  gravity ;  frequently  they  were  captured  enemies,     animal 
or  slaves  or  criminals.    Horses  were  favourite  animals  for  sacrifice, 
horseflesh  being  very  generally  eaten  by  the  Teutons.     The  head  was  not 


44«  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


eaten,  but  specially  consecrated  to  the  gods.     Oxen,  boars,  pigs,  rams,  and! 

goats   were    also   offered ;    white    being   a   favourite   colour  for    sacrificial 

animals.     Among  the  Norse  peoples  the  animal  was  killed  on  a  sacrificial 

stone,  and  the  blood  caught  in  a  trench  or  in  vessels ;   with  it  the  sacred 

vessels  were  smeared  and  the  worshippers  were  sprinkled.     A  great  part  of 

the  meat  was  eaten  by  the  priests  and  people. 

Fruit  offerings  occupy  but  a  small  space  in  the  Teutonic  records ;  but 

drink  is  more  prominent.      On  any  festal  occasion  some  of  the  food  would 

M    be  laid  aside  for  the  household  spirits,  and  some  drink  would  be 
Fruit  and  . 

drink  offer-  poured  out  to  the  gods  ;  and  at  great  festivals  and  sacrifices  the 

mgs"  gods  were  separately  honoured,  and  horns  drunk  to  them.  This, 
was  called  drinking  their minne,  or  memorial  draught;  it  was  also  the  custom 
to  bemoan  absent  or  deceased  friends  in  this  way. 

The  old  Teuton  words  for  temple  also  mean  "  wood,"  indicating  that 
primitive  Teuton  worship  was  conducted  in  woods  or  groves.  "  There  dwelt 
worship  in  tne  deity,"  says  Grimm,  "  veiling  his  form  in  the  foliage ;  there 
woods,  the  hunter  must  present  to  him  the  game  he  has  killed,  and  the 
herdsman  his  horses  and  oxen  and  rams."  There  are  scantier  traces  of 
worship  of  the  gods  on  hill-tops,  in  caves,  or  by  the  river  side.  In  the 
groves  no  images  are  mentioned  as  being  set  up,  and  no  temple  walls 
appear  to  have  enclosed  the  sacred  space.  But  altars  and  sacred  vessels 
were  erected  there,  and  heads  of  animals  were  hung  from  boughs.  The 
proper  name  of  Holy  Wood,  common  in  many  parts  of  Germany,  probably 
is  a  relic  of  this  ancient  worship. 

There  are,  however,  traces  of  the  existence  of  built  temples  among  the 
Teutons.  Tacitus  gives  an  account  of  the  destruction  of  a  celebrated  temple 
The  temple  °f  the  Marsi  called  Tanfana,  in  a.d.  14;  and  he  also  describes  a 
Tanfana,  worship  of  Mother  Earth,  the  carrying  about  of  her  image,  and  its 
return  to  the  "  temple."  But  descriptions  of  these  temples  are  very  scanty 
and  imperfect.  As  soon  as  Christianity  gained  headway,  we  have  records 
of  their  burning  and  destroying  both  sacred  groves  and  temples,  and  often  of 
the  Christians  building  a  church  on  the  same  sites.  We  hear  of  an  impor- 
tant temple  of  Frey,  at  Upsala,  where  was  a  famous  oracle  and  place  of 
sacrifice.  Heligoland  was  once  a  noted  Teuton  place  of  assembly,  with  a 
temple.  The  temples  had  the  usual  sacred  character,  and  no  improper 
action  (that  is,  censured  by  the  god  or  his  priests,)  must  be  done  within 
their  precincts. 

Images  of  the  gods,  of  some  kind,  were  no  doubt  made ;  they  were  of 
wood,  stone,  and  metal,  but  to  what  extent  they  were  made  in  human  forms 
images  of  we  do  n°t  know,  as  none  have  come  down  to  us.  They  may 
the  gods,  often  have  been  but  rude  symbols,  bearing  some  form  associated 
with  the  gods.  In  some  cases  they  had  covered  carriages,  analogous  to  the 
Hindu  idol-cars,  in  which  the  images  were  dragged  about  over  the  fields,  to 
give  them  fertility.  Sometimes  we  hear  of  three  images  of  gods  seated 
side  by  side  ;  that  of  Thor  was  the  most  common  in  Norway. 

From  the  Frankish  annals  we   learn   that  Charlemagne   destroyed   a 


THE   RELIGION  OE  THE    TEUTONS.  449 


principal  seat  of   Saxon   heathendom   in    Westphalia,  called   Irminsal,    or 
Ermensul ;    and  the  accounts  rgive  us  to  understand  that  there  Destruction 
was  a  celebrated  worshipped  pillar  designated  by  this  name.     It  of  Irminsal- 
appears  to  have  been  a  great  wooden  pillar  in  the  open  air,  as  a  symbol  of 
the  supreme  god. 

The  early  German  priests  were  generally  chiefs  or  leaders  as  well,  and 
exercised  a  powerful  influence,  being  judges  as  well  as  priests,  controlling 
discipline  in  war,  to  which  they  carried  such  images  of  the  gods 
as  they  possessed.  But  details  about  them  are  very  scanty,  and 
the  same  is  the  case  as  regards  the  Norse  priesthood.  They  no  doubt 
exercised  the  functions  of  divination,  as  well  as  of  sacrifice  and  prayer. 
Prophetesses  were  in  high  repute  among  the  Teutons,  and  they  were  much 
occupied  in  divination. 

We  have  not  space  to  describe  the  crowds  of  spirits  of  various  kinds, 
heroes,  giants,  elves,  dwarfs,  etc.,  with  which  the  Teutons  peopled  the  un- 
seen world.  They  belong  to  the  domain  of  animism,  which  can  Belief  in 
be  studied  abundantly  in  the  pages  of  Grimm,  and  in  the  folk-  sPints-  etc- 
lore  of  the  Teutonic  peoples,  but  which  cannot  be  framed  into  any  body  ot 
doctrine  definitely  taught  as  a  religion.  There  is  a  vast  body  of  mythology 
too,  relating  to  magic,  ghosts,  devils,  animals,  and  plants,  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  enter  on  here,  which  would  be  of  great  importance  if  we  were 
endeavouring  to  trace  the  nature,  or  growth,  or  varied  forms  of  the  religious 
sentiment. 

We  must  briefly  refer,  in  conclusion,  to  the  ideas  associated  with  the 

name  Ragnarok,  which  signifies  the  final  catastrophe  of  the  world,  and 

the    death   of   the   gods.      Throughout    the    mythology,    events Ragnarok)  or 

happening  to  the  gods  foreshadow  their  final  destruction.     The   the  end  of 
rr.         b  .    °  .  .  .         the  world, 

growing    depravity  of    the  world  precedes   this,  attended   with 

frightful  calamities,  akin  to  those  described  in  the  Christian  Apocalypse. 

Strange  miracles  and  phenomena  will  abound.     The  great  contests  between 

the  evil  spirits  and  the  good,  and  the  final  destruction  of  all  are  grandly 

described  in  the  elder  Edda  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  be  certain  that  parts  of  it 

are  not  a  reflection  from  the  Apocalypse,  and  therefore  we  do  not  go  into 

details.     When  the  earth  and  the  heavens  have  all  been  consumed  by  flames, 

a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth  arise.      "  The  fields  unsown  yield  their 

growth.      All  ills  cease:  Balder  comes."      There  are  halls  for  the  good  and 

virtuous,  in  some  of  which  all  who  delight  in  drinking  good  drink  will 

find  plenty.     A  terrible  hell  also  is  imagined  for  the  evil,  built  entirely  of 

the  backs  of  serpents,  with  heads  turned  inwards,  vomiting  venom. 

"  Then  comes  the  Mighty  One 
To  the  great  judgment ; 
From  heaven  he  comes, 
He  who  guides  all  things  : 
Judgments  he  utters  : 
Strffes  he  appeases, 
Laws  he  ordains 
To  flourish  for  ever." 

G    G 


45° 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  as  a  qualification  of  any  too  confident  con- 
clusion on  the  Teutonic  religion,  that  scholars  vary  in  their  estimate  as  to 
Doubtful  the  degree  in  which  Christianity  influenced  what  we  know  of 
points,  the  religions  it  superseded  in  the  North.  But  in  this  account  the 
elaborations  found  in  the  later  Edda  are  very  largely  omitted.  We  have 
made  no  attempt,  also,  to  trace  the  influence  of  totemism  in  Teuton  countries, 
which  was  no  doubt  considerable. 

The  moral  principles  of  the  Teutons  may  be  summed  up  briefly  thus: 
honour  and  kindness  among  kin  and  tribesmen,  deceit,  violence,  and  enmity 
Moral  con-  to  all  outside.  Bravery  was  a  cardinal  virtue,  and  sincerity 
dition.  anc|  generosity  were  appreciated  towards  kinsfolk  and  friends. 
Reverence  certainly  existed  both  towards  gods,  superiors,  and  the  old,  but 
was  liable  to  be  overborne  by  passion  and  self-seeking.  Great  cruelty  was 
often  shown  towards  slaves,  strangers,  and  enemies  ;  and  the  witchcraft 
and  superstitions  believed  in  indicated  a  comparatively  low  intellectual 
elevation. 


HKKTHA    LAKE,    ISLAND    OF    UUGKN. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
CI)f  Religion  of  tbe  J&Iabonfan& 

Nature  and  ancestor  worship— Svarog— Dazhbog—Perun,  or  Perkunos— His  great  image  at  Kief— Its 
destruction— The  sacred  oak— Other  gods— Svantovit— Temple  at  Riigen— Four-headed  image  — 
Great  expense  of  service— The  horse  of  Svantovit— Great  harvest  festival  -The  horn  of  mead— 
Zernabog — Lado  and  Lada — Inferior  spirits— The  journey  after  death — Heaven  and  hell — Haunt- 
ing spirits— The  house  spirit — Witches,  charms,  and  spells— Priesthoods  and  temples— Imperfect 


AS  the  latest  race  to  enter  into  civilised  ranks,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that  the  religion  of  the  Slavs1  was  less  elaborate  than  that  of  the 
Teutons.  It  is  doubtful  whether  there  ever  existed  a  Slavonic  collection  of 
poems  at  all  comparable  to  the  Eddas,  still  less  to  the  Vedas  ;  but  there  still 
remain  isolated  songs  and  fragments,  which  illustrate  the  popular  ideas,  even 
if  they  fall  far  short  of  what  we  might  desire.  We  find  reason  to  believe 
that  they  combined,  like  other  Aryan  peoples,  worship  of  the  forces  Nature  and 

of  nature  with  that  of  the  spirits  of  deceased  ancestors.      While  ancestor  wor- 

,.,,  11  .  .  ship, 

they  worshipped  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  and  elements,  or  their  spiri- 
tual governors  or  actuating  powers,  they  most  deeply  reverenced  the  forces 
producing  storms,  and  had  a  thunder-god  Perun,  who  may  be  compared 
with  the  Teutonic  Thor,  and  who  ultimately  became  the  supreme  god. 

There  appears,  however,  as  in  the  Vedic  religion,  to  have  been  a  gra- 
dual transference  of  the  supremacy  from  one  to  another  series 

.  Svarog. 

of  gods.      Thus  it   is   believed    that  the  earliest  great  god  was 

Svarog,  said  to  mean  "  shining  one,"  and  to  correspond  to  the  Vedic  god 

1  W.  R.  S.  Ralston  :  "  Songs  of  the  Russian  People,"  and  "Russian  Folk-Tales  ; "  G.  F. 
Maclear :  "  The  Slavs"  (Conversion  of  the  West). 

431 


452  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Varuna,  and  the  Greek  Ouranos.     Both  the  sun  (Dazhbog)  and  fire  (Ogon) 
are  described  as  his  children,  to  whom  he  deputes  the  work  of 
creation,  and  the  actual  rule  over  creation.      The  word  Dazhbog 
appears  to  mean  Day-god,  the  last  syllable  signifying  god. 

Perun,  or  Perkunos,  who  afterwards  became  the  chief  deity,  has  been 
identified  with  the  Vedic  god  Parganja  (supposed  by  some  to  be  another 
Perun,  or  name  for  Indra),  the  thunderer,  the  showerer,  the  beautiful.  In 
Perkunos.  Lithuania  we  read  of  a  statue  of  him,  which  held  in  its  hand 
"  a  precious  stone  like  fire,  shaped  in  the  image  of  the  lightning."  Before 
it  a  fire  of  oak-wood  was  constantly  kept  burning.  His  name  still  lingers 
in  popular  expressions  about  thunder.  The  following  is  said  to  be  a  prayer 
formerly  said  in  Livonia  at  a  feast  in  the  beginning  of  spring,  "  Perkons  ! 
Father  !  thy  children  lead  this  faultless  victim  to  thy  altar.  Bestow,  0 
father,  thy  blessing  on  the  plough  and  on  the  corn.  May  golden  straw,  with 
great  well-filled  ears,  rise  abundantly  as  rushes.  Drive  away  all  black, 
haily  clouds  to  the  great  moors,  forests,  and  large  deserts,  where  they  will 
not  frighten  mankind,  and  give  sunshine  and  rain,  gentle  falling  rain,  in 
order  that  the  crops  may  thrive."  In  one  of  the  Lettish  songs  we  are  told 
that  "  Father  Perkons  has  nine  sons ;  three  strike,  three  thunder,  three 
lighten."  Among  the  "White  Russians  Perun  is  described  as  tall  and  well- 
shaped,  with  black  hair,  and  a  long  golden  beard.  He  rides  in  a  flaming 
car,  grasping  in  his  left  hand  a  quiver  full  of  arrows,  and  in  his  right  a 
fiery  bow,  and  sometimes  he  flies  abroad  on  a  great  millstone,  which  is 
supported  by  the  mountain  spirits  who  are  in  subjection  to  him,  and  who 
by  their  flight  give  rise  to  storms.  In  the  spring  Perun  goes  forth  in  his 
fiery  car,  and  crushes  with  his  blazing  darts  the  demons,  from  whose  wounds 
the  blood  is  sometimes  described  as  streaming  forth.      (Ralston.) 

The  great  image  of  Perun  at  Kief,  set  up  on  rising  ground,  had  a  trunk 
of  wood,  a  head  of  silver,  and  moustaches  of  gold,  and  held  a  mace.     Near  the 
end  of  the  tenth  century  this  was  still  worshipped  until  Vladimir, 
image  at    who  reigned  over  the  Russians  at  Kief,  was  converted  to  Christi- 
Kief'       anity,  and  had  the  statue  pulled   down,  dragged  across  the  hills 
at  a  horse's  tail,  flogged  all  the  while,  and  finally  flung  into  the  Dnieper. 
its  destruc-  The  people  called  on  their  god  to  show  his  power,  but  nothing 
tion-       happened,  and  the  conversion  of  the  Russians  was  rapid.     Simi- 
larly the  image  of  Perun  at  Novgorod  was  thrown  into  the  Volga. 

Perun's  bow  has  been  identified  with  the  rainbow,  and  his  flaming 
dart  has  been  represented  as  a  golden  key,  with  which  he  unlocked  the 
earth,  brought  to  light  its  concealed  treasures,  and  locked  away  fugitives 
from  the  reach  of  wizards.  His  golden  key  is  also  interpreted  as  the  light- 
ning with  which  he  breaks  up  the  frost-bound  earth  in  spring,  or  pierces 
the  clouds  and  lets  loose  the  rains. 

As  among  numerous  other  Aryan  peoples,  the  oak  was  a  sacred  tree 
The  sacred  among  t ne  Slavonians  ;  and  it  was  connected  with  the  worship  of 
oak.       Perkunos  by  the  oak-fire  already  mentioned. 
Together  with  the  statue  of  Perun  at  Kief,  there  were  the  images  of 


THE    RELIGION  OF  THE   SLAVONIANS.  453 

other  gods.     Khors  and  Dazhbog,  probably  different  forms  of  the  Sun-god  f 
Stribog,  god  of  the  winds,  Simargla  and  Mokosh,  the  latter  two  other  gods, 
being  otherwise  unknown. 

Svantovit  is  the  name  given  to  the  chief  god  of  the  Baltic  Slavonians 
within  the  historic  period.     This  as  well  as  Radegast,  the  god  of  war,  and 
Yarovil   have  been  interpreted    as   forms  of  the   Sun-god.      At  svantovit. 
Arcona,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Rugen,  the  Danish  Christian  mission- 
aries, as  related  by  Saxo  Grammaticus,  found  a  beautiful  wooden  Temple  at 
temple  with  inner  and  outer  courts,  the  latter  with  a  roof  painted      Rugen. 
red.     The  inner  court  was  draped  with  tapestry,   and  contained  numerous 
paintings.      But  the  image  itself  was  of  Oriental  strangeness.     It  pour^eaded 
had  four  heads  and  necks,  two  chests,  and  two  backs,  but  only     image, 
two  arms,  it  would  seem.     The  great  right  hand  held  a  horn  of  several 
metals,  which  was  once  a  year  filled  with  mead.     The  left  arm  was  bent  in 
the  shape  of  a  bow,  and  the  lower  limbs  were  covered.     Beside  the  statue 
lay  a  bridle  and  a  sword  with  silver  hilt  and  scabbard. 

In  honour  of  the  deity  thus  represented,  expensive  worship  was 
maintained,  partly  devoted  to  the  priests  and  partly  to  the  ornamen- 
tation of  the  temple.  Besides  the  proceeds  of  a  yearly  tax,  one- Great  expense 
third  of  the  booty  taken  in  war  was  given  to  the  temple  ;  and  in  of  service- 
addition  it  received  large  offerings  from  the  chiefs.  A  special  body  of 
horse-soldiers,  said  to  number  three  hundred,  fought  in  the  name  of  the  god, 
and  gave  all  their  spoils  of  war  to  the  priests  for  the  ornamentation  of  the 
temple. 

The  white  horse  of  Svantovit  was  an  animal  sacred  to  the  god,  on 
which  he  was  believed  to  accompany  his  people  to  war,  of  course  invisibly. 
Only  priests  might  feed  him  or  ride  upon  him,  and  it  was  a  The  h0Tse  of 
serious  offence  to  do  the  slightest  injury  to  him.  The  horse  was  svantovit. 
regarded  as  an  oracle  in  case  of  war.  He  was  led  out,  after  prayer  to  the 
god,  to  step  over  three  rows  of  spears  ;  and  if,  in  stepping,  he  lifted  his  right 
foreleg  first,  that  was  regarded  as  a  favourable  omen  for  the  success  of  the 
war  :  any  other  proceeding  was  unfavourable. 

A   grand   harvest   festival   was  held   at   the    close   of  the  harvest  in 
Rugen.     Considerable  sacrifices  of  cattle  were  first  offered,  followed  by  a 
feast.    An  old  priest,  with  hair  and  beard  uncut,  then  entered  the  Great  harvegt 
innermost  sacred  enclosure  of  the  temple,  to  sweep  it  carefully,     festival. 
During  this  operation  he  was  strictly  required  to  hold  his  breath,  in  order 
not  to  defile  the  presence  of  the  god ;  each  time  when  he  was  compelled  to 
breathe  he  must  emerge  from  the  temple  precincts.     "When  this  was  over,  he 
took  the  horn  of  mead  from  the  hand  of  the  image  and  carried  it  out  to  the 
assembly,  proclaiming  whether  it  had  decreased  or  increased  since  the  last 
festival.     If  the  former,  scarcity  was  imminent ;  if  the  latter,  plenty  was  in 
store.     It  was  then  poured  out  as  a  libation  to  the  god,  and  the  The  horn  of 
horn  was  refilled  by  the  priest,  with  a  prayer  for  a  prosperous  year       mead- 
and  for  success  in  war.     This  horn-full  was  next  drunk  by  himself  at  a 
draught,  and  the  horn  again  filled,  to  remain  untouched  (it  was  supposed) 


4"4  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS 


till  the  succeeding  year.  Offerings  of  sweet  cakes  made  of  honey  and  flour 
were  then  presented,  and  finally  the  priest,  representing  the  god,  blessed 
the  people,  exhorting  them  to  sacrifice  continually  to  the  god,  who  in  that 
case  would  give  them  victory  over  their  enemies.  An  abundant  feast 
followed.  It  appears  that  there  were  other  images  of  gods  in  Riigen,  one, 
named  Porenut,  presided  over  the  seasons,  and  had  five  faces,  one  being 
upon  his  chest.  Another,  Rhugevit,  had  seven  faces  and  eight  swords  ; 
possibly  he  is  identical  with  Radegast,  already  mentioned.  Triglav  was 
another  god,  whose  image  was  destroyed  at  Stettin,  and  the  triple  head 
sent  to  the  Pope.  Among  the  evil  or  cruel  deities  feared  by  the 
Slavonians  must  be  included  Zernabog,  to  whom  human  sacrifices 
were  offered  with  frightful  rites. 

Lado  and  La'da  are  two  names  of  gods  about  whom  there  is  some 
doubt.  They  have  been  compared  to  Frey  and  Freyja,  and  Lada  is  called 
Lado  and  the  goddess  of  love  and  pleasure.  Lithuanian  songs  are  quoted, 
Lada.  jn  which  Lada  appears  as  "our  great  goddess,"  and  Lado  is 
coupled  with  the  sun.  An  old  chronicle  describes  Lado  as  the  god  of 
marriage,  of  mirth,  of  pleasure,  and  of  general  happiness,  to  whom  intend- 
ing brides  and  bridegrooms  offered  sacrifices,  to  secure  prosperity  in  their 
married  life.  In  Russian  songs  lado  and  lada  are  commonly  used  as  equi- 
valents for  bridegroom,  lover,  husband,  and  bride,  mistress,  wife.  Kupala 
was  a  god  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  Koleda,  a  god  of  festivals.  The 
name  Koleda  has  been  transferred  to  Christmas  in  various  parts  of  Russia  ; 
while  in  some  districts  the  midsummer  festival  of  St.  John's  eve  is  called 
St.  John  Kupala. 

Besides  gods,  the  Slavonians  peopled  their  outer  world  with  numerous 

inferior  spirits,  such  as  dwarfs,  wood-spirits,  water-sprites,  house-spirits,  etc.; 

inferior     and  beliefs  about  them  are  still  common  among  the  Russian  pea- 

spirits.     sants.     In  fact,  animism,  combined  with  reverence  for  the  spirits 

of  deceased  ancestors,  was  in  full  vogue  among  them,  and  it  still  lingers. 

The  Slavs  thought   that  after   death   the  soul  had  to  begin    a  long 

journey,  either  in  a  boat  across  a  sea,  or  on  foot.     One  view  was,  that  a 

The  journey  steep  hillside  had  to  be  climbed,  at  the  top  of  which  paradise  was 

after  death,  situated.     One  word  for  the  abode  of  the  dead,  Rai,  meant  the 

abode  of  the  sun,  in  the  East,  always  warm  and  light.     Similarly,  another 

Heaven  and  uame  for  it,  Peklo,  means  a  place  of  warmth  ;  but  it  is  now  used  as 

helL       a  name  for  hell.     But  there  are  other  views  which  consider  the 

grave  itself  as  the  abode  of  the  spirits  of  the  dead.     The  old  Slavs  seem  to 

have  had  no  idea  of  a  future  state  of  reward  and  punishment,  of  redress 

or  compensation  for  evils  suffered  in  this  life.     Rather  did  they  consider 

death  only  the  preliminary  to  a  similar  life  to  the  present. 

Before  burial,  the  spirit  was  supposed  to  remain  near  the  body,  some- 
times haunting  the  old  home  for  six  weeks,  during  which  they  watch  the 
Haunting  behaviour  of  the  bereaved.      No  doubt   it  was  a  very  general 
spirits,     belief,  that  the  souls  of  parents  watched  over  their  children  and 
grandchildren,  and  that  ancestors  ought  always  to  be  reverenced.     How 


THE  RELIGION  OF  THE   SLAVONIANS.  455 


this  belief  came  to  be  associated  with  the  domestic  fire,  and  how  the  stove 
became  associated  with  the  house-spirit  is  not  clear.     The  house-        The 
spirit  is  believed  to  live  behind  the  stove;   formerly  he  was  more H0^6-3?1111- 
closely  connected  with  the  fire.     Even  now  Russian  families  are  known, 
when  removing  from  one  house  to  another,  to  rake  out  the  fire  from  the  old 
stove  into  a  jar  and  carry  it  to  the  new  house,  the  words  "  Welcome,  grand- 
father, to  the  new  home  !  "  being  pronounced  when  it  arrives  there.     On 
the  28th  of  January,  Afanasief  says,  the  Russian  peasants  after  supper  leave 
out  a  pot  of  stewed  grain,  for  the  house-spirit.     This  pot  is  placed  on  the 
hearth   in   front  of  the   stove,   and  surrounded   with    hot   embers.      Very 
generally  the  hearths  are  believed  to  be  haunted  by  the  spirits  of  deceased 
ancestors.     There  are  many  superstitions  connected  with  beliefs  or  fears  as 
to  these  household  spirits,  which  are  often  believed  to  be  at  times  malicious 
or  mischievous.     It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  old  Slav-      -witches 
onians  had  their  witches  and  wizards,  and  believed  in  charms  and  charms,  and 
spells,  were- wolves  and  vampires;  to  a  considerable  extent  their 
descendants  do  so  still. 

There  are  many  other  features  of  Slavonian  belief  and  custom  that  it 
would  be  interesting  to  dwell  upon ;  but  it  is  so  doubtful  to  what  extent 
they  belonged  to  the  developed  Slavonic  religion,  or  to  previous  states  of 
belief,  and  to  what  extent  they  have  originated  or  been  transformed  in 
Christian  times,  that  we  must  not  venture  farther  into  regions  of  hypothesis 
and  doubt. 

We  know  comparatively  little,  too,  about  the  priesthoods,  and  adminis- 
tration of  the  Slavonian  religion.     The  Eastern  Slavs,  indeed,  appear  to 
have  had  no  regular  priesthood,  religious  rites  and  ceremonies  priesthoods 
being  performed  by  the  heads  of  families  or  communities  ;  and  and  temPles- 
no  doubt  the  chief  of  a  community  or  tribe  was  also  its  priest.     Sacrifices 
were  simply  offered  under  a  tree,  preferably  an  oak,  or  beside  a  stream,  and 
regular  temples  were  not  built.     Among  the  Western  Slavonians  the  priest- 
hood assumed  a  more  definite  character,  though  even  here  associated  largely 
with  civil  or  warlike  functions  ;  and  references  to  temples  have  already  been- 
several  times  made.     On  the  whole,  the  Slavonic  religion  appears  to  have 
been  as  little  developed  as  that  of  any  Aryan  people,  though  its  beliefs  were 
firmly  held,  and  have  left  marked  traces  even  to  the  present  day.    imperfect 
But  the  lack  of  anything  like  Scriptures,  or  even  a  mythology  of    remams- 
distinct  and  elevated  type,  diminishes  its  general  interest  and  value  very 
considerably. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

Celtic  ftelfgfotu 

Rhys's  Hibbart  Lectures— Julius  Caesar— Roman  names  of  Celtic  gods— Ogmios,  the  Gaulish  Mercury 
— Maponos,  the  Gaulish  Apollo— Caturix,  the  Gaulish  Mars— Camulos— Baginates  and  Esus— The 
Welsh  duw— Nodens— Stonehenge— The  mistletoe —Aryan  affinity  of  myths— The  Druids  probably 
pre-Aryan  in  origin— Caesar's  account. 

"TXTE  are  extraordinarily  ignorant  as  to  the  religious  ideas  of  the  earl}'" 
»  *       Celts,    and   their   origin.      We   have  but  scanty  or  unsatisfactory 

literary  or  other  remains  to  help  us,  and  their  decipherment  and  recon- 
Rhys's  struction  have  only  recently  been  undertaken.  Professor  Rhys, 
Hibbert     in  his  "  Celtic  Heathendom  "  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1886),  has  made 

Lectures 

by   far  the    most   important  contribution  to  the  question ;    but 

436 


CELTIC  RELIGION.  457 


much  that  he  puts  forward  is  merely  tentative,  and  thus  it  will  not  be 
profitable  to  dwell  at  any  great  length  on  the  subject. 

Julius  Caesar,  as  on  so  many  other  subjects,  has  left  us  the  most  im- 
portant information  as  to  the  religion  of  the  Gallic  Celts  ("  DeBello  Gallico," 

vi.   17).      He    learned    much  from  the   Druid  Divitiacus ;    and  .  „     m 

-   Julius  Caesar, 
although  he  identifies  and  names  the  chief  Gallic  gods  m  accord- 
ance with  Roman  beliefs,  at  any  rate  we  are  in  contact  with  an  authority 
contemporary  with  the  actual  existence  of  the  religious  ideas  set  down. 

Csesar  tells  us  that  a  god  he  names  Mercury  was  worshipped  above  all 
others,  and  under  many  images.  He  was  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the 
arts,  the  patron  of  roads  and  journeys,  of  commerce  and  money- Roman  names 
making.  Apollo  was  regarded  as  driving  away  diseases,  Miner vaof  Celtlc  g0d3' 
as  the  teacher  of  various  trades  and  arts,  Jupiter  as  the  ruler  of  the 
sky,  and  Mars  as  the  director  of  wars,  to  whom  all  spoils  of  battle  were 
dedicated,  the  animals  being  sacrificed  and  the  other  booty  being  collected 
and  dedicated  in  sacred  places.  Most  of  our  information  from  inscriptions 
dates  from  Gaulo-Roman  days,  when  the  Romans  following  Augustus  had 
taken  the  Celtic  gods  into  their  pantheon,  and  included  the  Gaulish  divini- 
ties among  the  Roman  Lares  and  Penates,  as  Lares  Augusti ;  and  thus  the 
evidence  is  imperfect. 

In  a  single  district  like  that  of  the  Allobroges  (mostly  east  of  the  Rhone 

and  south  of  Lake  Geneva,  with  Vienne  as  capital)  there  were  twenty-six 

temples  dedicated  to  the  Gaulish  "  Mercury  ;  "  and  there  were  0     ios  the 

many  others  in  the  department   of  the  Puy    de  Dome,  on  the     Gaulish 
.  .  •         i  •   i       Mercury, 

summit   of   which  was  a  great  temple  of  the  Arverni,  which 

Pliny  describes  as  having  an  image  of  Mercury  120  feet  high,  which  was 

not  destroyed  till  the  middle  of  the  third  century  a.d.     The  native  name 

of  this  god  appears  to  have  been  Ogmios  (also  represented  as  Hercules),  god 

of  speech,  eloquence,  and  wisdom  ;  and  this  name,  Ogmios,  Professor  Rhys 

identifies  with  the  "Welsh  ovyd  or  ofydcl,  a  teacher  or  leader  ;  while  in  Irish 

Ogma  is  one  of  the  gods,  the  inventor  of  writing  and  of  the  Ogam  alphabet, 

to  provide  for  secret  speech  known  only  to  the  learned. 

The  Gaulish  "  Apollo  "  bore  among  others  the  names,  Maponos,  Grannos, 
and  Toutiorix.  The  first  name  has  been  found  in  three  inscriptions  in  the 
north  of  England;  it  means  boy,  or  male  child.  Grannus,  the  MaponoS(  the 
name  used  among  the  Belgse,  suggests  "  shining,"  "  glow,"  "  sun-  Gaunsh 
shine."  Several  of  his  inscriptions  are  found  near  medicinal 
springs,  as  those  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Granheim,  etc.  A  female  divinit}^  as- 
sociated with  this  Apollo  Grannus  was  Sirona,  represented  as  a  matron 
holding  in  one  hand  a  bunch  of  fruit,  in  another  some  ears  of  corn. 

The  Roman  Mars  was  identified  with  a  Gaulish  god   Caturix,  meaning 
king  of  war,  or  lord  of  battle.     Other  names  assigned  to  him  are  Segomo 
and  Dunates.     Mars  Vintios  is  yet  another  name,  suggesting  the  caturix,  the 
wind  as  associated  with  the  war-god.      Again,  the  name  Camulos 
is  met  with  in  association  with  the  war-god ;  it  is  the  name  found    Camulos- 
in  Camulodunum  (Colchester) ;  and  Camulos  is  supposed  to  mean  the  sky, 


458  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

and  he  has  been  compared  to  Jupiter  as  god  of  the  heavens.  And  numerous 
facts  point  to  the  war-god  having  been  in  early  times  the  supreme  Celtic 
divinity,  though  reckoned  lower  in  Csesar's  time. 

A  god  named  Baginates  has  been  identified  with  Jupiter,  but  very 
little  is  known  about  him.     Esus,  or  Hesus,  who  may  possibly  be  connected 

Baginates   with   this  god,  was  identified  by  the  Gauls   with    the    Roman 

and  Esus.  Silvanus  ;  and  he  is  represented  as  felling  a  tree  with  an  axe,  and 
probably  presided  over  woodlands  and  the  interests  of  shepherds.  But  all 
these  gods  are  very  dim  and  shadowy  as  yet.  There  appears  to  be  more 
certainty  about  the  ascription  of  a  genius  or  divinity  to  each  locality,  to 
whom  libations  were  annually  made  ;  and  about  the  worship  of  matron 
goddesses,  or  matres,  who  enjoyed  a  large  share  of  Gaulish  worship ;  besides 
which  the  land  was  regarded  as  having  an  indefinite  number  of  evil 
spirits,  goblins,  witches,  etc.  They,  as  well  as  the  good  spirits,  are  often 
represented  in  threes. 

Coming  to  the  gods  of  the  insular  Celts,  while  the   Sanskrit  deva  and 
the  Greek  Zeus  are  represented  by  the  Welsh  duic,  the  latter  means  any 

The  welsh  god,  and  the  word  never  appears  to   have  become  used  of  one 

duw-       supreme  god  by  the  early  Celts.     There  are  facts  which  suggest 

that  the  Irish  Nuada  of  the  Silver  Hand  represented  Zeus  and  Jupiter. 

He  was  said  to  have  been  the  king    of  the   mythical    colony   that   took 

possession  of  Erin  more  than  3000  years  B.C.     In  "Wales  we  find  this  name 

Nodens,  remains  of  whose  temple  have  been  found  at  Lydney,  on 

the  west  bank  of  the  Severn,  in  the  country  of  the  Silures.     In 

both  countries  he  appears  to  have  been  a  leader  in  war,  and  there  are 

symptoms  of  his  being  the  king  of  the  gods,  giver  of  wealth  and  lord  both 

of  land  and  sea  ;    he  appears  to  be  a   relic  of  a  time  when  the  sharing 

of  domains  among  the  gods  was  by  no  means  so  far  advanced  as  among 

classic  Greeks  and  Romans.      Other  gods  are  even  less  definite,  and  we  can 

gain  more  vivid  notions  about  the  demigods  or  deified  heroes  of  the  Celts 

ston  h         than  about  the  nature-gods.     According  to  Mr.  Rhys,  Stonehenge 

was  believed  to  be  the  work  of  Merlin  the   enchanter  working 

under  the  orders  of  the  Celtic  Zeus,  and  thus  it  would  be  a  temple  of  this 

god  ;  but  we  have  no  evidence  as  to  the  precise  way  in  which  it  was  used 

for  worship.      Merlin,  though  an  enchanter,  was  believed  to  be  immortal ; 

and  even  when  his  body  is  killed,  his  living  spirit  abides  with  it,  though  no 

longer  able  to  render  it  active. 

Leaving  till  a  little  later  such  descriptions  of  the  Druids  as  we  can 
find,  what  can  we  say  of  the  god  they  worshipped  ?  What  is  the  meaning 
of  the  intimate  association  of  the  Druids  with  the  oak  ?  This  is,  in  fact,  a 
part  of  the  common  heritage  of  the  Aryans,  who  associated  the  grand  growth 
of  the  oak  with  their  supreme  god.  Pliny  says  the  Gaulish  Druids  hold 
x^e        nothing  more  sacred  than  the  mistletoe  and  the  tree  it  grows 

mistletoe.  011j  provided  it  be  an  oak.  They  selected  groves  of  oak,  and  per- 
formed no  sacred  rites  without  its  leaves.  Maximus  Tyrius  says  the  Celts 
worshipped  Zeus  under  the  image  of  a  lofty  oak. 


CELTIC  RELIGION. 


459 


Prof.  Rhys  infers  that  the  early  mythology  and  beliefs  of  the  Celts  were 
substantially  similar  to  those  of  the  Greeks  and  Hindus,  but  that  the  form 


'n  which  we  have  the  narratives  handed  down  to  us  is  so  modified 


Aryan 


by  the  influence  of  Christianity,  that  it  is  difficult  to  disentangle   affinity  of 
the  ancient  elements.     He  lays  stress  upon  the  traces  of  a  sun-     myths- 


460  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

hero,  a  culture-hero,  and  dawn  goddesses  ;  but  the  precise  conclusions  which 
should  be  drawn  are  very  uncertain. 

We  must  place  the  Druids  here,  though  no  doubt  their  occupation  dated 
from  pre-Aryan  times,  and  perhaps  was  more  rooted  in  pre-Aryan  than  in 
The  Druids  Aryan  thought.     Csesar  gives  the  fullest  and  apparently  the  most 
pTe°Ajyan    authentic  description  of  the  Druids,  though  of  course  allowance 
m  origin,     must  be  made  for  his  Roman  education.     We  quote  the  following 
from  the  "Gallic  War"  (Book  vi.,  c.  13,  etc.).  "They  attend  to  sacred  things, 
perform  public  and  private  sacrifices,  and  interpret  all  matters  of  religion. 
A  great  number  of  youths  resort  to  them  for  the  sake  of  instruction,  and 
they  enjoy  the  highest  honour  in  that  nation  ;  for  nearly  all  public  and 
private  quarrels  come  under  their  jurisdiction ;  and  when  any  crime  has  been 
csesar's     committed,  when  a  murder  has  been  perpetrated,  when  a  con- 
account,    troversy  arises  about  an  inheritance  or  about  landmarks,  they  are 
the  judges  too.     They  decree  rewards  and  punishments  ;  and  should  any  one, 
whether  a  private  individual  or  a  public  man,  disobey  the  decrees,  then 
they  exclude  him  from  their  sacrifices.     This  is  with  them  the  severest 
punishment.     The  persons  who  are  thus  laid  under  interdict  are  regarded  as 
injurious  and  wicked  people  ;  everybody  recoils  from  them,  and  shuns  their 
society  and  conversation,  lest  he  should  be  injured  by  associating  with  them ; 
nor  is  justice  administered  to  them  when  seeking  it,  nor  is  any  dignity 
bestowed  on  them. 

"All  these  Druids  have  one  chief,  who  enjoys  the  highest  authority 
among  them.  When  he  dies,  he  is  succeeded  by  the  member  of  the  order 
who  is  most  prominent ;  ...  if  there  are  many  equal,  the  successor  is 
elected  by  the  Druids.  Sometimes  they  even  contend  in  arms  for  the 
supremacy.  At  a  certain  time  of  the  year,  the  Druids  assemble  on  the 
territory  of  the  Carnutes,  which  is  believed  to  be  the  centre  of  all  Gaul,  in 
a  sacred  place.  To  that  spot  are  gathered  from  everywhere  all  persons  that 
have  quarrels,  and  they  abide  by  their  judgments  and  decrees.  It  is  believed 
that  this  institution  was  founded  in  Britannia,  and  thence  transplanted  into 
Gaul.  Even  now-a-days,  those  who  wish  to  become  more  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  the  institution  generally  go  to  Britannia  for  instruction's  sake. 

"  The  Druids  take  no  part  in  war  ;  nor  do  they  pay  tribute  like  the 
rest  of  the  people  ;  they  are  exempt  from  military  service,  and  from  all 
public  burdens.  Attracted  by  such  advantages,  many  come  to  be  instructed 
by  their  own  choice,  while  others  are  sent  by  their  parents.  They  are 
reported  to  learn  in  the  school  a  great  number  of  verses,  so  that  some  remain 
there  twenty  years.  .  .  .  Beyond  all  things,  they  are  desirous  to  inspire 
a  belief  that  men's  souls  do  not  become  extinct,  but  pass  after  death  from 
one  body  to  another  ;  and  they  hold  that  people  are  thereby  more  strongly 
urged  to  bravery,  the  fear  of  death  being  disregarded.  Besides,  they  hold 
a  great  many  discourses  about  the  stars  and  their  motion,  about  the  size  of 
the  world  and  of  various  countries,  about  the  nature  of  things,  about  the 
power  and  might  of  the  immortal  gods ;  and  they  instruct  the  youths  in 
these  subjects." 


CELTIC  RELIGION.  4^ 


"  The  nation  of  all  the  Gauls  is  extremely  devoted  to  superstitious  rites  ; 
land  on  that  account  they  who  are  troubled  with  unusually  severe  diseases, 
and  they  who  are  engaged  in  battles  and  dangers,  either  sacrifice  men  as 
jvictims,  or  vow  that  they  will  sacrifice  them,  and  employ  the  Druids  as  the 
iperformers  of  those  sacrifices ;  because  they  think  that  unless  the  life  of  a 
jman  be  offered  for  the  life  of  a  man,  the  mind  of  the  immortal  gods  cannot 
be  rendered  propitious,  and  they  have  sacrifices  of  that  kind  ordained  for 
national  purposes.  Others  have  figures  of  vast  size,  the  limbs  of  which, 
formed  of  osiers,  they  fill  with  living  men,  which  being  set  on  fire,  the  men 
perish  enveloped  in  the  flames.  They  consider  that  the  oblation  of  such  as 
have  been  taken  in  theft,  or  in  robbery,  or  any  other  offence,  is  more 
acceptable  to  the  immortal  gods  ;  but  when  a  supply  of  that  class  is 
j  wan  ting,  they  have  recourse  to  the  oblation  of  even  the  innocent." 

Nothing  really  more  satisfactory  than  this  can  be  ascertained  about 
the  Druids ;  and  we  must  leave  readers  to  derive  from  it  what  notions  they 
;can.  To  us  it  appears  that  the  Druids  were  the  descendants  of  old  magicians 
and  medicine-men,  who  adopted  to  a  great  extent  the  ideas  about  the  gods 
:Which  the  invading  Celts  introduced  :  but  at  best  this  is  conjecture. 


PILLARED    HALL    OF    THE    TEMPLE    AT    PHIL.E,    IN'  EGYPT. 


BOOK    V. 

EGYPTIAN    AND    SEMITIC    RELIGIONS. 


CHAPTER    I. 
CI)e   <£<n>!)tfan   ixcli'sion. 

Modern  discoveries— Local  deities— Tendency  to  monotheism— Hymn  to  Amen-ra— The  Egyptian  a 
nature-religion— Ra,  the  sun-god— Shu  and  Tefnut— The  worship  at  On— Osiris— Apis— Serapis— 
Isis— Horus— Hathor— Thoth— Ptah— Anuhis  and  Neith— Amun-ra  -Animal  worship— Animism 
—Deification  of  kings— Temples— The  priests— Orders  of  priests— Festivals  and  processions- 
Invocation  of  the  Nile— Animal  sacrifices— Oracles— Astrology— Life  after  death  -A  funeral 
song— Osiris,  the  judge  of  the  dead— "  The  Book  of  the  Dead"— Other  Egyptian  Books— Pro- 
ceedings at  the  sacred  lake— Ohjects  huried  with  the  dead— Egyptian  morals— High  esteem 
of  truth  and  charity— Singular  custom  at  banquets. 

NOT  less  astonishing  than  the  religions  of  India,  and  probably  more 
ancient  in  its  advanced  development,  is  the  religion  of  the  early 
Egyptians1  as  it  has  been  slowly  recovered  and  pieced  together  in  the  present 
Modern  century.  Many  monuments  and  records  have  unfortunately 
discoveries,  perished,  many  are  still  buried  and  unexplored,  but  those  which 
have  been  rescued  and  explained  furnish  us  with  undoubted  facts  sufficient 
to  give  rise  to  ideas  of  a  highly-developed  form  of  religion,  in  many  respects 
worthy  to  rank  beside  that  revealed  in  the  Vedas.  And  geological  facts 
show  that  the  human  race  has  inhabited  the  Nile  valley  for  a  number  oi 

1  See  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  "Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Early  Egyptians,"  Birch's  edition 
(W.);  Renonf,  "  Hibbert  Lectures  on  the  Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt"  (R.);  Tieie's  "Egyptian  Religion" 
(T.) ;  "  Memoirs  of  Egypt  Exploration  Fund  "  ;  Murray's  "  Handbook  for  Egypt "  ;  "  Records  of  the 
Past"  (R.P.). 

4G2 


THE   EGYPTIAN  RELIGION.  463 


centuries  far  surpassing  all  ordinary  chronology,  and  abundantly  sufficing 
to  account  for  the   growth  of  the  art,   architecture,   religion,   and   other 
evidences  of  civilisation,  which  culminated  at  least  two  or  three  thousand 
years  B.C.     The  religion  which  grew  with  this  civilisation  was  in  one  sense 
still  more  polytheistic  than  the  early  Vedic,  and  it  was  more  thoroughly 
local  and  tribal.     Each  locality,  each  town  and  village  worshipped  local 
deities.     But  there  are  extant  texts  which  indicate  that  at  somo       Local 
early  date  the  priests  recognised  that  there  was  but  one  God,  and     deities, 
that  all  the  various  forms  of  deity  that  were  worshipped  were  but  the  mani- 
festations of  different  aspects  of  the  same  Being,  which  they  identified  with 
the  universe.     We  have  abundant  evidence  that  the  earlier  periods  of  the 
Egyptian  religion  were  purer,  and  that  its  best  features  were  older  than 
the  absurdities  and  inconsistencies  which  formed  so  large  a  part  of  later 
worship.     This  is  but  like  the  contrast  between  ancient  Vedism  and  much 
of  modern  Hinduism.    But  it  cannot  be  proved  that  anything  like  Tendency  to 
a  pure  monotheism  existed  primitively,  which  only   developed  monotheism, 
later  into  polytheism.     It  is  evident  that  the  belief  in  one  God  and  in  many 
gods  was  held  by  the  same  men  without  the  thought  of  inconsistency. 
Thus  we  find  many  expressions  in  which  the  almighty  Power  is  referred  to 
as  one  and  supreme.     "  If  thou  art  a  wise  man,  bring  up  thy  son  in  the  love 
of  God."    "God  loveth  the  obedient,  and  hateth  the  disobedient."    "Praised 
be  God  for  all  His  gifts."     "  The  God  of  the  world  is  in  the  light  above  the 
firmament ;  His  emblems  are  upon  earth ;  it  is  to  them  that  worship  is 
rendered  daily."      And  on  the  walls  of  the  oasis-temple  of  El-Khargeh  is 
an  inscription  from  which  the  following  recognition  of  the  identity  of  this 
supreme  God  with  all  the  gods  is  derived :    "  The  gods  salute  his  royal 
majesty  (Amun-ra,  the  sun-god)  as  their  Lord,  who  revealeth  himself  in  all 
that  is,  and  hath  names  in  everything,  from  mountain  to  stream.     That 
which  persisteth  in  all  things  is  Anion.     This  lordly  god  was  from  the  very 
beginning.     He  is  Ptah,  the  greatest  of  the  gods.     .     .     .     Each  god  has 
assumed  thy  aspect.     ...     To  thee  all  things  that  are  give  praise  when 
thou  returnest  to  the  nether  world  at  even.     Thou  raisest  up  Osiris  by  the 
radiance  of  thy  beams.     To  thee  those  give  praise  who  lie  in  their  tombs. 
.     .     .     The  gods  are  in  thine  hand,  and  men  are  at  thy  feet.     What  god 
is  like  to  thee?     Thou  hast  made  the  double  world,  as  Ptah.     Thou  hasl 
placed  thy  throne  in  the  life  of  the  double  world,  as  Anion.     .     .     .     Thy 
form  emanated  at  first  whilst  thou  shinest  as  Anion,  Ra,  and  Ptah.     .     .     . 
Thou  art  Mentu  Ra.     Thou  art  Sekar  ;    thy  transformations  are  into  the 
Nile.    Thou  art  Youth  and  Age.    Thou  givest  life  to  the  earth  by  thy  stream. 
Thou  art  heaven,  thou  art  earth,  thou  art  fire,  thou  art  water,  thou  art  air, 
and  whatever  is  in  the  midst  of  them."  (R.) 

The  following  extract  from  a  hymn  to  Amen-ra  still  further  exemplifies 
the  idea  of  unity  or  supremacy  among  the  gods  :  "  The  One  in  his  works, 
single  among  the  gods  ;  the  beautiful  bull  in  the  cycle  of  gods,    Hymn  to 
chief  of  all  the  gods,  Lord  of  truth,  Father  of  the  gods,  Maker    Amen-ra. 
of  men,  Creator  of  beasts,  Lord  of  existences,  Creator  of  fruitful  trees,  Maker 


464 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


of  herbs,  Feeder  of  cattle— good  Being,  begotten  of  Ptah,  beautiful  youth 
beloved  :  to  whom  the  gods  give  honour  ;  Maker  of  things  below  and  above, 
Enlightener  of  the  Earth,  sailing  in  heaven  in  tranquillity,"  .  .  .  and 
the  hymn  continues  through  a  long  series  of  most  elevated  phrases.     In  one 


CHS  I'M, 
THB    GOD   OF   MK    WATEKS. 


SECHET,    OK   P1SHI, 
THE    LION-HEADED   GODDESS. 


SKBKK, 
THK  CROCODILE-HEADED  GOD 


EGYPTIAN   DEITIES  (a  few  out  of  many  divine  representations). 

part  Ra  is  addressed  as  "  Athom,  maker  of  men,  supporting  their  works, 
giving  them  life,  distinguishing  the  colour  of  one  from  another,  listening 
to  the  poor  in  distress,  gentle  of  heart  when  one  cries  to  him,  deliverer  of 
the  timid  man  from  the  violent,  judging  the  poor,  the  poor  and  the  op- 
pressed "  (R.P.,  vol.  ii.) ;  and  one  almost  imagines  he  is  reading  one  of  the 
Hebrew  Psalms  of  blessing.  Many  such  splendid  compositions  have  been 
found ;  and  we  must  realise  that  the  people  who  had  such  conceptions  stood 
at  a  high  level,  poetic  and  spiritual,  and  that  there  must  have  been  many 


CONVEYANCE    OF   A    SID1IMY    TO    THE    TOMB. 


besides  the  composers  who  reverenced  their  inspiration,  and  carefully  pre- 
served and  valued  its  products. 

It  is  evident  that  this  religion  is,  like  the  Vedic,  at  bottom  a  nature- 
religion.      Their   mythology   concentrated    itself    mainly   upon   the   daily 


THE   EG  YPTIAN  RELIGION. 


465 


recurring  phenomena,  especially  of  sunrise  and  sunset,  and  had   a   large 
number  of  different  stories   about  these  events,  often  mutually       The 
inconsistent.     Perhaps  the  oldest  form  under  which  the  sun  was  E ^xurf- * 
worshipped  was  Ra,  that  being  the  common  word  for  sun.     The    religion. 


iMMOS,  PTAH, 

THE   ALL-CREATING.  THE    ALL-ACCOMPLISHING. 


OSIRIS, 
JUDGE    OF   THE    DEAD, 


ISIS,        '   I  ".  I    ■ 
ALL-BOUNTEOUS    NATUBB. 


SON   OF   OSIBIS. 


A   SUBTERRANEAN    DBITT. 


ANUBIS, 
THE    ESCORT   OF   THE    DEAD. 


EGYPTIAN   DEITIES. 


THOTH, 
THE   MOON-GOD. 


sky  was  imagined  as  a  watery  expanse,  across  which  the  sun-god  travelled, 
in  a  boat.     Like  the  Aryan  gods,  he  had  to  fight  with  the  demon  rj,  the  sun 
of  darkness,  Apap,  a  serpent,  who  is  pierced  by  the  weapons  of      god- 
the  god.     He  has  many  names,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Harmachis., 

H   H 


466  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 


as  rising  sun,  and  Turn,  as  the  setting  sun.  He  is  generally  represented  as 
a  hawk-headed  man,  with  the  solar  disc  on  his  head.  The  sun's  disc  was 
termed  his  emblem,  but  he  was  said  to  journey  in  it  across  the  sky.  The 
following  quotation  from  the  "  Book  of  the  Dead  "  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
worship  addressed  to  him :  "  Hail,  thou  who  art  come  as  Turn,  and  who 
hast  been  the  creator  of  the  gods !  Hail,  thou  who  art  come  as  soul  of  the 
holy  souls  in  Amenti !  Hail,  supreme  among  the  gods,  who  by  thy  beauties 
dost  illumine  the  kingdom  of  the  dead  !  Hail,  thou  who  comest  in  radiance 
and  travellest  in  thy  disc  !  Hail,  greatest  of  all  the  gods,  bearing  rule  in 
the  highest,  reigning  in  the  nethermost  heaven  !  .  .  .  Hail,  renowned 
and  glorified  god !  Thy  enemies  fall  upon  their  scaffold  !  Hail !  thou  hast 
slain  the  guilty,  thou  hast  destroyed  Apap."   (T.) 

Shu,  the  son  of  Ra,  without  a  mother,  represents  the  air,  and  also  the 
principle  of  heat  and  light,  and  as  such  is  called  the  abode  of  the  sun.  But 
Shu  and  he  is  also  said  to  be  uncreated,  the  principle  of  creation,  the  life- 
Teftmt.  giver,  the  young  old,  and  by  him  righteousness  and  truth  reign. 
Later  he  was  made  a  sun-god,  in  union  with  Ra,  and  is  then  represented 
as  a  male  cat;  but  his  ordinary  figure  is  human.  Tefnut,  representing  dew, 
foam,  and  ocean,  is  the  wife  of  Shu,  by  whom  the  birth  of  all  things  is 
brought  about.     She  is  represented  as  a  lioness. 

These  three  gods  formed  the  central  objects  of  worship  at  On  (known 
to  the  Greeks  as  Heliopolis,  the  city  of  the  sun).  Its  priests  were  notable 
The  -worship  for  their  learning  ;  and  it  was  an  especial  distinction  for  Joseph  to 
at  on.  ^q  marriecl  to  a  priest's  daughter.  This  worship  continued  influ- 
ential, and  was  widely  spread  throughout  Egypt  to  a  late  period.  It  was 
closely  associated  with  the  belief  in  resurrection  and  immortality. 

Osiris  was  the  chief  god  worshipped  at  Thinis  and  Abydos  ;  his  pa- 
rents were  said  to  be  Seb  (earth)  and  Nut  (heaven).  The  myth  of  Osiris 
given  by  Plutarch,  describing  him  as  an  Egyptian  king,  is  but  a 
late  explanation  ;  but  it  seems  that  Osiris  represents  the  good 
principle,  and  the  Creator,  always  at  war  with  evil,  and  especially  with  Seb, 
the  destroyer,  his  brother,  who  is  darkness.  The  myth,  as  given  in  the 
u  Book  of  the  Dead  "  in  various  places,  appears  to  show  forth  the  sun's  daily 
course,  as  well  as  the  daily  round  of  human  life,  both  combating  darkness  and 
evil,  continually  succumbing  and  reviving.  The  aspect  in  which  Osiris  was 
most  thought  of  was  that  in  which  he  is  hidden ;  and  thus  the  dead  were 
placed  under  his  guardianship,  and  nearly  all  the  inscriptions  on  tombs  are 
addressed  to  him.  As  typifying  the  good  principle,  Osiris  also  represents 
Egypt  and  the  Nile.  As  his  worship  spread  widely,  many  local  legends 
were  adapted  to  him,  and  we  find  in  one  chapter  of  the  "  Book  of  the 
Dead,"  a  hundred  names  ascribed  to  him.  "  It  would  appear,"  says  Tiele, 
"  that  so  soon  as  his  worship  had  established  itself  in  any  one  place,  Osiris 
took  the  form  of  the  deity  whose  ancient  seat  it  was,  and  the  sacred  animal 
of  that  particular  town  or  district  was  consecrated  to  him."  Thus,  at 
On  and  at  Abydos,  he  was  represented  as  the  migratory  bird  Bennu, 
at  Memphis    as  a  species  of  ape  and  as  a  lofty  pillar,  surmounted  by  his 


THE   EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


467 


complete   headdress    and   emblems,   indicating   his   abode   in  the   highest 
heaven. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  the  emblems  of  Osiris  was  the  living 
bull,  Apis,  worshipped  as  an  incarnation  of  the  god  in  the  temple  of  Ptah 
at  Memphis.  His  movements  and  varying  appetites  were  care- 
fully observed,  and  indeed  regarded  as  giving  oracular  indica- 
tions. His  life  was  not  to  extend  beyond  twenty-five  years ;  at  this 
age  he  was  put  to  death,  and  his  successor  sought  for  and  recognised  by 
certain  markings.  Thus  the  succession  of  these  bulls  fixed 
periods  of  chronology.     When  dead  he  was  termed  Serapis  or 


Apis. 


Serapis. 


RESTORATION    OF    FACADE    OF    ROCK    TEMPLE    OF    HATHOR,    ABU    SIMBEL,    NUBIA. 

Osarapis  (Apis  who  has  become  Osiris)  and  lord  of  the  under  world.  The 
Mendesian  goat,  termed  the  Ram,  was  an  emblem  of  Ra  as  well  as  of  Osiris, 
worshipped  at  Mendes. 

Isis,  the  Wife  of  Osiris,  had  temples  in  early  Egypt,  and  had  some- 
thing in  common  with  the  Greek  Demeter  and  Persephone.  In  later  Egypt, 
especially  under  the  Ptolemies,  she  became  elevated  to  a  most 
prominent  position.  Originally  she  represented  chiefly  festivity, 
and  was  mistress  of  heaven  and  daughter  of  Ra.  She  appears  with  a  cow's 
head  instead  of  a  human  one,  or  with  a  vulture-headdress,  and  also  in  the 
form  of  a  female  hippopotamus.     All  these  symbols  show  how  completely 


Isis. 


468  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  early  Egyptians  recognised  natural  phenomena  and  animals  as  living 
manifestations  of  the  gods. 

Horns  is  the  son  of  Osiris  and  Isis,  and   his   avenger ;  thus   he  was 

identified  with  the  rising  sun.    His  name  was  associated  with  a  whole  group 

Horus      °^  ^°^s  rePresenting  the  visible  sun,  and  very  like  Ra  in  some 

forms.     There  are  many   myths   about   him   which   we   cannot 

detail.     He  is  always  represented  with  the  head  of  a  hawk. 

Hathor,  described  both  as  the  mother  and  wife  of  Horus,  was  very  like 

Isis,  and  was  worshipped  throughout  Egypt,  as  the  female  counterpart  of 

Hathor     ^siris-     She  was  queen  of  the  heavens,  both  by  day  and  by  night, 

the  giver  of  great  gifts  to  Egypt. 

Thoth  was  the  Egyptian  moon-god,  wearing  the  moon  upon  his  head 

as  crescent  or  full  disc,  but  often  represented  with  the  head  of  an  ibis. 

From  the  moon  being  the  measure  of  time,  he  becomes  patron  of 

all  measurement,   and  hence  of  all    science  and  letters,    and  of 

priestly  culture.     His  influence  steadily  increased  as  the  kingdom  advanced 

in  culture. 

Phtha,  or  Ptah,  was  the  chief  god  of  Memphis,  representing  creative 

power,  but  not  the  sun  distinctively.    He  was  worshipped  in  a  human  form, 

and  sometimes  as  a  pigmy.     The  gods  were  said  to  have  come  out 

of  his  mouth,  and  men  from  his  eye.     He  was  the  god  of  justice 

and  of  beneficence  to  man.     The  frog-headed  deity,  Ka,  is  also  a  form  of 

Ptah. 

Among  other  gods  whom  we  can  only  briefly  mention  were  Anubis, 

son  of  Osiris,  the  god  presiding  over  mummification,  with  four  attendant 

Anubis  and  subordinate  divinities ;  and  Neith,  or  Nit,  a  goddess  worshipped 

Neitn.      specially  at  Sais,  described  as  "the  mother  who  bore  the  sun, 

the  first-born,  but  not  begotten." 

We  must  also  briefly  mention  the  god  Amen  or  Ammon  (hidden  or 
unrevealed  deity),  whose  worship  assumed  such  great  proportions  during 
later  Egyptian  history.  Amen,  his  wife,  Mut  (the  mother),  and 
his  son,  Khonsu,  formed  the  chief  triad  of  gods  worshipped  at 
Thebes,  especially  from  the  eighteenth  to  the  twentieth  dynasties.  At 
this  period  he  was  identified  with  Ra,  the  sun-god,  and  named  Amun-Ra. 
Later,  he  was  regarded  as  the  god  of  oracles  ;  and  his  oracle,  in  the  oasis 
in  the  Libyan  desert,  was  consulted  by  many  foreign  rulers  and  nations. 
Amen  was  often  figured  as  a  man  seated  on  a  throne,  holding  a  sceptre  in 
his  right  hand  and  a  small  cross  with  a  handle  in  his  left.  His  headdress 
frequently  had  two  huge  feathers. 

Animal  worship  became  more  marked  in  Egyptian  religion  than  in 
Indian ;  and  there  were  fables  representing  that  the  spirits  of  the  principal 
Animal  animals  were  supposed  to  be  embodied  in  the  kings.  In  later 
worship,  times  every  important  place  had  its  sacred  animal ;  and  it  was  a 
great  part  of  the  local  religion  to  tend  it,  and  to  embalm  and  bury  it  with 
honour  when  dead  ;  and  their  mummies  have  been  found  in  many  places. 
The  dog-headed  ape  (cynocephalus)  at  Thebes,  the  jackal  at  Kynopolis,  mice 


THE  EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


469 


and  sparrowhawks  at  Butos,  the  ibis  at  Hermopolis,  Memphis,  and  Thebes, 
the  cat,  the  ram,  the  vulture,  the  ichneumon,  the  hippopotamus,  the  cro- 
codile, at  other  places  were  waited  on  with  the  utmost  care.  Herodotus 
relates  that  the  crocodile  at  Krokodilopolis,  on  Lake  Moeris,  had  golden 
earrings,  and  rings  on  its  forefeet,  was  fed  with  meat  and  meal,  and  em- 
balmed after  death. 


BUINS    OF    TEMPLE    OF    AMUN-RA,    KARNAK,    EGYPT. 


No  doubt  the  Egyptian  animal  worship  represents  an  extreme  form 
of  Ii§,     The  Egyptians  regarded  animals,  especially  those  most  con- 
spicuous for  strength,  power,  or  beauty,  as  incarnations  ol  spirits,   ^^.^ 
whose  favour  might  be  gained  or  displeasure  averted  by  worship 
This  may  have  been  originally  quite  apart  from  ^f^f^^^ 
the  latter  became  more  developed,  it  was  imagined  that  the  gods  themselves 


47 o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


were  S3^mbolised  or  were  inhabited  by  the  animals.  Later,  these  ideas 
grew  and  varied  in  different  ways,  and  new  animals  were  worshipped, 
because  their  names  resembled  more  or  less  closely  those  of  the  gods. 

As  the  Egyptians  worshipped  animals,  they  also,  at  an  early  date,, 
worshipped  their  kings.  At  first  they  were  only  so  worshipped  after  death, 
Deification  priests  being  appointed  for  their  service  ;  but  later,  they  were 
of  kings,  -worshipped  while  alive,  and  temples  were  built  for  them  by  the 
side  of  their  pyramids.  This  worship  grew  very  expensive,  so  that  Una, 
a  high  official  in  the  fifth  dynasty,  boasts  that  he  had  built  four  sanctuaries 
in  connection  with  great  levies  for  public  works,  in  order  that  the  spirits 
of  the  living  king,  Merenra,  might  be  invoked  "  more  than  all  the  gods  "  ; 
and  the  succession  of  priests  of  the  several  kings  was  kept  up  till  a  late 
date.  The  divine  right  of  kings  was  never  more  zealously  believed  in  or 
more  devoutly  expressed  than  by  the  Egyptians.  What  we  should  term, 
now-a-days,  the  most  abject  servility,  was  an  unquestioned  commonplace 
among  them  ;  and  it  by  no  means  appears  to  have  been  first  imposed  by 
the  kings  themselves.  Indeed,  if  an  animal  was  regarded  as  an  incarnation 
of  a  god,  how  much  more  a  king  ?  Thus  we  find  a  disgraced  servant  im- 
ploring his  king  in  this  fashion :  "  Let  god  be  gracious  to  him  whom  he 
has  removed,  whom  he  has  banished  to  another  land,  let  him  be  mild  as 
Ra."  When  restored  to  favour,  he  cannot  sufficiently  express  his  adoration 
of  the  king.  "  The  great  god,  the  equal  of  the  sun-god,  mocks  me  !  thy 
majesty  is  as  Horus,  the  power  of  thy  arm  extends  over  all  lands."  When 
admitted  once  more  to  his  presence,  he  says :  "  The  god  spoke  amicably  to 
me.  I  was  like  one  brought  out  of  the  darkness  into  the  light.  My  tongue 
was  dumb,  my  limbs  refused  their  office,  my  heart  was  no  longer  in  my 
body,  so  that  I  knew  not  whether  I  lived  or  if  I  was  dead."  (T.)  When 
such  opinions  prevailed,  even  among  the  common  people,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  the  kings  accepted  with  complacency  the  adoration  offered  to  them. 
The  China  of  to-day  was  outdone  by  ancient  Egypt,  and  the  king  alone 
was  fully  competent  to  approach  the  gods  in  the  temples  with  the  priests. 
In  many  an  inscription  the  king  claims  the  empire  over  all  nations  and  the 
whole  world.  Even  the  gods  are  represented  as  worshipping  the  living 
king.  The  god  says  to  Rameses  II.,  "  I  am  thy  father  ;  by  me  are  begotten 
all  thy  members  as  divine.  .  .  .  Thou  art  lord  like  the  majesty  of  Ra  \ 
the  gods  and  goddesses  are  praising  thy  benefits,  adoring  and  sacrificing 
before  thine  image."  And  the  king  was  said  to  possess  the  seven  souls  and 
the  fourteen  Ras,  or  spirits  of  Ra.  Yet  the  divinity  assigned  to  the  kings 
did  not  prevent  them  from  worshipping  the  gods  in  the  humblest  attitudes. 
Perhaps  the  kings  so  utterly  nattered  really  had  some  notion  of  their  own 
insignificance  before  the  Divine  power. 

It  would  be  as  impossible  to  describe  within  our  limits  the  Egyptian 

as  the  Indian  or  the  Greek  temples.     They  were  erected,  to  a  large  extent, 

on   a   uniform   plan,    though    differing   considerably   in   details. 
Temples.  . 

Each  was  built  by  a  king  in  honour  of  some  god  or  triad  of  gods ; 

and  the  motive  was  not  that  the  people  might  worship  the  gods,  but  that. 


THE  EG  YPTIAN  RELIGION. 


47* 


the  king  might  pay 
honour  to  them,  and 
secure  their  future  fa- 
vours. The  temples  are 
always  massive  stone 
structures,  surrounded 
by  lofty  brick  walls, 
with  fine  entrances, 
sometimes  flanked  by 
huge  broad  towers 
sculptured  with  repre- 
sentations of  the  king's 
doings,  either  in  war 
or  peace.  "Within  was 
an  avenue  of  sphinxes  ; 
images  wherein  the 
body  of  a  lion  was  con- 
joined with  a  human 
head,  denoting  the  com- 
bined excellence  of 
mind  and  body  of  the 
king ;  this  might  be 
interrupted  by  one  or 
more  portals,  flanked  b}^ 
huge  side  towers.  Then 
came  a  portico  opening 
into  one  or  more  fore- 
courts, through  which 
a  roofed  enclosure  was 
reached,  adjoining  the 
sacred  sanctuary,  which 
was  low  and  compara- 
tively small,  and  con- 
tained a  sort  of  ark  or 
chest,  half  covered  by  a 
veil  or  curtain,  and  con- 
tained in  a  boat.  Both 
these  were  decorated 
with  symbols  of  life, 
light,  and  fertility.  The 
ark  contained  a  small 
image  of  the  god,  never 
seen,  and  supposed  to 
have  never  been  seen. 
Everywhere  in  the  tem- 
ple   the    deeds    of    the 


11  s  c 


mtum 


Ttrnf[ji»Yry»lr 


i^ilN 


472  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

great  king  were  celebrated  in  pictures  and  sculptures  of  various  kinds, 
and  records  of  them  were  engraved  upon  the  walls.  To  the  right  and 
left  of,  or  all  round  the  central  sanctuary,  might  be  smaller  courts  in 
which  special  kinds  of  offerings  were  made.  Huge  statues  of  the  kings, 
obelisks,  and  other  special  Egyptian  features  were  abundant.  As  a  speci- 
men of  the  greater  temples  we  may  mention  that  that  of  El-Karnak, 
Thebes,  has  a  front  360  feet  wide  ;  the  first  court  is  275  feet  long  ;  the 
great  roofed  hall  is  170  feet  long  by  329  feet  wide,  and  its  roof  is  supported 
by  134  columns,  of  which  the  twelve  tallest  are  seventy  feet  high,  and 
about  40  feet  in  diameter,  and  form  an  avenue  through  the  middle,  the 
smaller  columns  forming  groups  on  either  side.  Thus  a  marvellous  effect, 
as  of  a  forest  of  columns,  is  produced.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  people 
performed  their  worship  at  any  time  in  the  temples  ;  they,  if  they  had  any 
special  place  of  worship,  probably  had  private  chapels. 

The  Egyptian  priests  were  not  a  definite  hereditary  order,  and  were 
not  absolutely  confined  to  their  priestly  office.  "  The  priest  of  a  god  was 
often  a  military  or  naval  commander,  exercised  the  office  of 
scribe,  and  was  invested  with  the  supervision  of  public  works 
or  local  government.  A  general  in  the  army  could  marry  the  daughter 
of  a  priest,  and  his  children  could  be  scribes,  priests,  or  public  functionaries.'' 
(W.)  All  this  emphasised  the  power  of  the  king,  who  was  fully  initiated 
as  a  priest,  and  was  the  head  of  the  national  religion.  In  fact,  upon  great 
occasions,  the  king  himself  offered  the  sacrifices  ;  he  appointed  and  superin- 
tended the  great  festivals  and  regulated  the  sacrifices.  But  the  extent 
to  which  the  priests  were  employed  in  all  the  great  offices  of  the  State, 
and  their  function  of  expounding  to  the  king  his  moral  duties,  gave  them 
an  aggregate  influence  transcending  that  of  any  other  class.  In  fact7 
viewing  the  king,  as  priest  also,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that,  as  in 
China,  India,  Greece,  and  Home,  the  priests  of  Egypt  practically  ruled  the 
country. 

The  priests  were  very  numerous,  and  formed  many  colleges,  classed 
according  to  the  god  they  specially  served,  and  their  various  functions.  Thus, 
orders  of  there  were  the  prophets,  who  were  the  chief  priests,  four  being 
priests. ,  attached  to  each  principal  god  ;  the  divine  fathers,  who  might 
become  prophets  ;  the  purifiers  or  washers,  the  incense-bearers,  the  funeral 
attendants,  the  bards,  and  others.  There  were  also  priestesses,  divine  wives 
and  divine  handmaids,  singers,  etc.  ;  and  in  the  early  Empire  there  were 
prophetesses,  and  these  offices  were  held  by  queens,  princesses,  and  mem- 
bers of  the  noblest  families.  The  priests  and  their  families  had  great 
privileges,  were  free  from  taxes,  and  received  as  a  body  one-third  of  the 
land,  besides  being  provided  for  out  of  the  public  stores.  The  prophets 
had  the  greatest  amount  of  learning  about  all  religious  matters,  they  also 
managed  the  priestly  revenues,  and  they  had  a  conspicuous  place  in  re- 
ligious processions.  They  kept  their  mysteries  as  secret  as  some  of  the 
Greek  priesthoods,  and  only  admitted  to  them  those  who  had  satisfied 
them  of  their  high  character  and  learning.     They  paid  great  attention  to 


THE   EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


473 


the  education  of  their  children  in  all  the  science  of  the  time,  and  kept  up 
a  strict  discipline  and  severity  ot  outward  demeanour.  They  were  strict 
as  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of  their  food — fish  and  the  flesh  of  swine, 
pulse,  etc.,  being  strictly  forbidden.  They  bathed  twice  in  the  day  and 
twice  in  the  night ;  and  they  shaved  the  entire  body  every  third   day. 


EGYPTIAN    KING    WoliSHII'l'I.NG    IN    A    TEMPLE. 


Fasts  of  great  length,  from  seven  to  forty-two  days,  were  observed  by 
them,  preceded  by  a  period  of  purification.  They  were  circumcised  at 
initiation  (though  this  was  very  general  among  the  people).  Their  ordinary 
garments  were  of  linen,  but  the  high  priests  wore  an  entire  leopard's  skin 
on  great  occasions ;  they  wore  sandals  of  papyrus  and  palm  leaves,  and  they 


474  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

lay  either  on  skins  on  the  ground,  or  on  wickerwork  beds  of  palm  branches . 
the  head  being  raised  on  a  semi-cylinder  of  wood. 

The  great  occasions  of  Egyptian  religion  were  the  festivals  and  pro- 
cessions ;  among  these  were  the  processions  of  shrines,  the  dedication  of 
Festivals  ^emP^es  I  the  conveyance  of  the  royal  offerings  to  the  gods  ;  the 
and  king's  coronation,  and  his  triumphs  on  returning  from  war.. 
p  "  The  procession  of  shrines  included  a  variable  number    of  arks 

and  their  boats,  carried  by  priests,  by  means  of  long  staves  passed  through 
metal  rings  at  the  sides.  A  shrine  of  the  reigning  king  might  also  be 
included  in  the  procession,  as  well  as  the  statue  of  the  principal  deity,  of 
the  king  and  of  his  ancestors.  The  shrine  or  shrines  were  brought  into- 
the  temple,  placed  on  a  table,  and  decked  with  fresh  flowers.  Many 
offerings  were  made,  on  several  altars,  and  the  king  offered  incense  and 
made  a  libation.  The  anointing  of  the  king  at  his  coronation  was  per- 
formed by  the  high  priest  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  anointing  of  the 
Jewish  high  priest ;  but  such  anointing  was  an  ordinary  expression  of 
welcome  in  Egypt.  Many  other  ceremonies  showed  the  intimate  con- 
nection of  the  kings  with  the  national  religion ;  the  king  represented  the 
whole  nation  and  was  everything  in  himself. 

The  annual  invocation  of  the  Nile  was  one  of  the  most  important 
festivals.  If  this  were  not  duly  celebrated,  the  people  believed  the  Nile 
invocation  would  not  rise  and  inundate  the  land.  People  assembled  in  the 
of  the  Nile,  towns  from  all  the  villages  around  to  take  part  in  this  festival, 
which  was  marked  by  hymns,  music,  and  dancing,  as  well  as  feasting.  A 
wooden  statue  of  the  Nile-god  was  carried  through  the  villages.  A  re- 
markable hymn  or  invocation  to  the  Nile  has  been  preserved,  in  which 
it  is  credited  with  divine  honours.  "  0  inundation  of  the  Nile,"  it  is  said. 
"  offerings  are  made  to  thee,  oxen  are  slain  to  thee,  great  festivals  are  kept 
for  thee  .  .  .  unknown  is  his  Name  in  heaven,  he  doth  not  manifest 
his  forms,  vain  are  all  representations."  (R.P.  iv.)  Many  other  festivals  were 
held  in  celebration  of  the  various  qualities  of  the  gods  and  of  the  recurring 
seasons.  The  festivals  of  Isis  and  Osiris  were  numerous  and  magnificent, 
and  so  many  details  are  known  that  it  is  impossible  here  to  give  even  an 
outline  of  them  ;  but  yet  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  remarks  that  "  the  greater 
part  of  the  fetes  and  religious  rites  of  the  Egyptians  are  totally  unknown 
to  us."  How  thoroughly,  therefore,  the  religious  element  entered  into 
Egyptian  as  into  Indian  and  Chinese  life  ! 

The  Egyptians  offered  animal  sacrifices  to  all  their  gods,  as  well  as 
cakes  and  wine,  incense,  flowers,  and  herbs.  Oxen  were  prominent  among 
Animal  the  victims,  which  also  included  gazelles,  ibexes,  geese,  and  wild 
sacrifices.  fow^  kut  not  slieep.  The  right  shoulder  was  generally  the 
part  first  offered  on  the  altar.  The  king  was  present  at  the  daily  sacri- 
fices, when  the  people  prayed  for  him,  and  the  priests  praised  him  and 
warned  him  against  the  faults  of  other  kings,  caused  by  ill  advice  having 
been  given  to  them.  The  king  himself  inspected  the  entrails  of  the  victim 
and  performed  some   of  the   ceremonies  of  sacrifice.     There  is  no  distinct 


THE   EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


475 


-evidence  that  human  sacrifices  were  ever  made  in  Egypt  within  historic? 

times  ;   and  indeed,   at  the  earliest  time  we  can  clearly  read,  they  seem  to 

have  advanced  beyond  the  idea  that  human  victims  are  required  by  the  gods. 

"We  have  already  seen  how  important  a  place  oracles  came  to  occupy 

in  Greece ;   but  the  Greeks  themselves  confessed  that  they  were  of  late 

institution  among  themselves,  and  had  been  derived  from  Eavnt. 

Oracles 
The   most   famous   oracles   were   those   of  Thebes,   of   Buto,   of 

Heliopolis,  and  of  Amnion  in  Libya,  the  giving  of  oracles  being  a  function1. 

of  some  gods  only.     In  some  temples  questions  were  taken  to  the  temple^ 

in  writing,  and  sealed ;   and  answers  were  given  in  the  same  fashion,  and 

supposed  to  have  been  inspired  or  given  by  the  god.     The  oracle  of  Ammom 

was  highly  celebrated  in  foreign  countries.     In  some  cases  oracles  were 

spontaneously  sent,  to  warn,  censure,   or  command  prominent  persons  or 

States.     Astrology   was    also    largely    cultivated    in   connection   with    the 

temples  ;  and  future  events  were  predicted  by  the  indications  of 

the  stars.     These  predictions  gained  high  repute  in  the  ancient 

world  through  their  frequent  accuracy. 


WOKSHIP    OF    SUN    BY    AN    EGYPTIAN    KINO. 


It  is  in  the  funeral  rites  and  literature  of  the  Egyptians  that  we  come 
upon  some  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  their  religion.  That  they 
very  early  had  a  belief  in  a  continuous  life  after  the  death  of  Life  after 
the  body,  is  indubitable.  Every  human  soul  being  supposed  to  death- 
have  a  divine  part  which  returned  to  the  deity  after  death,  the  good  were 
believed  to  attain  reunion  with  the  deity,  and  consequently  received  the 
name  Osiris.  The  deceased  person's  body  was  bound  up  so  as  to  bear 
a  resemblance  to  Osiris ;  and  offerings  were  made  to  Osiris  after  the  burial, 
in  the  deceased's  name.  Sacrifices  and  liturgies  were  offered  to  Osiris 
by  the  priests  in  the  presence  of  the  mourners  ;  and  these  were  repeated 
on  a  greater  or  less  scale  as  long  and  as  frequently  as  the  family  were 
willing  to  pay  for  them. 

Sometimes  the  special  funeral  songs  composed  for  a  festival  or  anni- 
versary attained  great  beaut}*.  Thus,  when  we  read  such  a  song  as  this  of  the 
harper,  dating  from  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  we  are  irresistibly  reminded 


476  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

of  passages  in  the  Bible ;  and  this  is  older  than  a  large  proportion  if  not 
a  funeral  all  °1  the  Hebrew  Psalms.  "  The  great  one  is  truly  at  rest,  the 
song.  good  charge  is  fulfilled.  Men  pass  away  since  the  time  of  Ha, 
and  the  youths  come  in  their  stead.  Like  as  Ra  reappears  every  morning, 
and  Turn  sets  in  the  horizon,  men  are  begetting  and  women  are  conceiving. 
Every  nostril  inhaleth  once  the  breezes  of  dawn,  but  all  born  of  women 
go  down  to  their  places.  .  .  .  No  works  of  buildings  in  Egypt  could 
avail ;  his  resting-place  is  all  his  wealth.  Let  me  return  to  know  what 
remaineth  of  him.  Not  the  least  moment  could  be  added  to  his  life.  Those 
who  have  magazines  full  of  bread  to  spend,  even  they  shall  encounter  the 
hour  of  a  last  end.  .  .  .  Mind  thee  of  the  day  when  thou  too  shalt 
start  for  the  land  to  which  one  goeth  to  return  not  thence.  Good  for  thee, 
then,  will  have  been  an  honest  life,  therefore  be  just  and  hate  transgres- 
sions. .  .  .  The  coward  and  the  bold,  neither  can  fly  the  grave,  the 
friendless  and  proud  are  alike."     (R.P.  vi.) 

The  treatment  of  the  deceased  after  death  and  the  general  practices  of 
the  Egyptians  in  regard  to  death  showed  that,  as  Diodorus  says,  they  re- 
garded the  tombs  as  "  eternal  dwelling-places,"  and  this  idea  goes  very  far 
back  in  the  records.  Only  the  evil  are  spoken  of  as  actually  dead.  The 
greatest  importance  was  attached  to  the  permanence  of  the  religious  cere- 
monies for  the  dead,  just  as  among  the  Chinese,  and  the  motive  of  building 
the  Great  Pyramids  was  to  perpetuate  the  dwelling-place  of  the  dead  kings 
for  ever. 

The  supposed  fate  of  the  dead,  as  related  by  Herodotus,  quite  corresponds 
with  the  sculptures,  pictures,  and  inscriptions.     He  describes  the  principal 

.  office  of  Osiris  as  being  that  of  judging  the  dead  in  the  under- 

judge  of  the  world  (Amenti) ;  seated  on  his  throne,  he  received  an  account  of 

ea  '  the  actions  of  the  dead  as  recorded  by  Thoth,  his  actions  having 
first  been  weighed  in  the  scales  of  Truth  by  Anubis,  who,  assisted  by  Horus, 
placed  the  heart,  as  typifying  virtuous  actions  of  the  deceased,  in  the  balance 
against  the  figure  of  the  twofold  goddess  of  Truth  and  Justice.  Sometimes 
the  deceased  are  represented  as  wearing  round  their  necks  the  emblem 
which  appears  in  the  scales,  signifying  their  acceptance.  Those  who  had 
done  evil  were  supposed  to  pass  in  succession  into  the  bodies  of  different 
animals,  the  number  and  kinds  of  the  animals  depending  upon  their  guilt ; 
it  is  however  a  disputed  point  whether  this  view  was  really  held  by  the 
Egyptians. 

These  views  are  borne  out  by  the  manuscript  and  inscribed  writings 
found  in  Egyptian  tombs  and  known  as  "  The  Book  of  the  Dead,"  or  the 
■■"  The  Book  of "  Ritual  of  the  Dead,"  containing  prayers  mostly  supposed  to  be 
the  Dead."  recited  by  the  deceased  in  the  underworld,  but  always  recited 
in  his  name  by  those  present  at  the  funeral  ceremonies.  In  many  cases 
however  there  is  great  difficulty  in  ascertaining  the  precise  meaning  of 
expressions,  owing  to  the  carelessness  of  copyists,  and  to  different  readings. 
Much  of  it  dates  from  the  early  dynasties,  and  implies  a  complete  knowledge 
of  the  early  mythology.     In  it  the  happy  dead  are  represented  as  leading  a 


THE   EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


477 


life  like  that  on  earth ;  the  gods  provide  their  food  and  admit  them  to  their 
tables.  Even  agricultural  employments  are  attributed  to  them.  But  they 
were  believed  also  to  be  able  to  traverse  the  whole  universe  in  every  desired 
shape  and  form.  Through  their  identification  with  Osiris  and  their  utter- 
ance of  "words  of  power,"  they  can  pass  unhurt  in  any  direction.  In  some 
chapters  of  the  Ritual  the  limbs  of  the  deceased  are  each  separately  identi- 
fied with  a  distinct  god.  In  one  chapter  it  is  said  that  "  Whom  men  know 
not "  (a  mode  of  referring  to  a  god  without  naming  his  revered,  name)  is  his 
name.  The  "  yesterday  which  sees  endless  years  is  his  name.  The  deceased 
is  the  lord  of  eternity."  (R.)  His  soul,  his  Ra  or  genius,  and  his  shadow  are 
all  given  back  to  him ;  he  overcomes  in  combat  crocodiles,  serpents,  etc., 
and.  successful ly  surmounts  all  kinds  of  difficulties  and  dangers,  to  which 
evidently  those  of  evil  life  or  not  protected  by  the  gods  would  succumb. 


FliONT    OF    TEMPLK    AT    F.DFU. 


The  recitals  made  by  the  deceased   to  the  gods  indicate  the  virtues 
which  were  highly  esteemed.    Thus  :  "  I  am  not  a  doer  of  fraud  and  iniquity 
against   men.      I   am   not   a    doer  of  that  which  is  crooked  in 
place  of  that  which  is  right.  ...  I  do  not  force  a  labouring  man     the  gods 
to  do  more   than   his    daily  task.    ...    I  do  not  calumniate  a for  the  deacL 
servant  to  his  master;  I  do  not  cause  hunger;  I  do  not  cause  weeping;  I  am 
not  a  murderer ;  I  do  not  give  order  to  murder  privity ;   I  am  not  guilty  of 
fraud  against  any  one ;  I  am  not  a  falsifier  of  the  measures  in  the  temples." 
Even  inward  faults  or  crimes  are  referred  to  in  this  wa}r  by  implication,  such 
as  causing  pain  of  mind  to  another,  turning  a  deaf  ear  to  the  words  of 
truth  and  justice ;  and  sins  against  chastity  are  included  in  the  list  of  sins 
disclaimed.     These  quotations  are  contained  in  the  125th  chapter  of  "  the 
Book  of  the  Dead,"  and  are  believed  to  represent  the  oldest  known  code  of 


47S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

morals.  It  is  entitled  :  "  Book  of  entering  into  the  Hall  of  the  twofold 
Maat :  the  person  parts  from  his  sins  that  he  may  see  the  divine  faces." 
The  twofold  Maat  is  the  twofold  god  of  Truth  and  Justice,  represented  by 
a  double  figure. 

There  are  other  ancient  Egyptian  books  of  great  interest,  which   we 

•cannot  detail.     Such  are  the  book  which  describes  the  course  of  the  sun 

through  the  night,  the  twelve  divisions  of  his  journey,  and  the 

Egyptian    names  of  the  gods  of  each  locality  ;  the  Lamentations  of  Isis  and 

books.      Nephthys,  supposed  to  be  recited  by  the  two  sisters  of  Osiris  in 

order  to  bring  about  his  resurrection,  and  actually  recited  by  priests  over 

the  dead;    "the  Book  of  glorifying  Osiris,"  "the  Book  of   the  Breaths  of 

Life,"  etc.,  etc. 

The  influence  of  the  Egyptian  ideas  about  the  future  state  was  mar- 
kedly shown  in  the  preliminary  proceedings  at  the  sacred  lake  which  was 
constructed  near  or  in  every  city  or  centre.  The  body  of  a 
at  the  deceased  person  was  brought  to  the  borders  of  the  lake,  and 
sacred  lake.  a  num"her  0f  judges  were  assembled  to  hear  any  accusation  of 
evil  life  that  might  be  brought  against  the  deceased.  On  sufficient  proof, 
ceremonial  burial  and  transport  across  the  sacred  lake  were  denied ;  while  a 
false  accusation  subjected  the  accuser  to  heavy  penalties.  If  no  accuser 
appeared,  or  if  accusations  were  disproved,  the  relations  praised  the  dead 
person,  enlarging  on  his  virtues,  and  begging  the  gods  below  to  receive  him 
as  a  companion  of  the  pious ;  and  if  the  family  already  possessed  special 
tombs,  the  funeral  then  proceeded.  But  the  denial  of  honourable  burial 
was  considered  an  extreme  disgrace,  foreshadowing  the  terrible  fate  which 
overtook  the  deceased  in  Hades ;  and  no  little  share  in  this  feeling  was  due 
to  the  triumph  enjoyed  by  the  enemies  of  the  family.  There  appears 
however  to  have  been  a  way  of  escape ;  crimes  might  be  thus  punishable 
for  limited  periods ;  and  thus  when  the  priests  had  been  sufficiently  paid 
to  make  continuous  prayers'for  them,  and  the  sorrowing  relatives  showed 
sufficient  religious  devotion,  it  was  believed  that  the  evil  destiny  could 
finally  be  removed  from  the  deceased.  Many  persons  of  course  had  no 
money  to  go  through  this  ceremony  of  the  sacred  lake  at  all,  or  to  be 
embalmed,  and  such  had  to  be  buried  on  the  shores  of  the  lake,  or  in  the 
houses  of  their  relatives.  Even  kings  had  to  go  through  the  ordeal  of 
possible  accusation  and  judgment,  and  in  several  cases  a  public  honourable 
funeral  was  refused  to  them. 

The  descriptions  of  mummies  and  embalming,  besides  being  very  well 

known,  would  lead  us  too  far  from  our  main  subject.     We  may  note  that 

the  tombs  of  rich  persons  had  various  objects  of  value  placed  in 

buried  with  them,  such  as  vases,  some  with  the  heads  of  the  genii  of  Amen-ti, 

the  dead.    &^  smau  images  of  the  deceased,  papyri  with  sacred  or  other 

writings  upon  them,  tablets  of  stone  or  wood  decorated  with  funeral  subjects 

or  narratives  relating  to  the  deceased,  and  many  objects  connected  with  the 

deceased's  profession.     Some  of  the  little  figures,  in  all  kinds  of  materials, 

had  their  arms  crossed  like  Osiris,  with  whom  the  dead  became  identified, 


FUNERAL    OF   AN    EGYPTIAN"    KING. 


479 


480  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

and  bearing  hieroglyphics  containing  the  deceased's  name  and  rank  and  the 
formulae  of  presentation  of  his  soul  to  Osiris.  These  figures,  which  only 
commence  in  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  were  called  "respondents"  in  the 
"  Ritual  of  the  Dead,"  being  imagined  to  answer  the  deceased's  call  for  aid  I 
to  do  various  agricultural  work  for  him  in  the  other  world.  One  of  these  has- 
engraved  on  it  a  chapter  of  the  ritual,  entitled  "  Avoiding,"  or  "  How  not 
to  do  Work  in  Hades,"  showing  that  in  that  degenerate  period  the  Egyp- 
tians were  greatly  concerned  to  avoid  the  toils  of  the  future. 

In  some  respects  Egyptian  morals  present  a  favourable  picture ;  in 
others,  the  kings  appear  as  trying  varied  experiments  in  social  legislation 
Egyptian  an(^  regulation ;  in  others,  morals  fared  but  badly.  Truth  and  I 
morals,  justice  were  sought  to  be  attained,  but  sometimes  by  primitive 
methods.  False  oaths  were  even  punished  with  death ;  and  a  man  who 
slandered  the  dead  was  severely  punished ;  whilst  a  false  accuser  was  con- 
demned to  the  same  punishment  as  the  accused  would  have  deserved  if 
guilty.  "Wilful  murder,  even  of  a  slave,  was  punishable  with  death ;  and 
the  witness  who  did  not  try  to  prevent  the  crime  was  similarly  punished- 
Parricide  was  punished  with  torture  before  death.  Child-murder  was 
visited,  not  with  death,  but  with  the  strange  punishment  of  spending  three 
days  and  nights  with  the  dead  body  fastened  to  the  neck  of  the  culprit,, 
under  a  public  guard.  Adultery  in  a  woman  was  punished  by  loss  of  the 
nose ;  forgery  and  falsification  of  weights  and  measures  by  loss  of  the  hands. 
Many  offences  which  are  now  visited  with  imprisonment  were  visited  with 
the  bastinado.  Usury  was  condemned,  and  interest  was  never  allowed  to 
increase  beyond  double  the  original  sum.  Only  goods,  not  persons,  could 
be  seized  for  debt,  the  person  being  the  property  of  the  king  or  of  the 
State.  At  an  early  period  people  were  required  to  give  in  pledge  for  bor- 
rowed money  the  mummy  of  a  father  or  near  relative,  a  deposit  certain  to 
be  redeemed  if  at  all  possible,  for  if  it  were  not  redeemed  the  debtor  could 
not  be  buried  with  the  usual  ceremonies,  or  in  any  honourable  place. 
Luxury  and  vice  had  their  place  in  Egypt  as  in  every  other  rich  country ; 
but  we  do  not  find  evidence  that  Egypt  was  worse  than  other  nations,  if  so 
bad.  Women  occupied  a  considerable  place  in  society  and  in  politics,  and 
were  by  no  means  kept  as  secluded  as  in  modern  Oriental  life.  One  wife 
was  the  rule,  but  not  the  limit ;  and  the  kings  had  as  many  wives  as  they 
pleased ;  the  marriage  of  brothers  and  sisters  was  however  allowed.  All 
children,  by  whatever  mother,  shared  in  the  inheritance.  Sons  were  re- 
quired to  pay  great  deference  to  their  parents  and  to  serve  them  much  as 
in  China.  Their  respect  for  old  age  and  for  elder  strangers,  reverence  for 
ancestors  and  for  the  monarch,  remind  one  of  marked  features  in  the 
Chinese,  and  suggest  that  if  the  Egyptians  and  the  Chinese  did  not  derive 
their  religion  from  a  common  source  in  a  far-distant  past,  they  were  at  least 
founded  on  such  deeply-implanted  instincts  or  such  naturally-growing  per- 
ceptions that  strikingly  similar  results  appeared  in  widely  different  nations. 
Whether  Egypt  was  the  original  home  or  not  of  the  divine  right  of  kings, 
it  was  there  very  early  and  markedly  believed  in ;   and  the  king's  actions. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


481 


unless  flagrantly  injurious,  were  celebrated  as  great  benefits  to  the  nation, 
kmd  his  funeral  was  marked  by  extreme  magnificence  and  by  prolonged 
fasting  and  mourning.  The  whole  country,  in  fact,  belonged  to  the  gods, 
who  regarded  it  with  special  affection,  and  conferred  on  it  all  its  great 
institutions.     It  was  not  wonderful  that  the  Israelites  should  have  been 


x>werfully  influenced  by  what  they  saw  in  Egypt,  or  that  they  should  cast 
ongmg  eyes  back  to  its  gorgeous  forms  and  objects  of  worship,  and  seek  to 
ntroduce  some  of  them  among  or  in  addition  to  the  features  more  peculiarly 
;:heir  own. 

It  is  noteworthy  how  frequently^the  Egyptian  inscriptions  praise  the 


1  1 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


strictest  truthfulness  and  works  of  charity.  Thus  we  read  of  one  man : 
"  Doing  that  which  is  right,  and  hating  that  which  is  wrong,  I 
of  truth  and  was  bread  to  the  hungry,  water  to  the  thirsty,  clothes  to  the 
cnarity.  naked,  a  refuge  to  him  that  was  in  want  ;**that  which  I  did  to 
him,  the  great  God  hath  done  to  me."  Again,  "I  was  one  who  did  that 
which  was  pleasing  to  his  father  and  his  mother ;  the  joy  of  his  brethren, 
the  friend  of  his  companions,  noble-hearted  to  all  those  of  his  city.  I  gave 
bread  to  the  hungry  ;  my  doors  were  open  to  those  who  came  from  without, 
and  I  gave  them  wherewith  to  refresh  themselves.  And  God  hath  inclined 
his  countenance  to  me  for  what  I  have  done  ;  he  hath  given  me  old  age 
upon  earth,  in  long  and  pleasant  duration,  with  many  children  at  my  feet." 
(R.)  It  must  be  remembered  that  these  commendations,  though  put  in  the 
mouth  of  the  deceased,  were  the  work  of  his  survivors ;  even  if  they  are 
not  strictly  accurate,  they  show  what  features  of  conduct  were  considered 
worthy  of  praise  in  view  of  the  eternal  world,  and  therefore  they  have  a 
wide-reaching  significance  in  our  estimate  of  the  character  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians. 

It  is  singular  to  find,  in  a  song  of  a  king  so  early  as  the  eleventh 
dynasty,  ideas  which  are  familiar  to  us  in  the  much  later  book  of  Eccle- 
siastes.  Herodotus  describes  a  custom  which  may  be  connected 
custom  with  the  recitation  of  some  song.  He  says:  "At  the  entertain- 
at  banquets.  mentg  0f  ^e  rich,  just  as  the  company  is  about  to  rise  from  the 
repast,  a  small  coffin  is  carried  round,  containing  a  perfect  representation  of 
a  dead  body,  .  .  .  as  it  is  shown  to  the  guests  in  rotation,  the  bearer 
exclaims,  '  Cast  your  eyes  on  this  figure  :  after  death  you  yourself  will  re- 
semble it ;  drink  then,  and  be  happy.'  "  The  song,  after  reciting  that  the 
body  passes  away,  goes  on,  "After  all,  what  is  prosperity?  Their  fenced 
walls  are  dilapidated.  Their  houses  are  as  that  which  has  never  existed. 
No  man  comes  from  thence  who  tells  of  their  sayings,  who  tells  of  their 
affairs,  who  encourages  their  hearts.  Ye  go  to  the  place  whence  they  return 
not.  Strengthen  thy  heart  to  forget  how  thou  hast  enjoyed  thyself,  fulfil 
thy  desire  whilst  thou  livest.  .  .  .  The  day  will  come  to  thee,  when  one 
hears  not  the  voice,  when  the  one  who  is  at  rest  hears  not  their  voices. 
Lamentations  deliver  not  him  who  is  in  the  tomb.  Feast  in  tranquillity,  ' 
seeing  that  there  is  no  one  who  carries  away  his  goods  with  him.  Yea, 
behold,  none  who  goes  thither  comes  back  again."  (R.  P.  iv.) 

Altogether,  in  considering  the  moral  nature  of  Egyptian  religious  1 
teaching,  we  cannot  but  give  it  a  high  place.  The  standard  set  up  was 
high,  an  ideal  excellence  was  aimed  at  and  praised  ;  and  if  the  people  failed 
ultimately  to  keep  up  to  that  level,  it  was  scarcely  for  want  of  knowledge 
or  opportunity.  All  the  systems  of  religion  we  have  yet  surveyed  seem  to 
have  gone  through  stages  of  development  and  degeneracy,  as  if  human 
religions  were  in  themselves  endowed  with  bodily  or  mental  life  which  they 
were  compelled  to  imitate  by  decay  and  death,  as  well  as  by  stages  of 
growth,  assimilation,  and  differentiation. 


GREAT    MOUND    ON    SITE    OF    BABYLON. 


CHAPTER    II. 
Ci)f  Babylonian,  Assyrian,  anti  ^ftcrnuian  Religions. 

arly  magical  texts— Exorcists — Heaven  and  earth  as  creative  powers— Local  religions— Ea,  the  god 
of  the  deep— Dav-kina,  the  lady  of  the  earth— Hymn  to  Ea— Mul-lil,  lord  of  the  ghost-world— 
The  moon-god  of  Ur— The  sun-god  Samas  or  Tammuz— Istar— The  fire-god— Nergal— Matu— 
Bel-Merodach— His  temple  at  Bahylon— Neho— Assur— Rimmon— Hymns  to  the  gods— Penitential 
hymns— Future  existence— Star-worship  and  astrology— Early  cosmogony— Mr.  George  Smith's 
discoveries— Bel  and  the  dragon— The  tower  of  Babel— The  epic  of  Izdubar— The  Chaldsean  deluge 
—Priests— Festivals  and  sacred  days— Sacrifices— Images— Monotheism— Religious  character  of 
people— Phoenician  religion— Baal— Melkarth— Ashtoreth— Adonis—  Nature-gods— The  Kabiri— 
Human  and  other  sacrifices— Moloch— Chemosh— The  Philistine  gods— Dagon. 

O  ABYLONIA  and  Assyria,  like  Egypt,  in  varying  degrees  and  through 
D  long  periods,  influenced  the  Israelites  and  were  influenced  by  them  ; 
nd  consequently  the  study  of  their  religious  development  is  of  high  im- 
ortance.  Though  much  remains  to  be  known  about  Mesopotamian  religion, 
mch  is  already  known.1 

In  Chaldsea,  as  in  China,  we  come  near  to  primitive  animism  and  its 
evelopment  into  an  advanced  polytheism.  The  magical  texts  which  form 
me  earliest  Chaldsean  sacred  literature  probably  date  from  a  time  Earl  magicai 
early  as  the  earliest  Egyptian  records,  when  there  was  no  texts, 
istinct  idea  of  gods,  and  when  the  world  around  the  Accadian  was  peopled 
y  supernatural  powers  and  spirits  of  living  things.     This  state  of  mind 

1  Sayce:  "Hibbert  Lectures  "  (Religion  of  Ancient  Babylonians),  (S.).  Sayce's  edition  of  Smith's 
lialdaan  Account  of  Genesis ;  llawlinson's  "  Five  Great  Monarchies,"  and  "  Religions  of  the  Ancient 
orld"  ;  Sayce's  "Ancient  Empires  of  the  East."  St.  Chad.  Boscaweu,  in  "Religious  Systems  of 
e  World,"'  1890.  "  The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia."  Published  by  Trustees  of 
ritish  Museum  (I.). 

-is; 


4S4  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIOXS. 

was  dealt  with  by  sharuanists  or  exorcists  who  can  hardly  be  called  priests, 
but  who  rank   rather  with  the  medicine-men  of  the  American 

Exorcists 

Indians.  They  undertook  to  cure  or  prevent  all  kinds  of  diseases, 
and  to  cause  the  spirits  of  evil  things  to  depart ;  and  this  was  effected 
especially  by  incantations  such  as  the  following  :  "  The  evil  god  (or  spirit), 
the  evil  demon,  the  demon  of  the  field,  the  demon  of  the  mountain,  the 
demon  of  the  sea,  the  demon  of  the  tomb,  the  evil  spirit,  the  dazzling  fiend, 
the  evil  wind,  the  assaulting  wind,  which  strips  off  the  clothing  of  the  body 
as  an  evil  demon,  conjure,  0  spirit  of  heaven  !  conjure,  0  spirit  of  earth  !  '* 
"  The  painful  fever,  the  potent  fever,  the  fever  which  quits  not  a  man.  the 
fever-demon  who  departs  not,  the  fever  unremovable,  the  evil  fever,  conjure, 
0  spirit  of  heaven!  conjure,  0  spirit  of  earth!"  (I.)  These  texts  which  have 
come  down  to  us,  probably  do  not  represent  the  earliest  forni  of  exorcism,  but 
rather  the  highest  level  attained  by  the  system  ;  and  they  show  in  a  most 
interesting  way,  that,  in  connection  with  these  early  incantations,  the  idea 
of  the  spirit  of  heaven  and  the  spirit  of  earth,  as  representing  the  essence 
of  the  higher  powers,  was  impressed  upon  the  early  Accadians  and  their  suc- 
cessors the  Babylonians  and  Assj'rians.  The  belief  in  these  great  powers  as 
beneficent  grew  stronger  as  the  cures  wrought  by  medicines,  by  natural 
recovery,  or  by  mental  faith  were  noted ;  and  the  idea  of  the  good  powers 
as  antagonistic  to  and  stronger  than  the  evil  demons  rose  into  prominence. 
Heaven  and  It  was  conceived  that  the  heaven  and  earth,  and  the  deep  sea, 
creative  were  the  creative  powers,  and  were  especially  the  creators  of 
powers,  man,  and  of  all  good  things.  Strangely  enough,  these  powers, 
Ana  or  Ann,  the  sky,  Mul-lil,  the  earth,  Ea,  the  deep,  were  represented  as 
themselves  having  a  spirit,  like  all  living  or  moving  objects.  These  gods 
might  assume  human  forms,  and  then  their  spirits  corresponded  to  those  of 
men  ;  they  are  represented  as  inhabiting  animals,  which  were  worshipped 
as  totems.  Thus  Ea  appeared  as  antelope,  fish,  and  serpent,  and  we  find 
divine  bulls,  storm-birds,  dogs,  etc.  So,  according  to  Prof.  Sayce,  innu- 
merable spirits  were  believed  in,  controlled  by  creative  gods  representing  the 
order  and  law  of  the  universe.  In  opposition  to  them  were  the  malevolent 
spirits  of  darkness  and  disease,  and  there  were  also  spirits  neither  good  nor 
bad.  All  these  were  supposed  to  be  controlled  by  the  sorcerer-priest,  using 
spells  and  exorcisms,  and  communicating  with,  and  practically  influencing, 
the  gods  by  his  ritual.  The  forms  of  worship  became  enlarged  with  this 
higher  belief,  and  true  supplication  appears  in  the  Penitential  Psalms,  such 
as  this  : — 

"  Accept  the  prostration  of  the  face  of  the  living  creature.  I,  thy 
servant,  ask  thee  for  rest.  To  the  heart  of  him  who  has  sinned  thou 
interest  words  of  blessing.  Thou  lookest  on  the  man,  and  the  man  lives, 
0  potentate  of  the  world,  mistress  of  mankind !  Compassionate  one, 
whose  forgiveness  is  ready,  who  acceptest  the  prayer.  (Priest)  0  God  and 
mother  goddess  that  art  angry  with  him.  he  calls  upon  thee  !  Turn  thy 
face  towards  him  and  take  his  hand  !  "  (I.)  In  this  prayer,  as  well  as  in 
others,  we  see  an  invocation  of  more  gods  than  one.  as  being  in  combination 


BABYLONIAA    RELIGION.  485 

or  alliance.     Of  course  while  this  elevation  was  proceeding,  the  incantations 

and  exorcisms  remained  largely  in  use  among  those  less  enlightened,  hut 
were  gradually  lowered  in  esteem,  like  charms  in  mo  lern  days  ;  while  the 
religious  development  went  on  to  produce  the  hymns  to  the  gods.  But 
these  were  due  partly  no  doubt  to  the  early  Semitic  influence  which  largely 
altered  the  character  of  Mesopotamian  religion. 

As  in  Egypt,  the  national  religion  grew  upon   the  basis  of  local  re- 
ligions, adopting  and  adapting  local  gods  of  cities  and  tribes.     Thus,  Ea  was 
originally  the  god  of  the  city  Eridu,  at  the  then  mouth  of  the       Local 
Euphrates.     Under  the  name  of  Oannes,  he  is  said  by  Berosus,    religions, 
the  late  Chaldeean  historian,  to  have  come  out  of  the  water  of  the  gulf,  to 
have  passed  his  days  among  men,  and  to  have  given  them  insight  Ea,  the  god 
into  letters  and  sciences,  and  arts  of  every  kind.     "He  taught  ofthe  deep- 
them  to  construct  houses,  to  found  temples,  to  compile  laws,  and  explained 
to   them   the   principles  of  geometrical   knowledge.      He  made  them  dis- 
tinguish the  seeds  of  the  earth,   and  showed  them  how  to  collect  the  fruits ; 
in  short,  he  instructed  them  in  everything  which  could  tend  to  soften  man- 
ners and  humanise  their  lives."     Thus  he  was  the  god  of  wisdom  of  early 
Babylonia,  and  was  represented  as  partly  man  and  partly  fish. 

In  conjunction  with  Ea  was  worshipped  his  consort  Dav-kina,  the  lady 
of  the  earth,  which  she  personified  ;  and  this  relationship  accords  with  the 
old  Chaldsean  idea  of  the  origin  of  the  world  from  the  deep,  upon 
which  the  earth  lay.  Through  Dav-kina  the  words  of  E a  were  ladyoftne 
conveyed  to  men,  as  heard  in  the  roar  of  the  waves.  The  attri-  eaxtiL 
butes  of  Ea  may  be  gathered  from  a  hymn  addressed  to  him.  He  is  "  the 
god  of  pure  life,  who  stretches  out  the  bright  firmament,  the  god  of  good 
winds,  the  lord  of  hearing  and  obedience,  creator  of  the  pure  H,^m  t0  Ea 
and  the  impure,  establisher  of  fertility,  who  brings  to  greatness 
him  that  is  of  small  estate.  .  .  .  May  he  command,  may  he  glorify, 
may  he  hearken  to  his  worshippers.  .  .  .  May  he  establish,  and  never 
may  his  word  be  forgotten  in  the  mouth  of  the  black-headed  race,  whom  his 
hands  created.  As  god  of  the  pure  incantation  may  he  further  be  invoked, 
before  whose  pure  approach  may  the  evil  trouble  be  overthrown  ;  by  whose 
pure  spell  the  siege  of  the  foe  is  removed."  A  later  part  of  the  same  hymn 
is  occupied  with  recognising  the  identity  of  the  Bel  of  Northern  Babylonia 
with  Ea,  showing  the  process  of  fusion  by  which  different  local  deities 
became  amalgamated,  and  regarded  as  practically  the  same.  Ea  is  repre- 
sented as  saying,  "  Since  he  (Bel)  has  made  his  men  strong  by  his  name,  let 
him,  like  myself,  have  the  name  of  Ea.  May  he  bear  (to  them)  the  bond 
of  all  my  commands,  and  may  he  communicate  all  my  secret  knowledge 
through  the  fifty  names  of  the  great  gods."  The  hymn  goes  on,  "  His 
fifty  names  he  has  pronounced,  his  wa}*s  he  has  restored.  .  .  .  May 
father  to  son  repeat  and  hand  them  down."  (S.)  This  emphasis  on  the 
"  name  "  is  intelligible  when  Ave  remember  that  the  name  signified  the 
essential  nature  of  the  deity,  as  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  Egyptian 
religion. 


4S6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


"We  find  a  son  also  ascribed  to  Ea,  namely  Mardugga,  the  holy  son, 
the  same  name  being  traceable  in  Marduk,  or  Merodach.  He  was  supposed 
Marduk  or  to  yis^  mankind  as  a  mediator  and  healer.  Between  Ea  and 
Meredach.  Merodach,  as  good  gods,  and  the  powers  of  evil  typified  by  a 
serpent  with  seven  heads  and  seven  tails,  there  was  continual  warfare. 
There  is  doubtless  some  connection  between  this  belief  and  that  recorded 
in  the  early  chapters  of  Genesis. 

Another  of  the  gods  dating  back  to  Accadian  times  is  Mul-lil,  the  lord 
of  the  ghost- world,  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  spirits  of  the  earth,  originally  a 
Mul  in  lord  l°cal  g°&  °^  Nipur  (now  Niffer)  in  nothern  Babylonia.  Here  the 
of  tiie  belief  in  ghosts  and  demons  and  spirits  of  disease  was  strong,  and 
g  os  -wor  .  kence  •£  Spreac|  to  other  parts.  Adar  (a  name  possibly  read 
wrongly)  was  the  son  of  Mul-lil,  a  sun-god,  represented  as  issuing  from 
night,  as  typified  by  the  god  of  the  lower  world  ;  and  his  wife  was  the  lady 
of  the  dawn.  Adar  was  especially  the  meridian  sun,  the  warrior  and 
champion  of  the  gods,  the  messenger  of  his  father. 

It  is  strange  to  find  the  moon-gocl  represented  as  masculine,  and  the 
sun-o-od  as  his  offspring.  There  was  apparently  a  local  moon-god  in  every 
The  Moon-god  Babylonian  town;  Ur  seems  to  have  been  a  great  centre  of 
ofUr-  his  worship,  and  the  moon-gods  of  Ur  and  Nipur  were  early 
identified.  At  Ur  the  moon-god,  known  as  Nannak  or  Nannar,  became  the 
father  of  the  gods.  Part  of  an  old  hymn  to  him  runs  thus :  "  Lord  and 
prince  of  the  gods,  who  in  heaven  and  earth  alone  is  supreme.  .  .  . 
Father  Nannar,  lord  of  heaven,  lord  of  the  moon,  prince  of  the  gods. 
Father,  long-suffering  and  full  of  forgiveness,  whose  hand  upholds  the 
life  of  all  mankind.  .  .  .  Father,  begetter  of  gods  and  men,  who 
causes  the  shrine  to  be  founded,  who  establishes  the  offering,  who  proclaims 
dominion,  who  gives  the  sceptre,  who  shall  fix  destiny  unto  a  distant  day ; 
First-born,  omnipotent,  his  heart  is  far-extended ;  none  shall  describe  the 
god.  ...  As  for  thee,  thy  will  is  made  known  in  heaven,  and  the 
angels  bow  their  faces.  ...  As  for  thee,  thy  will  is  done  upon  the 
earth,  and  the  herb  grows  green.  ...  As  for  thee,  thy  will  is  the  far- 
off  heaven,  the  hidden  earth  which  no  man  hath  known.  .  .  .  Look 
with  favour  on  thy  temple  ;  look  with  favour  on  Ur ;  let  the  high-born 
dame  ask  rest  of  thee,  0  lord  ;  let  the  free-born  man  ask  rest  of  thee,  O 
lord  !     Let  the  spirits  of  earth  and  heaven  ask  rest  of  thee,  0  lord." 

When  we  remember  that  this  Ur  in  Chaldsea  was  the  place  whence 
Abraham  migrated  to  Harran,  we  shall  see  that  he  already  lived  in 
an  atmosphere  of  very  considerable  development.  Local  gods  were  wor- 
shipped, not  a  truly  universal  god  ;  but  already  conceptions  of  no  slight 
elevation  had  been  attained,  and  Harran,  to  which  he  in  the  first  place 
migrated,  was  closely  connected  with  Ur  in  religion.  The  moon-god  of  Ur 
appears  to  have  gained  fame  and  to  have  taken  a  predominant  position  among 
the  Babylonians  as  the  father  of  gods  and  men,  under  the  name  Sin  (the 
bright).  And  in  conformity  with  the  Chaldsean  idea  of  the  sun  coming 
forth  and  being  produced  from  the  night  (over  which  the  moon  presides), 


BA  B  YL  OXIAN   RELIGION. 


487 


Istar. 


we  find  the  sun-god  Samas  (Taramuz)  described  as  the  son  of  Sin.     Perhaps 

the  most  noted  sun-god  of  the  Accadians  was  that  of  Larsa,  not  far  _,.,  . 

0  The  sun-god 

from  Ur,  whose  temple  was  famous,  having  been  founded  or  re-  samas,  or 
stored  by  Ur-bagas,  the  earliest  known  king  of  Unite*  I  Babylonia. 
He  also  was  noted  as  the  builder  or  restorer  of  the  temple  of  the  moon-god  at 
Ur,  that  of  Mul-lil  at  Nipur,  and  those  of  Aim  and  Istar  at  Erech. 
Istar  was  the  goddess  of  the  evening  star,  assigned  as  the  wife 
of  Samas,  later  developed  into  the  Ishtar  or  Ashtoreth  of  Semitic  worship. 
The  sun-god  was  also  worshipped  under  his  name  of  Samas  at  Sippara  (the 
Scripture    Sepharvaim),  where   there  was  a  temple  believed  to  worship  at 
have   already  grown  old  and  decayed  in  b.c.  3800,  which  was  sep&arvaim. 
the  centre  of  a  vigorous  worship,  with  many  priests,  scribes,  schools ;   and 
most  interesting  hymns  to  the  god  have  come  down  to  us  apparently  from 
this  very  early  date. 


The  ftre-god. 


WINGED    FIGURES    FROM    THE    EXCAVATIONS    AT    NINEVEH,    WITH    NIN,    OR    NISIP,    BETWEEN. 

There  was  also  a  fire-god  among  the  early  Accadian  gods,  celebrated 
in  this  fashion  in  an  early  hymn  :  "  The  Fire-god,  the  first-born  supreme, 
unto  heaven  they  pursued  and  no  father  did  he  know.  0  Fire- 
god,  supreme  on  high,  the  first-born,  the  mighty,  supreme  en- 
joined of  the  commands  of  Ann.  The  Fire-god  enthrones  with  himself  the 
friend  that  he  loves."  He  is  represented  as  conquering  especially  seven  evil 
or  injurious  spirits  of  earth  and  heaven.  Another  god  of  whom  we  know 
little  in  his  early  Accadian  form  is  Ana  or  Anu,  the  sky,  the  chief  deity 
of  Erech,  which  city  regarded  him  as  a  creative  god.  He  became  early  in 
the  Semitic  dominion  of  Babylonia  the  chief  member  of  a  sort  of  triad  01 
gods,  Anu,  Bel  or  Mul-lil,  and  Ea,  representing  the  heaven,  the  earth,  and 
the  ghost-world,  and  the  water.  Nergal,  the  god  of  Cutha  (now 
Tel-Ibrahim),  the  strong  one,  the  god  of  death,  among  the 
Accadians,  became  rather  the  champion  of  the  gods  among  the  Semites, 
destroying  especially  the  wicked.  But  he  passed  very  considerably  out  of 
mind  with  the  advance  of  Semitic  forms  of  worship.     The  winds,  especially 


Nergal. 


488  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

the  destructive  ones,  were  also  worshipped  as  deities  ;  and  one  of  them,  Matu, 
is  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to  part  of  the  Semitic  conception 
worshipped  under  the  name  of  Ramman  or  Rimmon.  Many- 
other  spirits  or  gods  were  included  in  the  worship  of  the  many  separate 
states'or  cities  of  early  Babylonia,  spirits  of  heaven,  spirits  of  earth,  etc.  ; 
and  we  even  meet  with  such  expressions  in  the  Penitential  Psalms  before 
mentioned,  as  "  To  the  god  that  is  known  and  that  is  unknown,  to  the 
goddess  that  is  known  and  that  is  unknown,  do  I  lift  my  prayer." 

When  the  Semites  gained  predominance  in  Mesopotamia,  they  to  a 
large  extent  adopted  or  adapted  the  religious  worship  they  found  already 
established,  in  accordance  with  a  general  idea  that  it  was  necessary,  or  at 
least  advisable,  for  the  conquerors  to  establish  friendly  relations  with  the 
gods  of  a  conquered  country,  while  maintaining  their  own  original  beliefs. 

The  Semites  were  already  to  a  large  extent  sun-worshippers.  We 
cannot  yet  unravel  this  development  in  its  details,  but  it  seems  probable 
Bei-merodach.tliat  Bel-mer°dach,  the  great  god  of  Babylon,  represented  a  local 
'god  of  Babylon  who  was  identified  by  the  Semites  with  their 
sun-god  and  elevated  to  a  supreme  position  above  all  the  gods,  though  not 
excluding  their  worship.  The  following  prayer  of  Nebuchadnezzar  indicates 
that  monarch's  attitude  toward  his  god  : — 

"  To  Merodach  my  lord  I  prayed  ;  I  began  to  him  my  petition,  the 
word  of  my  heart  sought  him,  and  I  said :  '  0  prince  that  art  from  ever- 
lasting, lord  of  all  that  exists,  for  the  king  whom  thou  lovest  .  .  .  thou 
watchest  over  him  in  the  path  of  righteousness !  I,  the  prince  who  obeys 
thee,  am  the  work  of  thy  hands  ;  thou  createst  me  and  hast  entrusted  to  me 
the  sovereignty  over  multitudes  of  men,  according  to  thy  goodness,  0  lord, 
which  thou  hast  made  to  pass  over  them  all.  Let  me  love  thy  supreme 
lordship,  let  the  fear  of  thy  divinity  exist  in  my  heart,  and  give  what 
seemeth  good  unto  thee,  since  thou  maintainest  my  life.'  Then  he,  the 
first-born,  the  glorious,  the  first-born  of  the  gods,  Merodach  the  prince, 
heard  my  prayer  and  accepted  my  petition."  It  is  evident  that  Merodach 
was  supreme  in  Babylon  ;  but  outside  Babylon  other  gods  and  creators 
were  acknowledged.  He  is  variously  described  as  merciful,  as  the  inter- 
oessor  between  gods  and  men,  and  as  interpreter  of  the  will  of  Ea.  Not 
the  least  remarkable  of  the  old  Chaldaean  hymns  is  one  in  which  he  is 
addressed  as  "  the  merciful  lord  who  loves  to  raise  the  dead  to  life,"  and 
this  is  held  to  show  that  the  Chaldseans  had  some  belief  in  a  resurrection. 

To  Bel-Meroclach  a  great  temple  was  erected  at  Babylon,  a  huge  square 
containing  a  tower  of  eight  great  stages,  with  a  shrine  in  the  topmost,  also 
Merodach's  nsec^  as  an  observatory.  The  temple  at  the  foot  contained  a  great 
^JbPioat  S°lden  statue  of  the  god,  seated  ;  and  outside  was  a  golden  altar 
for  the  sacrifice  of  special  victims,  while  a  larger  altar  was  used 
for  the  offering  of  large  numbers  of  sheep,  and  for  burning  large  quantities 
of  frankincense  at  the  god's  festival.  The  ceremonies  at  this  temple  are 
said  to  have  presented  many  resemblances  to  those  of  the  Jews ;  they  in- 
cluded daily  morning  and  evening  sacrifices,  meat  and  drink  offerings,  the 


BAB  YL  ONI  AN   RELIGION. 


489 


Nebo. 


free-will  offering, 
the  sin-offering,  and 
the  shew-breacl.  In 
close  association 
with  this  temple 
was  a  smaller  one 
erected  to  Nebo,  the 
god  of  prophecy, 
called  the  son  of 
Merodach,  the  pro- 
claimer  of  his  mind 
and  wishes  ;  and 
within  the  shrine 
of  Nebo,  Merodach 
was  supposed  to  de- 
scend at  his  festival 
and  an- 
nounce 
his  oracles  to  his 
priests.  Nebo  had 
a  separate  grand 
temple  in  the  sub- 
urb Borsippa.  He 
was  famed  as  the 
creator  of  peace,  the 
author  of  the  oracle, 
the  creator  of  the 
written  tablet,  the 
author  of  writing  ; 
he  was  also  the  bond 
of  the  universe  and 
the  overseer  of  the 
angel  hosts.  Thus 
we  can  understand 
the  exultation  of 
Isaiah's  words :  "  Bel 
boweth  down,  Nebo 
stoopeth,"  and  those 
of  Jeremiah,  "  Ba- 
bylon is  taken,  Bel 
is  confounded,  Me- 
rodach is  broken  in 
pieces."  The  con- 
quest of  Babylon  by 
Cyrus  introduced  a 
wider  cult,  in  which 


NIN,    OK    NIXIP. 


49°  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Merodack  was  recognised  as  the  god  of  all  men  ;  and  the  Greeks  even 
identified  him  with  Zens.  The  Assyrians  especially  worshipped  him,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  him,  Beltis  his  lady. 

Now  we  come  into  the  area  of  the  Semitic  tendency  to  attribute  to 
each  god  a  corresponding  goddess.  The  worship  of  Nebo  passed  westward, 
like  that  of  Bel-merodach,  and  he  was  assigned  a  consort,  Tasmitu,  "  the 
hearer,"  who  opened  the  ears  of  those  who  received  Nebo's  inspiration.  In 
addition  to  Bel  and  Nebo,  a  third  important  god  rises  to  view  in  Assyria, 
being  the  national  god  of  the  people,  Assur,  king  of  all  the  gods, 
enabling  the  Assyrians  to  destroy  "  the  enemies  of  Assur."  He 
was  originally  the  local  god  of  Assur,  the  early  capital,  and  became  a  national 
god,  being  transferred  to  Nineveh  when  it  was  made  the  capital.  Assur 
was  still  more  special  among  the  Semites,  as  not  having  a  consort.  "  When 
a  female  divinity  is  invoked  along  with  him,  it  is  the  equally  independent 
goddess  Istar  or  Ashtoreth."  (S.)  With  him  were  worshipped  many  of  the 
gods  of  Babylonia  ;  but  he  is  especially  named  as  their  creator  and  father. 
In  many  respects  the  characters  ascribed  to  Assur  correspond  to  those  by 
which  Jehovah  was  worshipped  by  the  Israelites.  Thus,  to  quote  Prof. 
Rawlinson,  "  He  places  the  monarchs  upon  their  throne,  firmly  es- 
tablishes them  in  the  government,  lengthens  the  years  of  their  reigns, 
preserves  their  power,  protects  their  forts  and  armies,  makes  their  name 
celebrated,  and  the  like.  To  him  they  look  to  give  them  victory  over  their 
enemies,  to  grant  them  all  the  wishes  of  their  heart,  and  to  allow  them  to  be 
succeeded  on  their  thrones  by  their  sons,  and  their  sons'  sons,  to  a  remote 
posterity.  .  .  .  It  is  to  spread  his  worship  that  they  carry  on  their 
wars.  They  fight,  ravage,  destroy  in  his  name.  Finally,  when  they 
subdue  a  country,  they  are  careful  to  set  up  '  the  emblems  of  Assur,'  and 
to  teach  the  people  his  laws  and  his  worship."  He  is  often  represented  as 
a  man  with  a  horned  cap,  and  carrying  a  bow,  and  his  face  appears  in  the 
middle  of  a  winged  circle,  shooting  an  arrow  or  stretching  out  his  hand  ;  and 
this  emblem  is  upon  everything  royal,  robes,  rock-carvings,  obelisks,  etc. 
A  probable  suggestion  is,  that  Assur  represents  an  early  ruler  or  king  ;  but 
later  he  was  closely  identified  with  the  ruler  of  heaven  and  earth. 

Among  the  other  gods  introduced  into  Assyria  from  Chaldsea,  Nergal 
was  much  worshipped,  together  with  Nin  (Ninus)  or  Ninip.  The  symbol  of 
the  latter,  the  winged  bull,  was  greatly  in  vogue  throughout  Assyria. 
Nin  and  Nergal  sharpened  the  king's  weapons,  and  gave  him  the  victory 
over  the  fiercest  beasts.  There  was  a  large  temple  to  Nin  (Ninus)  at  Calah 
(the  modern  Nimrud).  Nergal  was  symbolised  by  the  winged  lion  with  a 
human  head. 

Another  gocl  of  interesting  history,  most  especially  worshipped  in  the 
kingdom  of  Damascus,  by  the  northern  Syrians,  was  Eimmon,  more 
r   R-  properly  Ramanu,  the  exalted  one,  believed  to  be  a  literal  trans- 

lation of  the  name  of  the  Accadian  god  Muru,  representing  the 
air.  The  Hebrews  identified  the  name  with  rimmon,  a  pomegranate,  and  in 
that  form  it  became  widely  known.     In  Syria,  Rimmon  was  identified  with 


BABYLONIAN  AND    ASSYRIAN    RELIGIONS.  491 


the  northern  Baal  or  sun-god  Hadad ;  and  there  are  traces  of  the  worship  of 
Hadad-Rimmon  as  far  south  as  the  plain  of  Jezreel  (Zech.  xii.  11).  In 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  he  was  a  god  of  the  air  and  winds,  whose  worship 
incorporated  that  of  many  older  deities.  To  some  of  these  only  their  evil 
powers  remained,  while  Rimmon  exemplified  beneficence. 

We  must  now  return  again  to  the  religious  texts  of  Babylonia.  The 
hymns  to  the  gods,  composed  at  different  dates,  and  largely  Semitic  in 
origin,  include  forms  to  be  recited  at  sunrise  and  sunset,  and  on  Hymns  to 
special  festivals  of  the  gods.  There  appear  to  have  been  sepa-  tne  gods- 
rate  collections'  for  each  temple,  but  it  is  doubtful  how  far  they  were 
incorporated  into  airy  general  collection ;  at  any  rate,  they  have  travelled 
far  beyond  primitive  conceptions,  and  include  many  advanced  ideas.  Many 
of  the  penitential  hymns  show  strong  resemblances  to  the  Old  Testament 
psalms.  For  instance  :  "I  sought  for  help  and  none  took  my  Penitential 
hand  ;  I  wept  and  none  stood  at  my  side ;  I  cried  aloud  and  there  by™*3- 
was  none  that  heard  me.  I  am  in  trouble  and  hiding  ;  I  dare  not  look  up. 
To  my  god,  the  merciful  one,  I  turn  myself,  I  utter  my  prayer.  The  feet 
of  my  goddess  I  kiss  and  water  with  tears.  To  my  god  whom  I  know  and 
whom  I  know  not  I  utter  my  prayer.  0  lord,  look  upon  me ;  0  goddess, 
look  upon  me.  .  .  .  How  long,  0  goddess  whom  I  know  and  know  not, 
shall  thy  heart  in  its  hostility  be  not  appeased  ?  Mankind  is  made  to 
wander,  and  there  is  none  that  knoweth.  Mankind,  as  many  as  pronounce 
a  name,  what  do  they  know  ?  "Whether  he  shall  have  good  or  ill  there  is 
none  that  knoweth.  .  .  .  The  sins  I  have  sinned  turn  to  a  blessing.  The 
transgressions  I  have  committed  may  the  wind  carry  away.  Strip  off  my 
manifold  wickednesses  as  a  garment.  0  my  god,  seven  times  seven  are  my 
transgressions  ;  forgive  my  sins  !  .  .  .  Foi^give  my  sins ;  may  thy  bane  be 
removed."  (I.)  This  psalm,  copied  out  from  the  original  by  direction  of 
Assur-bani-pal  (Sardanapalus)  in  the  7th  century  B.C.,  dates  back  to  a  much 
earlier  time,  when,  however,  the  Semites  were  in  full  possession  of  Babylonia. 
It  is  interesting  for  its  view  of  sin,  penitence,  and  prayer  for  forgiveness,  as 
well  as  for  its  association  of  the  goddess  with  the  god.  Instead  of  evils 
being  due  to  evil  spirits,  they  were  now  read  as  the  offspring  of  man's 
sinfulness  or  the  punishments  inflicted  by  the  gods.  Yet  there  are  Accadian 
ideas  clearly  distinguishable  in  it ;  the  gods  are  not  personally  named  lest 
they  should  be  offended,  and  there  is  no  clear  idea  what  is  the  nature  of  the 
sin  committed,  or  how  it  became  an  offence. 

There  is  remarkably  little  reference  in  the  early  magical  hymns  and 
incantations  to  ideas  of  future  existence.  Later  we  find  Merodach  invoked 
as  raising  the  dead  to  life ;  but  it  is  not  certain  that  future  life  Future 
is  meant.  Still  the  description  of  Mul-lil  as  god  of  the  ghost-  existence, 
world,  implies  some  kind  of  belief  in  the  continuance  of  the  dead.  Later 
we  find  reference  to  the  "  land  of  the  silver  sky."  But  there  were  various 
inconsistent  views  of  the  abodes  of  the  gods  produced  in  Mesopotamia, 
which  we  can  merely  allude  to.  One  of  these  describes  a  "  mountain  of  the 
world,"  a  sort  of  Chaldsean  Olympus,  where  the  gods  were  born  and  lived. 


492  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

It  was  also  called  "  the  mighty  mountain  of  Mul-lil,  whose  head  rivals  the 

heavens ;    and  whose   foundation   is   the  pure    deep."      The   predominant 

impression  as  to  the  ghosts  of  the  departed  was,  that  they  abode  in  the 

gloomy  underworld,    eating    dust    and   mud,  and   sometimes    emerging   to 

drink  the  blood  of  the  living.     It  was  not  a  land  of  punishment,  but  of 

darkness   and   forgetfulness,   shadows   and   spectres.     But   in  the  Epic  of 

Gisdhubar  we  find  the  ghost  of  Ea-bani  described  as  rising  to  heaven  and 

living  among  the  gods,  reclining   on    a  couch  and  drinking  pure  water, 

beholding  the  deeds  done  on  earth.     In  later  Assyrian  times,  the  idea  of 

heaven  became  somewhat  spiritualised  as  the  heaven  of  Anu,  and  some 

notion  of  future  rewards  and  punishments  arose.     It  was  now  that  prayers 

began  to  be  offered  that  they  might  live  for  ever  in  the  land  of  the  silver 

sky.     Thus  we  trace  ever  and  again  the  similarities  which  are  to  be  found 

among  the  Semitic  religions. 

Little  has  yet  been  said  about  the  star-worship  which  was  formerly 

supposed  to  be  the  main  feature  of  Chaldsean  religion.     It  is  true  that  the 

..  Chaldseans  very  early  observed  and  revered  the  constellations,  and 
Star-worship  ^  J  J  _  ?_ 

and  framed  a  calendar  ;  and  we  may  perhaps  see  in  the  names  given 
s  ro  gy.  ^o  ^^  signs  of  the  zodiac  evidences  of  primitive  totemism,  the 
names  being  Accadian,  and  indicating  in  an  interesting  way  the  thoughts 
connected  with  animals  at  that  early  period.  Prof.  Sayce  shows  good  reason, 
from  the  first  place  being  given  to  the  "Directing  Bull,"  for  concluding  that 
the  signs  of  the  zodiac  were  named  long  before  2,500  B.C.,  and  probably  more 
than  4,000  years  before  Christ.  It  is  not  till  the  Semitic  period  of  Sargon's 
rule  over  Accad  that  the  ram  marked  the  beginning  of  the  year ;  and  to 
this  period  may  be  credited  much  of  the  early  astrology  which  essayed  to 
predict  events  by  the  signs  of  the  sky.  In  later  Babylonia  the  stars  were 
largely  identified  with  the  gods  ;  and  the  whole  heavens  were  parcelled  out 
between  the  three  deities  Anu,  Bel,  and  Ea.  In  the  cuneiform  characters  a 
deity  is  indicated  by  an  eight-rayed  star.  We  cannot  stay  to  trace  the 
development  of  this  worship  in  its  later  stages,  when  elaborate  offerings  and 
sacrifices  were  made  to  the  stars,  in  some  cases  even  taking  precedence 
before  Assur. 

An  early  Semitic  cosmogony,  with  traces  of  Accadian  origin,  has  been 

discovered  in  a  tablet  originally  written  for  the  temple  of  Nergal  at  Cutha. 

Early      It  refers  to  a  time  when  the  great  gods  created  living  creatures  of 

cosmogony.  a  compOUnci  nature,  "  warriors  with  the  body  of  a  bird  of  the 
valley,"  "  men  with  the  faces  of  ravens,"  suckled  by  Tiamat  or  the  dragon  of 
Chaos.  The  offspring  of  these  became  heroes,  but  were  destroyed  ultimately 
by  Nerra,  the  plague-god,  identified  with  Nergal.  Possibly  this  view  of 
early  monsters  may  account  for  some  of  the  strange  compound  figures 
found  in  Assyria.     But  greater  interest  attaches  to  the  series  of  tablets  of  a 

Mr  George  ^a^er  Chaldsean  cosmology  discovered  by  Mr.  George  Smith  in 

smith's     1872,  which,  though  comparatively  late   in  their  present  form, 
discoveries.  . 

'  embody  a  very  early  series  of  legends,  of  deep  interest  from  their 

correspondences  with  the  narrative  in  the  first   chapter  of  Genesis.     The 


BABYLONIAN   RELIGION.  493 

record  is  unfortunately  in  a  very  fragmentary  condition.     The  first  tablet 
begins  tlius  : 

1.  At  that  time  above,  the  heaven  was  unnamed  ; 

2.  Below  the  earth  by  name  was  unrecorded  ; 

3.  The  boundless  deep  also  (was)  their  generator. 

4.  The  chaos  of  the  sea  was  she  who  bore  the  whole  of  them. 

5.  Their  waters  were  collected  together  in  one  place,  and 

6.  The  flowering  reed  was  not  gathered,  the  marsh-plant  was  not  grown. 

7.  At  that  time  the  gods  had  not  been  produced,  any  one  of  them  ; 

8.  By  name  they  had  not  been  called,  destiny  was  not  fixed. 

Then  follow  verses  describing  the  birth  of  several  gods.     The  first  half 
of  the  fifth  tablet  gives  an  account  of  the  creation  of  the  heavenly  bodies  : 

1.  (Bel)  prepared  the  (seven)  mansions  of  the  great  gods  ; 

2.  He  fixed  the  stars,  even  the  twin-stars,  to  correspond  to  them  ; 

3.  He  ordained  the  year,  appointing  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  over  it ; 

4.  For  each  of  the  twelve  months  he  fixed  three  stars, 

5.  From  the  day  when  the  year  issiies  forth  to  the  close. 

6.  He  found  the  mansion  of  the  god  of  the  ferry-boat  (the  sun-god),  that  they  might 

know  their  bonds. 

7.  That  they  might  not  err,  that  they  might  not  go  astray  in  any  way. 

8.  He  established  the  mansion  of  Mul-lil  and  Ea  along  with  himself. 

9.  He  opened  also  the  great  gates  on  either  side, 

10.  The  bolts  he  strengthened  on  the  left  hand  and  on  the  right, 

11.  And  in  their  midst  he  made  a  staircase. 

12.  He  illuminated  the  moon-god  that  he  might  watch  over  the  night, 

13.  And  ordained  for  him  the  ending  of  the  night  that  the  day  may  be  known. 

In  similar  style  another  tablet  relates  the  creation  of  animals. 

But  while  there  is  great  interest  in  finding  a  Chaldsean  legend  agreeing 
in  some  features  with  that  of  Genesis,  there  is  no  warrant  for  saying  that 
either  of  the  accounts  has  given  rise  to  the  other  ;  but  that  they  Bei  and  the 
have  some  connection  is  very  possible.  They  are  of  special  import-  dragon, 
ance,  however,  in  anthropology  as  examples  of  the  ways  in  which  the  human 
mind  has  explained  creation.  The  Chaldean  account  adds  a  very  striking- 
narrative  in  one  tablet,  of  the  contest  between  the  god  Bel  and  the  dragon 
of  Chaos,  which  is  too  complex  to  describe  here. 

Among  other  early  Chaldsean  fragments  is  one  which  appears  to  describe 
a  parallel  incident  to  the  confusion  of  tongues  at  Babel.  Bel,  the  father  of 
the  gods,  is  said  to  have  been  angry  at  the  sin  of  the  builders  The  tower 
of  Babylon,  and  especially  of  the  "Illustrious  mound,"  and  the  ofBabel- 
builders  were  punished,  and  the  mound  destroyed  at  night  by  the  winds ; 
but  nothing  is  said  of  the  confusion  of  tongues.  It  is  probable  that  the 
tower  of  Babel  is  represented  by  the  great  mound  of  Nimroud,  with  its 
succession  of  diminishing  stages,  forming  a  great  temple  or  "  gate  of  the 
gods."  In  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar  it  was  incomplete,  and  had  long 
been  ruinous,  when  he  undertook  its  restoration  and  completion.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  during  its  long  period  of  decay  the  legend  arose  which 
described  it  as  a  monument  of  human  folly  and  presumption,  and  that  the 


494  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

variety  of  languages  spoken  in  Babylonia  gave  good  cause  for  attributing 
the  diversity  to  divine  punishment. 

In  the  great  Epic  of  Izdubar  or  Gisdhubar,  also  discovered  by  Mr. 
Smith  in  1872,  we  have  a  Semitic  translation  of  the  exploits  of  an  early 
The  epic  of  Accadian  king  or  primitive  Hercules,  arranged  on  a  solar  plan, 
izdubar.  wnicn  accords  with  the  representation  of  the  hero  as  sun-god. 
In  many  ways  the  events  recorded  in  the  epic  correspond  to  the  twelve 
labours  of  Hercules  ;  and  it  may  be  that  the  Izdubar  legend  is  one  of  the 
early  forms  from  which  Phoenicia  and  then  Greece  derived  the  famous  myth. 
The  most  perfect  tablet  is  that  which  describes  a  deluge,  which  has  been 
very  generally  identified  with  that  of  Noah.  The  character  of  Izdubar 
corresponds  exactly  to  that  of  Nimrod  in  Genesis  ;  and  it  is  not  certain 
that  the  names  may  not  be  identical,  for  Izdubar  is  but  a  provisional  ren- 
dering. 

The  deluge,  according  to  the  Chaldsean  epic,  was  due  to  the  judgment 
of  the  gods  Ami,  Bel,  and  Ninip,  and  Ea  told  the  "man  of  Surippak," 
The  Chaldsean  Samas-Napiati  (the  living  sun),  to  build  a  ship  to  preserve  plants 
deluge.  anc[  living  beings ;  it  was  to  be  600  cubits  long,  and  60  broad 
and  high.  Numerous  details  of  the  building  and  construction  are  given ; 
and  when  Xisuthrus  with  his  people,  and  animals,  and  plants,  and  food  had 
entered  the  ship,  "  the  waters  of  dawn  arose  at  daybreak,  a  black  cloud  from 
the  horizon  of  heaven.  Rimmon  in  the  midst  of  it  thundered,  and  Nebo 
and  the  wind-god  went  in  front."  The  earth  was  covered,  and  all  living 
things  destroyed.  Even  the  gods  were  afraid  at  the  whirlwind,  and  took 
refuge  in  the  heaven  of  Anu.  After  six  days  and  nights  the  storm  abated, 
and  the  rain  ceased,  and  the  wind  and  deluge  ended.  "  I  watched  the  sea 
making  a  noise,  and  the  whole  of  mankind  were  turned  to  clay,  like  reeds 
the  corpses  floated.  ...  In  the  country  of  Nizir  (east  of  Assyria) 
rested  the  ship ;  the  mountain  of  Nizir  stopped  the  ship,  and  to  pass  over 
it  it  was  not  able.  .  .  .  On  the  seventh  day  I  sent  forth  a  dove,  and  it 
left.  The  dove  went,  it  returned,  and  a  resting-place  it  did  not  find,  and 
it  came  back."  Later  a  raven  was  sent  forth,  and  it  did  not  return.  Then 
the  ship  was  opened,  the  animals  came  forth,  sacrifice  was  offered  to  the 
gods,  and  Xisuthrus  became  the  father  of  Izdubar,  himself  being  afterwards 
translated  to  live  as  a  god.  "We  cannot  attempt  a  detailed  comparison  of 
the  Chaldsean  and  Noachian  floods,  for  which  reference  must  be  made  to 
Professor  Sayce's  edition  of  Mr.  Smith's  "  Chaldsean  Account  of  Genesis  ;  " 
but  we  may  remark  that  this  deluge  narrative,  perhaps  more  than  anything 
else,  shows  how  closely  the  narratives  in  Genesis  are  related  to  Chaldaaan 
traditions  or  sources  of  information. 

In  various  Assyrian  records  we  find  the  king  himself  offering  sacrifices, 

as  in  Egypt  and  Palestine ;    but  there  were  also  high  priests,  and  several 

orders  of  inferior  priests.      One  of  the  most  important  of  these 

PriBsts 

was  the  anointer,  who  purified  persons  and  things  with  oil  and 
water ;  others  were  the  soothsayers  and  the  elders,  or  "  great  ones."  The 
movable  symbols  or  images  of  the  gods  were  carried  about  in  procession  in 


BABYLONIAN  AND    ASSYRIAN    RELIGION 


495 


little  arks  or  1:  ships,"  at  least  in  Babylon  ;   and  this  custom  can  be  traced 
back  to  the  early  Accadian  times  of  the  city  of  Eridu.     Festivals  Festivals  and 
were  numerous  ;  in  fact,  it  seems  that  almost  every  day  could  be  8acred  days- 
celebrated  as  a  festival.     We  have  a  complete  list  of  festivals  assigned  to 
the  intercalary  month  Elul  ;   and  we  find,  for  example,  that  on  the  second 
day  "  the  king  makes  his  farewell  offering  to  the  Sun,  the  mistress  of  the 
world,  and  the  Moon,  the  supreme  god  :  sacrifices   he  offers."     The  third 
day,  a  fast  day,  is  dedicated  to  Merodach  and  Zarpaint,  the  fourth  to  Nebo, 
the  fifth  to  the  Lord  of  the  Lower  Firmament  and  the  Lady  of  the  Lower 
Firmament,  the  sixth  to  Rimmon  and  Nin-lil,  and  so  on,  the  king  offering 
sacrifices  on  every  day.      On  the  seventh  day  we  have  an  interesting  record 
of  what  was  lawful   or  unlawful   on  the  Babylonian  Sabbath,  or  day  of 
rest.      "  The  shepherd   of    mighty 
nations  must   not  eat  flesh  cooked 
at   the    fire    in    the    smoke.      His 
clothes  he  must  not  change.    White 
garments  he  must  not  put  on.    He 
must  not  offer  sacrifice.     The  king- 
must  not  drive  a  chariot.     He  must 
not  issue  royal  decrees.     In  a  secret 
place  the  augur  must  not  mutter. 
Medicine  for  the  sickness  of  his  body 
he  must  not  apply.     For  making  a 
curse  it  is  not  fit."  (S.)     These  pro- 
hibitions are  repeated  on  the  14th, 
19th,  21st,  and  28th  days.     These 
Sabbath  days  go  back  to  the  times 
of  the  Accaclians,  who  called  them 
"  unlawful  days."     It  was  also  cus- 
tomary to  observe  special   days  of 
thanksgiving  or  humiliation,  as  when  Esarhaddon  II.  prayed  to  the  sun- 
god  to  remove  the  sin  of  his  people,  and  when  Assurbani-pal  purified  the 
shrines  and  cleansed  the  temples  and  restored  the  daily  sacrifices. 

In  early  Accadian  times  human  sacrifice  was  practised ;  and  a  text  is 
extant  which  declares  "  that  the  father  must  give  the  life  of  his  child  for 

the  sin  of  his  own  soul,  the  child's  head  for  his  head,  the  child's   _     ,_  M 

'  .       Sacrifices. 

neck  for  his  neck,  the  child's  breast  for  his  breast"  ;  and  later,  m 
"the  observations  of  Bel,"  an  astronomical  record,  it  is  stated  that,  "  on  the 
high  places  the  son  is  burnt."  But  there  are  no  accounts  of  human  sacri- 
fices in  the  historical  tablets.  Oxen,  sheep,  and  gazelles,  corn  and  wine, 
are  the  chief  kinds  of  offerings  we  read  of,  accompanied  by  the  offering  of 
prayers  and  repeating  of  hymns.  A  distinction  was  made  between  different 
animals,  the  flesh  of  some  being  declared  unlawful  to  eat ;  and  the  pig 
is  not  even  mentioned  in  the  inscriptions.  In  one  inscription  the  flesh  of 
men,  gazelles,  dogs,  wild  boars,  asses,  horses,  and  dragons  is  mentioned  as 
unlawful. 


TEilPLE    AT    AMRITH,    PHOENICIA. 


496  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  early  Babylonians  used  much  religious  symbolism,  both  by  mystic 
numbers  and  by  emblematic  signs.  Many  of  these  are  not  yet  understood. 
The  Assyrians  had  many  images  representing  their  gods,  and  some 
of  these  have  been  obtained  from  the  ruins.  Nebo  is  represented 
as  a  man  standing,  heavy  and  solid-looking.  These  images  were  of  metal, 
sometimes  of  silver  or  gold,  but  usually  of  stone  or  baked  clay.  The  latter  are 
often  of  small  size,  as  if  intended  for  private  use.  Feasts  were  set  out  before 
the  images,  and  it  was  currently  believed  that  the  god  really  ate  and  drank. 
The  inner  shrine  of  the  temple  of  Bel,  at  Babylon,  had  a  grand  couch  and 
a  golden  table  for  the  god.  We  hear  sometimes  of  riotous  excesses  in  con- 
nection with  the  festivals  ;  and  in  the  worship  of  the  goddess  Beltis  there 
was  a  regular  system  of  immorality  prescribed  to  women. 

There  are  traces  of  a  monotheistic  school  or  teaching  in  Chaldsea,  and 
hymns  have  been  found  addressed  to  "  the  one  god."  Another  phenomenon, 
still  more  marked,  is  the  attribution  of  universal  power  to  the 
"  particular  deity  addressed,  though  another  god  might  be  addressed 
in  similar  terms.  We  cannot  enlarge  on  the  contrasting  system  of  magic 
and  augury  which  was  elaborately  developed,  apart  from  the  State  religion, 
and  had  a  very  powerful  influence  on  the  mass  of  the  people. 

We  must  allow  that  the  Mesopotamian  peoples  show  a  marked  religious 
character.  Everything  the  kings  did  or  gained  was  attributed  to  the 
favour  of  their  gods  ;  and  their  records  begin  and  end  with  praises, 
character  of  prayers,  and  invocations  to  them.  The  kings  show  their  devotion 
people.  ^  muc|1  expenditure  on  temples,  offerings,  and  religious  sculpture  ; 
and  we  cannot  but  acknowledge  that  in  their  religious  devotion  they  are 
parallel  with  the  kings  of  Israel.  Still,  the  sensuous  had  a  large  share  in 
their  religion,  which  did  not  diminish  their  ferocity  and  treachery  towards 
their  enemies ;  and  they  are  described  in  no  moderate  terms  by  the 
Hebrew  prophets.  As  to  the  moral  condition  of  the  people  generally,  it  is 
difficult  to  say  anything  with  certainty  ;  we  have  no  reason  to  think  it 
exceptionally  high.  Harsh  and  cruel  punishments  were  undoubtedly  in- 
flicted on  offenders  and  on  enemies  ;  and  if  the  Babylonian  nobles  had 
cause  to  tremble  at  the  slightest  displeasure  or  caprice  of  their  king,  it  is 
only  likely  that  the  same  rule  applied  through  lower  grades  of  society. 
Pride  and  luxury  developed  wherever  possible,  and  yet  we  must  couple 
with  their  prominent  religiousness  a  considerable  degree  of  honesty  and 
calmness  of  demeanour. 

The  religion  of  the  Phoenicians,  the  nearest  Semitic  neighbours  of  the 
Israelites,  is  but  too  scantily  known  to  us,  and  yet  is  of  great  interest,  ow- 
Phcenician  ing  to  the  influence  it  had  on  them.  We  have  neither  sacred 
religion,  ko^g  nor  extensive  sculptural  remains  to  guide  us  ;  but  we  can 
discern  clearly  that  the  Phoenicians,  more  than  the  Chaldseans,  worshipped 
the  power  or  powers  which  moved  in  and  through  the  principal  natural 
phenomena.  Their  principal  divinity  was  undoubtedly  Baal,  "  lord,'r 
originally  a  sun-god,  worshipped  now  in  his  beneficent  aspects,  and  now  as- 
the  fierce  god  of  fire  and  summer  heat.      He  was  early  worshipped  on  the 


PHCEXICIAN   RELIGIOX. 


497 


BaaL 


tops  of  mountains,  where  his  presence  was  indicated  by  upright  conical 
stones.  There  was  a  marked  tendency  in  the  Phoenicians  to  give  separate 
names  to  separate  aspects  of  the  deity;  whether  these  worships  gradually 
became  united,  and  the  common  term  Baal  was  prefixed,  or  whether 
they  gradually  separated  from  a  common  origin,  cannot  be  deter- 
mined. Thus  we  find  such  names  as  Baal-Tsur,  "  Lord  of  Tyre,"  Baal- 
Tsidon,  "Lord  of  Zidon,"  Baal-Peor,  "Lord  of  Peor,"  Baal-Zebub,  "  Lord  of 
flies,"  etc.  Moloch,  or  Melek,  "  king,"  represents  Baal  in  his  fierce  aspect, 
and  was  a  god  who  required  his  worshipper  to  sacrifice  his  best  or  dearest 
possession  to  him,  often  his  only  or  his  eldest  son.      In  later  times  a  rani 

was  substituted.     The  special  god  of  Tyre,  Baal-Melkarth,  united    „  „     .. 

pi-,-,../.  •  Melkarth. 

the  two  aspects  of  the  god  ;  and  it  is  this  god  who  appears  m  the 

Greek  "  Melicertes,"  or  the  Tyrian  Hercules.      The  temple  of  Melkarth  was 

said  to  be  the  oldest  Ijuilding  in   Tyre,  but  it 

was  destitute  of  images,  the  altar-fire  burning 

continually   being   his    symbol.      No    women, 

dogs,  or   swine   were  permitted    to   enter    his 

temples,  which  were  erected   in  many  towns 

of  Phoenicia,  as  well  as  in  Carthage,  Cadiz,  and 

Malta. 

Perhaps  an  earlier  name  under  which  the 
sun  was  worshipped  was  El,  "  the  exalted  one," 
also  known  as  El  Shaddai,  the  thunderer,  and 
Adonai,  "  Master,"  but  much  about  their  wor- 
ship is  obscure.  There  are  numerous  refer- 
ences to  these  divinities  in  the  Old  Testament; 
which  can  be  understood  now  that  Semitic  re- 
ligions are  better  known  ;  thus,  Melchizedek 
was  priest  of  El  Eliun,  "  the  most  high  God." 

Ash  tore  th,  or    Ashtaroth,  the    chief    god- 
dess of  the  Phoenicians  (Astarte  of 
the    Greeks),    represented   both  the 
productive  female  power  and    the  moon  ;  her 
name   is   really   derived    from    the   Accadian 
Semitic    Babylonian  myth   which 
Istar  into  Hades  in   search    of 


Ashtoreth. 


TI1E    THCEXICIAN    ASTARTE. 


Adonis. 


Istar,  the  subject  of  the 
recounts  the  descent  of  the  goddess 
the  healing  waters  which  should  restore 
to  life  her  bridegroom  Tammuz,  the  young  and  beautiful  Sun-god,  slain 
by  the  cruel  hand  of  night  and  winter."  (S.)  At  Gebal,  or  Byblos, 
eight  miles  north  of  Bey  rout,  the  death  of  Adonis,  or  Tammuz, 
was  yearly  commemorated,  when  the  river  Adonis  (Nahr  Ibrahim) 
became  red  with  mountain  mud  in  the  flood  season,  by  a  funeral  festival  of 
seven  days.  "  Gardens  of  Adonis,  as  they  were  called,  were  planted, — pots 
filled  with  earth  and  cut  herbs,  which  soon  withered  away  in  the  fierce  heat 
of  the  summer  sun, — fitting  emblems  of  the  lost  Adonis  himself.  Mean- 
while, the  streets  and  gates  of  the  temples  were  filled  with  throngs  of 
wailing  women.    They  tore  their  hair,  they  disfigured  the  face,  they  cut  the 

K    K 


498  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


breast  with  sharp  knives,  in  token  of  the  agony  of  their  grief.  Their  cry 
of  lamentation  went  up  to  heaven  mingled  with  that  of  the  G-alli,  the 
emasculated  priests  of  Ashtoreth,  who  shared  with  them  their  festival  of 
woe  over  her  murdered  bridegroom."  (Sayce  :  "  Hibbert  Lectures,"  p.  229.) 
Ezekiel  (viii.  14)  was  indignant  at  finding  women  weeping  for  Tammuz 
(Adonis)  at  the  very  gate  of  the  Lord's  house  in  Jerusalem.  In  Phoenician 
worship,  Istar,  or  Ashtoreth,  came  into  such  general  favour  as  to  serve  as 
the  generic  name  for  a  goddess ;  and  by  the  side  of  the  Baalim  were  the 
Ashtoreth  their  consorts.  The  reproductive  aspect  of  Ashtoreth  led  to 
the  connection  with  her  worship  of  much  licentiousness.  Under  the  title 
"  Queen  of  Heaven,"  and  under  her  own  name,  she  appears  as  an  abomina- 
tion to  the  Hebrew  historians  and  prophets,  having  often  led  the  people 
astray  into  idolatry  (Jer.  vii.  18 ;  xliv.  25).  In  Gen.  xiv.  5,  she  is  called 
Ashtoreth  Ivarnaim,  Astarte  of  the  two  horns,  in  allusion  to  one  of  her 
symbols,  the  head  of  a  heifer,  with  crescent  horns. 

But  the   Phoenician   worship   extended   widely   through   the   field   of 

nature.     There  were  gods  or  Baalim  of  the  rivers,  of  the  mountains,  etc.; 

but  on  the  whole  there  was  a  tendency  to  regard  all '  deities  as 

Nature  gods.  •  jen^ca]  a^  bottom,  so  that  Baal  worship  may  be  regarded  as 

the   predominant    Phoenician   religion.       The   Kabiri    were    eight   special 

divinities,  the  patrons   of  manual  arts  and  civilisation,  the  in- 

The  Kabu-L  ven^ors   0f  snipS  and   medicine.     Trees   are  accounted  specially 

sacred,  and  certain  wonderful  stones,  especially  aerolites,  were  reverenced 

and  consecrated  as  signs  of  the  presence  of  the  deity. 

Whatever  tendency  there  was  in  Phoenicia  to  worship  the  unity  of  the 

godhead  was  neutralised  as  a  moral  force  by  the  sensuality  of  the  worship 

H  d  offered.     Human  sacrifices  were  offered  on  exceptional  occasions  ; 

other      anc|  children,  especially  firstborn  sons,  were  the  principal  victims. 

Usually,  however,  oxen  and  male  animals,  or  birds,  were  sacrificed. 

The  purity  of  women  was  also  violated   in   the   groves  of  the  queen  of 

heaven,   as   part  of  the  worship   at   certain  feasts.      Although   idols  were 

few  and  simple  and  scarcely  ever  in  human  form,  the  worship  of  dwarf 

or  distorted  images,  two-headed,  or  winged,    or  horned,   had  no  superior 

efficacy  in  making  the  worship  of  a  higher  character ;  and  thus  there  was 

full  reason  for  the  strength  of  the  opposition  of  Elijah  and  other  Israelitish 

leaders  to  the  whole  system  of  Phoenician  religion. 

There  probably  was  more  religious  affinity  between  the  Ammonites  and 
Moabites  and  the  Israelites,  for  each  professed  the  exclusive  worship  of  one 
god  ;  Moloch  being  the  god  of  the  former,  and  Chemosh  of  the 
Moabites.  But  the  service  of  Moloch  was  sharply  differentiated 
from  that  of  Jehovah,  especially  by  the  practice  of  sacrificing  children  by  fire 
to  Moloch.  In  2  Kings  iii.  27,  we  read  how  the  king  of  Moab  sacrificed  his 
eldest  son  as  a  burnt-offering  upon  the  wall  of  his  city,  as  a  last  resort  when 
threatened  with  destruction  by  the  Israelites  ;  and  that  afterwards  the 
invaders  raised  the  siege  and  returned  home.  Such  examples  had  an  in- 
fluence over  more  than  one  king  of  Judah,  who  acted  similarly  (2  Kings 


BABYLONIAN,  ASSYRIAN,  AND  PHQ2NICIAN   RELIGIONS.     499 


xvi.  3,  xxi.  6),  and  the  people  followed  in  their  wake  ;  and  "  high  places  " 
were  bnilt,  where  they  slew  and  then  burnt  their  sons  and  daughters.  So 
general  and  open  became  the  practice  that  the  Israelites  went  direct  from 
slaying  their  children,  on  the  same  day  into  the  temple  to  worship.  In 
fact,  in  recognising  Baal  or  Moloch  as  the  equivalent  of  their  own  Jehovah, 
the  Israelites  gave  way  to  all  the  cruel  and  evil  practices  associated  with 
the  alien  gods.     There  is  no  clear  distinction  to  be  made  between    _ 

°  Chemosli. 

Chemosh  and  Moloch ;  and  on  the  celebrated  Moabite  stone,  the 

Moabite  king,  Mesha,  attributes  the  victories  of  the  Israelites  over  him  to 

the  wrath  of  Chemosh,  and  his  deliverance  to  his  aid. 

The  worship  of  the  Philistines  appears  to  have  been  of  a  general 
Semitic  type,  with  local  deities  and  special  types,  as  the  Baal-  The  phiustine 
zebub  (or  god  of  flies),  of  Ekron  and  Dagon  the  fish-god,  whose  s°ds- 
image  was  partly  human,  partly  fish-like.  The  Philistines  carried  the 
image  of  their  god  into  battle,  and  used  oracles  and  divination ; 
and  their  ceremonies  appear  to  have  been  much  like  those  of  the 
Phoenicians,  though  we  know  very  little  about  the  details.  It  is  conjectured 
that  Dagon  is  derived  from  the  Assyrian  Dorgan  or  Daken,  figured  as  half- 
man,  half-fish. 

Of  the  Hittite  religion  too  little  is  known  to  make  it  desirable  to  discuss 
it  here. 


Dagon. 


AliABS    PRAYiXG. 


CHAPTER  III. 
lifr  of  iHafjomrt.    part  $. 

The  latest  great  religion— Early  Arab  religious  ideas — Tribal  deities— Importance  of  kinship— Pil- 
grimages—The  Jinn,  or  genies— Abodes  of  the  gods— Sacred  trees,  wells,  pillars,  etc. — Sacrifices 
—Hair  offerings— Idols— Notion  of  a  supreme  God -Prevalent  profane  spirit  in  Arabia— Jewish 
and  Christian  influence— Mahomet's  family — His  birth —Early  life —His  marriage  to  Khadijah— 
State  of  morals  in  Arabia  Rebuilding  of  the  Kaaba— Mahomet's  solitude  and  reveries— His 
high  ideal— Dawn  of  prophetic  mission— The  vision  of  Gabriel— Command  to  preach— Apparent 
break  in  revelation  —  Nervous  disorder  and  agitation — His  early  adherents  —  Opposition  at 
Mecca— Attempts  to  silence  him— Flight  of  adherents  to  Abyssinia  A  proposed  compromise- 
Withdrawal  by  Mahomet— Return  of  fugitives,  and  second  flight  Hamza  and  Omar  converted  — 
Hostility  of  the  Koreish — Mahomet's  alliance  with  Jews— Boycotting -Seclusion— Mahomet 
preaches  to  strangers — Death  of  Khadijah — Mahomet's  despondency— Re-marriage— The  pil- 
grims from  Medina— First  pledge  of  Acaba — Adherents  won  at  Medina — The  visions  of  Jeru- 
salem and  of  heaven — The  Emperor  Heraclius — Famine  at  Mecca— Mahomet's  high  claims  — 
Commencement  of  the  flight  to  Medina — Mahomet  leaves  Mecca— Takes  refuge  in  a  cave— 
Arrives  at  Medina,  A.D.  622. 


AFTER  the  successful  foundation  and  wide  propagation  of  Christianity, 
few  could  have  predicted  the  rise  and  establishment  of  a  new  re- 
ligion ;    and,  inasmuch   as    practically  no   other   great   religion   has   been 
founded    since    Christianity,  it   may   be   granted   that   Moham- 
great       medanism  rested  upon  or  gratified  some  important  and  deeply 
religion.     seaterj  fact0rs  in  humanity.     What  these  were,  and  how  far  they 
were  due  to  the  founder  himself,  it  must  be  our  aim  to  discover.     It  is 
desirable  to  have  in  mind,  when  considering  Mohammedanism,  the  history 


LIFE    OF  MAHOMET.  501 


of  Judaism  and  the  early  history  of  Christianity  ;  but  these  will  be  dealt 
with  later  in  this  volume,  in  continuity  with  the  later  history  of  the  Chris- 
tian Churches. 

Situated  between  the  great  populations  of  Asia  and  Africa,  the  Arabs, 
as  might  be  expected,  had  numerous  religious  elements  in  common  with  the 
adjacent    peoples.      Fetishism,    animal- worship,   nature- worship,  EarlyAraD 
especially  of  the  sun  and  heavenly  bodies,  as  well  as  ancestor-    religious 
worship,  undoubtedly  existed  among  the  Arabs  before  Mahomet's 
time.     And  the  founder  of  Mohammedanism  had  to  build  upon  the  state  of 
things  he  found  deeply  ingrained  in  his  people.    How  powerful  his  influence 
and  that  of  his  successors  was,  may  be  gathered  from  the  facts,  that  they 
elevated  an  obscure  dialect  into  a  language  as  widespread  as  Latin  in  the 
days  of  the  Roman  empire ;  and  that  to  this  day  new  conquests  are  being 
made  by  Islam  and  the  Arabs. 

The  study  of  the  early  religion  of  the  Arabs  is  of  intense  interest,  from 
its  necessary  relation  to  that  of  the  early  Hebrews.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  it  is  still  obscure,  although  much  important  work  has  been  Tribal 
done,  especially  by  Wellhausen  and  Robertson  Smith.  No  doubt  deities- 
the  type  and  forms  of  early  Arab  religion  were  influenced  by  their  separa- 
tion into  small  tribes ;  and  this  caused  or  allowed  a  certain  variety,  as  well 
as  a  certain  smallness  of  conception  to  prevail.  Each  tribe,  or  group  of 
tribes,  had  its  particular  god  or  gods,  with  which  it  was  in  peculiar  relation, 
which  fought  for  it  and  against  the  gods  of  hostile  peoples,  which  were 
believed  to  be  equally  real.  Then,  when  two  or  more  tribes  became  amal- 
gamated, a  commencement  was  made  of  a  polytheistic  system,  by  which 
several  gods  were  worshipped  side  by  side.  Very  generally,  if  not  always, 
the  tribal  god  was  an  ancestor-god,  either  an  actual  or  a  fabled  deified  an- 
cestor. Something  of  the  same  idea  is  seen  in  the  Genesis  narrative  that 
the  sons  of  God  took  wives  of  the  daughters  of  men.  Many  Arab  tribes 
bore  the  names  of  their  gods,  or  of  celestial  bodies  worshipped  as  gods  ;  but 
in  later  times,  before  Mahomet,  these  relationships  were  forgotten,  and  "  the 
later  Arabs  worshipped  gods  that  were  not  the  gods  of  their  fathers,  and 
tribes  of  alien  blood  were  often  found  gathered  together  on  festival  occa- 
sions at  the  great  pilgrim  shrines."  (Robertson  Smith.)  But  the  idea  of 
kinship  in  blood  to  the  god  was  a  predominant  factor  in  early  importance 
Arabia;  and  this  made  the  blood  of  a  kinsman  holy  and  inviolable,  of  ^^p- 
and  sanctioned  the  extremes  of  blood  revenge.  Inasmuch  as  the  connection 
by  kinship  suggests  motherhood  as  well  as  fatherhood,  it  is  not  surprising 
to  learn  that  numerous  early  Arab  deities  were  goddesses ;  and  it  is  believed 
that  in  later  times  the  goddesses  became  changed  to  gods,  in  accordance 
with  a  change  in  the  predominant  idea  of  kinship.  One  of  the  goddesses 
was  Al-Lat,  worshipped  by  the  Nabatseans  as  mother  of  the  gods  ;  another 
was  Al-Uzza,  who  has  been  named  Venus  by  Latin  writers.  As  is  so  often 
the  case  in  goddess-worship,  sensualism  largely  existed. 

The  nomad  life  of  the  Arabs  was  not  favourable  to  the  growth  and 
permanence  of  ideas  of  the  godhead  suited  to  agricultural  peoples.     AVe  do 


502  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

not    find    that   they  gave    fixed   annual    offerings  to  the  gods,  or  offered 
stated  sacrifices  at   set   seasons.      They,  however,  early  became 

Pil°'TilIlEl£T6S  **'  '  1  mi 

accustomed  to  the  idea  of  pilgrimages  to  towns  (when  such  arose), 
which  were  the  seat  of  some  specially  sacred  object  or  worship  ;  and  thus  it 
was  that  gradually  the  religion  of  the  townspeople  gained  great  importance, 
and  threw  that  of  the  nomads  into  the  shade.  There  were  temples  of  some 
kind  in  these  towns ;  and  even  when  they  did  not  exist,  sanctuaries  were 
formed  in  caves,  and  priests  guarded  the  abode  of  the  gods.  Gifts  to  the  gods 
were  offered  by  being  brought  to  the  sacred  place,  hung  on  a  sacred  tree,  or  if 
the  offering  were  one  of  blood  or  other  liquid,  by  being  poured  over  a  sacred 
stone. 

We  may  refer  here  briefly  to  the  primitive  Arab  belief  (associated  with 
animism)  that  nature  is  full  of  superhuman  beings,  the  Jinn  (Djinn),  or 
The  Jinn,  or  demons,  corporeal  beings  with  hairy  skins,  and  capable  of  assum- 
gemes.  jng  varie(j  shapes :  and  Mohammedanism  has  degraded  all  the 
heathen  gods  into  jinn.  They  were  feared  and  avoided,  living  as  they  did 
in  uninhabited  wastes,  occupying  the  mysterious  mountains  that  were  be- 
lieved to  encompass  the  earth,  and  also  invading  baths,  ovens,  wells,  the 
junctions  of  roads,  etc.  Many  injuries  were  supposed  to  have  been  inflicted 
by  them  on  human  beings.  There  were  many  orders  of  them,  and  the 
belief  in  them  was  so  profound  that  it  has  been  perpetuated  among  modern 
Arabs. 

The  early  Arabs  recognised  abodes  or  haunts  of  the  gods,  which  they 

clearly  marked  out,  such  as  a  tract  of  pastureland  marked  off  by  pillars  or 

Abodes  of   cairns,  or  a  whole  valley  or  town,  within  which  bloodshed  was 

the  gods,    forbidden  and  no  tree  was  to  be  cut  down,  and  numerous  other 

things  were  forbidden.     Within  these  was  to  be  found  some  special  place  or 

altar  at  which  the  blood  of  sacrifices  was  smeared  on  sacred  stones,  or  some 

tree  upon  which  gifts  were  hung.     Fountains  or  wells,  trees,  pillars,  and 

Sacred      heaps  of  stones  were  very  general  symbols  or  centres  of  worship. 

S  01weiis,eeS'  Sometimes  all  were  combined  in  one  sacred  place.     At  Mecca  the 

pillars,  etc  holy  well  Zamzam  was  holy  long  before  Mahometrs  time.     At 

Nejran  a  sacred  date-palm  was  worshipped ;  and  at  its  annual  feast  it  was 

hung  with  fine  garments  and  female  adornments.     The  people  of  Mecca 

used  to  hang  weapons,  garments,  ostrich  eggs,  etc.,  upon  a  similar  tree. 

Even  the  modern  Arabs  revere  sacred  trees  as  places  where  the  jinn  or  genii 

descend,  and  may  be  heard  dancing  and  singing.     They  regard  it  as  a 

deadly  danger  to  pluck  a  bough  from  these  trees ;  they  make  sacrifices  to 

them,  hanging  parts  of  the  flesh  of  the  victims  upon  them,  as  well  as  calico, 

beads,  etc.     Sick  men,  when  brought  to  sleep  under  them,  have  dreams 

which  restore  them  to  health. 

Except  in  the  case  of  human  victims,  sacrifice  by  fire  was  little  prac- 
tised, the  pouring  of  the  blood  over  a  rude  altar  of  stones  being  regarded 

as  sufficient.     In  some  cases  the  flesh  of  the  slaughtered  animals 
Sacrifices.  ° 

was  left  to  be  devoured  by  wild  beasts,  but  usually  it  was  eaten 

by  the  worshippers.     There  was  a  customary  offering  of  firstlings  as  well 


LIFE    OF  MAHOMET.  5°3 


as  firstfruits  among  many  Arab  tribes.  Sometimes  gifts  of  food,  meal,  etc., 
were  cast  at  the  foot  of  the  idol,  mingled  with  the  giver's  hair,  and  milk 
was  poured  over  the  sacred  stones.  Libations  were  very  prominent  among 
the  Arabs.  It  appears  to  have  been  a  very  early  Arab  usage  to  sacrifice  the 
hair  of  youths  as  a  sign  of  admission  into  the  adult  religious  Hair 
status ;  and'  a  hair-offering  formed  part  of  every  Arab  pilgrimage.  °-Terinss- 
The  people  of  Ta'if  shaved  their  heads  at  their  holy  place  every  time  they 
returned  from  a  journey.  In  Mahomet's  time  the  ordinary  worship  of 
household  gods  among  the  Arabs  consisted  in  stroking  them  with  the  hand 
in  eoinsr  in  or  out  of  the  house  or  tent. 

Ten  idols  of  the  ancient  Arabs  are  mentioned  in  the  Koran,  viz.,  Al- 
Jibl  and  Al-Taghut,  Al-Lat,  Al-Uzza,  Manat,  Wadd,  Suwa,  Yaghus,  Yaug, 
and  Nasr.  The  first  two  were  idols  of  the  Koreish,  Al-Lat  was 
the  idol  at  Ta'if,  Al-Uzza  was  identified  with  Venus,  but  was 
worshipped  under  the  form  of  an  acacia-tree  ;  Manat  was  a  large  sacrificial 
stone.  The  five  succeeding  names  represent  deified  ancestors  ;  but  several 
were  worshipped  under  animal  forms,  as  the  Lion-god  (Yaghus),  the  Vul- 
ture-god (Nasr),  the  Horse-god  (Yaug).  Habhah  was  a  large  sacred  stone 
on  which  camels  were  sacrificed ;  and  the  remarkable  Black  Stone  of  Mecca 
was  another  object  of  intense  reverence.  In  the  Kaaba  at  Mecca  there 
Avere  images  representing  Abraham  and  Ishmael,  each  carrying  divining 
arrows  in  his  hand. 

But  in  the  midst  of  the  old  idolatry  there  had  arisen  some  perception 
of  a  supreme  God,  who  was  known  as  Allah,  the  other  gods  being  termed 
children    of  Allah.      The   word  Allah   may  be  connected   with  Notion  ^  a 
the    Babylonian    and   Semitic    El ;    it  is    doubtful    whether    it    supreme 

J  '  „,  God. 

should    be    regarded    as   a   contraction    of  Al-ilah,    the    Strong 
One,   or   should   be   read   Al-lah,    the  Secret  One.      "By  him,"  according 
to  Wellhausen,  "  the  holiest  oaths  were  sworn  ;  in  his  name  treaties  and 
covenants  were  sealed.     The  enemy  was  reminded  of  Allah  to  deter  him 
from  inhuman  outrage ;  enemy  of  Allah  was  the  name  of  opprobrium  for 
a  villain.     But,  since  Allah  ruled  over  all,  and  imposed  duties  on  all,  it  was 
not  thought  that  one  could  enter  into  special  relations  with  him.    In  worship 
he  had  the  last  place,  those  gods  being  preferred  who  represented  the  in- 
terests of  a  specific  circle,  and  fulfilled  the  private  desires  of  their  wor- 
shippers.    Neither  the  fear  of  Allah,  however,  nor  reverence  for  the  gods, 
had  much  influence.     The  chief  practical  consequence  of  the  great  feasts 
was  the  observance  of  a  truce  in  the  holy  months  ;  and  this  in  time  had 
become  mainly  an  affair  of  pure  practical  convenience.     In  general,  the 
disposition  of  the  heathen  Arabs,  if  it  is  at  all  truly  reflected  in   prevalent 
their  poetry,  was  profane  in  an  unusual  degree.     .     .     .     The     pJPirit 
ancient   inhabitants   of   Mecca   practised  piety   essentially  as   a   in  Arabia, 
trade,  just  as  they  do  now  ;  their  trade  depended  on  the  feast,  and  its  fair 
on  the  inviolability  of  the  Haram  and  on  the  truce  of  the  holy  months/' 
Just  at  Mahomet's  time,  some  few  individuals  in  Ta'if,  Mecca,  and  Medina, 
who  worshipped  Allah,  had  gained  the  name  of  Hanifs,  probably  meaning 


504  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


"penitents,"  rejecting  polytheism,  seeking  freedom  from  sin,  resignation  to 
God's  will,  and  feeling  a  sense  of  human  responsibility  and  judgment  to 
come.    It  is  doubtful  how  far  their  ideas  were  derived  from  Jews  and  Chris- 
Jewish  and  tians<    Jews  were  veiT  numerous  both  in  Hejaz  and  in  Yemen,  and 

influence  a  certain  amount  of  their  l°re  and  peculiar  tenets  was  no  doubt 
current  among  the  more  intelligent  Arabs.  There  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  any  considerable  development  of  Christianity  in  Arabia, 
though  the  travelled  Arabs  knew  something  of  Greek,  Syrian,  and  Abys- 
sinian Christians.  The  Sabians  and  anchorites  of  the  northern  deserts  of 
Arabia  are  more  likely  to  have  had  an  influence  on  the  Arabs  preceding 
Mahomet ;  and  in  the  Koran  Mahomet  notes  that  they  believed  in  God  and 
in  the  day  of  resurrection  and  judgment.  They  were  not  the  same  as  the 
people  who  later  took  the  name  of  Harranians,  who  were  star-worshippers 
(Sabseans)  and  polytheists  descended  from  the  early  people  of  Mesopotamia. 
The  ascetic  anchorites  of  the  desert  undoubtedly  impressed  the  Arabs  by 
their  earnestness,  their  consecration  to  a  holy  life,  and  their  steadfast  pre- 
paration for  a  life  to  come.  Thus  the  seed  was,  to  some  extent,  prepared 
for  the  prophet  of  Islam. 

Mecca  was  the  strongest  centre  of  Arab  worship,  however  superstitious 
it  might  be  ;  and  out  of  Mecca,  and  the  tribe  of  the  Koreish  who  dominated 

Mahomet's  it,  came  the  family  of  Mahomet.    His  grandfather,  Abd-al-Muttalib, 

femiiy.     was  cj^ef  0f  a  famyy  0f  tne  Koreish  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth 

century,  a.d.     His  youngest  son,  Abdallah,  married  Amina,  the  daughter  of 

Wahb,  but  did  not  live  to  see  his  son  Mahomet,  who  also  lost  his  mother 

His  birth   wnen  ne  was  st^u  a  child.     Mahomet  was  born  in  a.d.  570  ;  his 

name  is   more   precisely  Muhammad,  "  the   Praised "  ;    but   the 

rendering  "Mahomet  "  has  so  long  enjoyed  vogue'in  this  country  that  it  is 

retained  in  this  book.    He  was  put  out  to  nurse  in  the  desert  with  a  Bedouin 

woman.     At  five  years  of  age  he  visited  Medina  with  his  mother,  who  died 

Early  life  0n  ^ie  retllm  journey.  After  his  grandfather's  death  he  was 
cared  for  by  his  uncle,  Abu-Talib,  and  with  him  he  went  on  a 
journey  with  a  caravan  to  Syria  about  582  a.d.  A  few  years  later  he  was 
perforce  engaged  in  the  so-called  sacrilegious  war  between  the  Koreish  and 
the  Hawazin,  which  occurred  within  the  sacred  months  and  was  carried 
into  the  sacred  territory.  In  this  war,  says  Mahomet,  "  I  discharged  arrows 
at  the  enemy,  and  I  do  not  regret  it."  The  chief  remaining  incident  of 
interest  in  his  early  life  is  his  taking  part  in  a  league  of  several  families  of 
the  Koreish,  who  swore  by  the  avenging  Deity  to  take  the  part  of  the 
oppressed  and  see  his  claim  fulfilled,  so  long  as  a  drop  of  water  remained  in 
the  ocean,  or  that  they  would  satisfy  it  from  their  own  resources.  At  one 
time  he  was  occupied  as  a  shepherd.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  was 
recommended  by  his  uncle  to  take  charge  of  a  trading  caravan  belonging  to 
a  wealthy  Koreishite  widow  named  Khadijah.  In  charge  of  this  he  travelled 
His  marriage  to  Bostra,  sixty  miles  east  of  Jordan  on  the  road  to  Damascus, 
adijan.  Being  successful,  and  attracting  the  regard  of  Khadijah,  she 
conveyed  to  him  her  desire  to  marry  him  ;  and  this  marriage,  though  the 


LIFE    OF  MAHOMET.  505 


wife  was  fifteen  years  the  husband's  senior,  was  a  very  happy  one.  Khadi- 
jah  bore  him  two  sons,  who  died  young,  and  four  daughters,  of  whom  the 
most  famous  was  Fatima. 

Mahomet's  life,  previous  to  his  announcement  of  his  mission,  was  passed 
among  a  people  with  whom  revenge  was  a  religious  duty,  and  blood  feuds 
were  common,  whole  tribes  being  involved  in  them.    Drunkenness     state  of 
and  gambling  prevailed  largely.      Female  children  were  often    morals  in 
buried  alive  as  soon  as   born.     "Women  were   in   general   mere 
chattels  ;  polygamy  and  divorce  were  frequent.    Idolatry,  divination,  bloody 
sacrifices  (not  unfrequently  of  sons  by  fathers),  sensualism,  were  prevalent. 
We  have  no  record  as  to   how  far  Mahomet   himself  conformed   to   the 
customary  worship  and  beliefs  ;  but  it  ma}'  well  be  conceived,  judging  from 
his  later  life,  that  his  inward  self  gradually  revolted  from  them,  and  that  he 
pondered  over  the  different  ideas  he  had  received  from  surrounding  religious 
sj^stems — chiefly  by  word  of  mouth  and  by  sight,  for  there  is  no  probability 
that  Mahomet  could  read  or  write. 

When  Mahomet  was  about  35  years  old,  the  Kaaba,  or  shrine  of 
the  sacred  stone  at  Mecca,  was  rendered  insecure  by  a  flood,  and  it  was  de- 
cided to  rebuild  the  walls  and  cover  them  with  a  roof.  During  Rebuilding  of 
a  dispute  as  to  who  should  place  the  black  stone  in  its  position  in  thB  Kaaba. 
the  wall,  Mahomet  was  chosen  to  decide  the  question,  and  he  took  off  his 
mantle  and  placed  the  stone  on  it  and  said,  "  Now  let  one  from  each  of  your 
four  divisions  come  forward  and  raise  a  corner  of  this  mantle."  This  was 
done,  and  Mahomet  with  his  own  hand  guided  it  to  its  place ;  and  this  de- 
cision increased  his  influence  among  his  fellow  tribesmen.  Other  incidents 
are  recorded,  showing  his  capacity  for  forming  warm  friendships,  for  show- 
ing gratitude  and  kindness,  and  for  exercising  paternal  judgment. 

About  his  fortieth  year  Mahomet  became  more  and  more  contemplative, 
and  frequently  retired  into  solitary  valleys  and  among  rocks  near  Mecca. 
His  favourite  resort  was  a  cave  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hira,  north  Mahomet>s 
of  Mecca  ;  and  here,  in  dark  and  wild  surroundings,  his  mind  solitude  and 

r6V6I*iGS 

was  wrought  up  to  rhapsodic  enthusiasm  ;  and  it  may  well  be 

that  some  few  of  the  earliest  chapters  in  the  Koran  date  from  this  time, 

such  as : — 

"  By  the  declining-  daj*  I  swear! 
Verily  man  is  in  the  way  of  ruin  ; 
Excepting  such  as  possess  faith, 
And  do  the  things  which  he  right, 
And  stir  up  one  another  to  truth  and  steadfastness." 

In  others  of  the  early  chapters  we  find  Mahomet  possessed  by  an  ideal  of 
truth  and  righteousness,  and  a  stern  reprobation  of  evil,  injustice,    His  high 
and  lying,  and  their  certain  punishment ;  together  with  visions       ideaL 
of  his  own  people  as  designated  by  Providence  to  overthrow  evil  and  to  pre- 
serve true  worship  at  Mecca.     He  points  out  as  the  lofty  path  : 

"  Freeing  the  captive, 
And  giving  food  in  the  dav  of  want 


5o6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

To  the  orphan  that  is  near  of  kin, 
Or  to  the  poor  that  lieth  in  the  dust." 

Further,  the  righteous  must  be  of  those  that  believe  and  stir  up  one 
another  unto  steadfastness  and  compassion  : 

"  These  are  the  heirs  of  blessedness." 

Apparently  some  of  his  thoughts  and  his  rhapsodic  utterances  were 
communicated  to  his  family  and  friends,  who  regarded  him  as  one  almost 

Dawn  of    beside  himself.     When  he  enlarged  on  the  purer  ideas  that  he 

prophetic  had  heard  were  possessed  by  the  Jews  and  Christians,  they 
said  :  "  If  a  prophet  had  been  sent  unto  us,  we  should  no  doubt 
have  followed  his  directions,  and  been  as  devout  and  spiritual  in  our  wor- 
ship as  the  Jews  and  Christians."  His  meditations  led  him  more  and  more 
to  the  belief  that  a  preacher  or  prophet  was  needed  by  his  people,  and  that 
he  might  be  the  destined  prophet.  After  long  mental  struggle,  during 
which  he  fell  into  deep  depression  and  often  meditated  suicide,  he  became 
encouraged  and  confident,  and  looked  for  a  period  when  the  sway  of  his 
preaching  should  extend  over  all  Arabia,  and  lead  to  the  destruction  of 
idols  and  the  conquest  of  other  peoples.  The  tradition  is,  that  one  night, 
The  vision  of  while  he  was  in  Mount  Hira,  during  the  month  of  Ramadan, 

Gabriel,  engaged  in  pious  exercises,  the  angel  Gabriel  came  to  him  as  he 
slept,  and  held  a  silken  scroll  before  him,  and  compelled  him  to  recite  what 
was  written  on  it ;  and  it  is  asserted  that  this  is  part  of  the  ninety-sixth 
sura,1  beginning :  "  Recite !  in  the  name  of  thy  Lord,  who  created  man  from 
congealed  blood !  Recite  !  for  thy  Lord  is  the  most  High,  who  hath  taught 
the  pen,  hath  taught  man  what  he  knew  not.  Nay,  truly  man  walketh  in 
delusion  when  he  deems  that  he  suffices  for  himself"  [otherwise  translated  : 
"Man  is  indeed  outrageous  at  seeing  himself  get  rich"] ;  "  to  thy  Lord  is  the 
return."  When  the  angel  left  him,  continues  the  tradition,  Mahomet  came 
to  his  wife  and  told  her  what  had  happened ;  and  she  comforted  him  and 
confirmed  him  in  the  belief  that  this  was  a  revelation  from  God.  But 
no  others  would  listen  to  him,  and  he  was  thrown  back  upon  his  medita- 
tions. 

One  day,  while  stretched  upon  his  carpet  and  covered  with  his 
garments,  it  is  related  that  the  angel  Gabriel  again  appeared  to  him,  and 
said  : 

"  0  thou  that  art  covered,  arise  and  preach  [or  warn],  and  magnify  thy 
command  to  Lord ;    and  purify  thy  garments,  and  depart  from  uncleanness ; 

preach.     ancj  grant  not  favour  to  gain  increase  ;  and  wait  for  thy  Lord." 
Revelations  now  began  to  follow  one  another  frequently ;  but,  after  a 
certain  time  there  was  a  break,  during  which  the  inspiration  was  suspended, 

Apparent    arLC^  Mahomet's  thoughts  turned  towards  suicide.    How  far  during 

break  in    this  time   he  was   overpowered   by  hysterical    hallucinations   it 
would  be  idle  to  attempt  to  determine ;   but  it  is  related  that 
from  youth  he  had  suffered  from  a  nervous  disorder  which  has  been  termed 
1  The  name  given  to  the  chapters  of  the  Koran,  meaning,  "  reading." 


LIFE    OF  MAHOMET.  507 

epilepsy  ;  and  that  this  tendency  was  increased  during  his  spiritual  struggles 
by  his  mental  excitement,  night-watchings,  and  fastings  is  most  Nervous 
probable.  But  this  does  not  detract  from  the  genuineness  of  his  dlsorder- 
belief  in  his  Divine  inspiration.  On  one  occasion,  when  about  to  commit 
suicide,  it  is  related  that  he  was  suddenly  arrested  by  a  voice  from  heaven, 
and  saw  the  angel  on  a  throne  between  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  who 
said  :  "  0  Mahomet,  thou  art  in  truth  the  prophet  of  Allah,  and  I  am 
Gabriel."  It  is  said  that  in  moments  of  inspiration  his  anxiety  of  coun- 
tenance was  painfully  evident ;  he  would  fall  to  the  ground  like  one 
intoxicated  or  overcome  by  sleep,  and  in  the  coldest  day  his  forehead  would 
be  bedewed  with  sweat.  These  periods  were  unexpected  even  by  Mahomet 
himself.  He  himself  said  later  :  "  Inspiration  descendeth  upon  me  in  one 
of  two  ways  :  sometimes  Gabriel  cometh  and  communicateth  the  revelation 
unto  me  as  one  man  unto  another,  and  this  is  easy  ;  at  other  times  it 
affecteth  me  like  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  penetrating  my  very  heart,  and 
rending  me  as  it  were  in  pieces,  and  this  it  is  which  grievously  afnicteth  me." 

Mahomet  now  preached  his  doctrines  privately  among  his  friends.  His 
wife's  freedman,  Zaid  ;  his  cousin  Ali ;  his  intimate  friend  Abu-bekr,  a 
ready  believer,  a  steadfast  friend,  a  rich  merchant,  generous  in  His  early 
purchasing  slaves  who  had  become  believers;  Othman,  Zobair,  adherentF- 
and  others  soon  formed  a  little  community.  He  was  in  accord  too  with  the 
Hanifs.  Gradually  his  appeal  extended  to  the  whole  of  the  Koreish  and 
their  slaves,  who,  being  foreigners,  had  often  some  knowledge  of  Judaism 
and  Christianity,  and  were  somewhat  predisposed  to  accept  a  new  doctrine 
that  elevated  them  ;  but  the  Meccans  in  general  paid  him  little  heed.  They 
were  already  familiar  with  the  essence  of  his  teaching  about  the  one  God, 
and  the  necessity  of  truth  and  righteousness.  He  was  not  preach-  opposition  at 
ing  to  them  a  really  new  and  attractive  doctrine  ;  it  was  one  which,  Mecca, 
if  followed  out,  demanded  painful  changes  in  their  life,  a  true  obedience  to 
the  all-powerful  Judge  of  man,  accompanied  by  prayer,  almsgiving,  and 
temperance  of  life.  If  the  slaves,  the  children  of  the  lower  classes,  heard 
him  gladly,  that  was  an  additional  reason  why  the  haughty  Koreish  would 
not  listen  to  him. 

Repulsed  very  considerably,  Mahomet  proceeded  to  denounce  more 
vigorously  the  false  gods  and  the  false  ideas  of  the  Koreish,  and  to  threaten 
them  with  judgments  of  God  if  they  did  not  listen  to  His  prophet.  Attempts  to  . 
They  were  constrained  at  one  time  to  beg  Abu  Talib,  Mahomet's  snence  Wm- 
uncle,  to  silence  him  or  to  withdraw  his  protection  from  him.  When  Abu 
Talib  discussed  matters  with  his  nephew,  the  latter  was  sturdy  in  upholding 
the  paramount  imperiousness  of  his  convictions.  "Though  they  gave  me  the 
sun  in  my  right  hand  and  the  moon  in  my  left,"  said  Mahomet,  "  to  bring 
me  back  from  my  undertaking,  yet  will  I  not  pause  till  the  Lord  carry  my 
cause  to  victory,  or  till  I  die  for  it."  So  saying  he  burst  into  tears,  and 
turned  to  go  away.  "Go  in  peace,"  said  his  uncle,  " and  say  what  thou 
wilt,  for,  by  God,  I  will  on  no  condition  abandon  thee." 

At  this  time  Mahomet  was  holding  his  meetings  in  the  house  of  Arkun, 


5oS  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


one   of  his    converts,    close  by   the  sanctuary   of    the  Kaaba ;    but  petty 

„,  ^  ,    insults  were  heaped  on  Mahomet,  and  grosser  indignities   and 
Flight  of  r  . 

adherents  to  cruelties  on  the  humbler  converts,  so  that  while  Abu-bekr  pur- 

yssima.    chase(j  ^e  freedom  of  some  slaves,  others  fled  to  Abyssinia,  where 

the}'-  were  kindly  received  by  the  Christians. 

After  this,  Mahomet,  depressed  by  apparent  failure,  was  in  a  mood  for 

compromise.     One  day  he  sat  down  among  the  chief  men  of  Mecca  beside 

the  Kaaba,  and  recited  to  them  the  fifty-third  sura,  including  an  account  of 

the  first  visit  of  the  angel  to  him,  and  also  of  a  later  vision,  containing 

a  proposed  "What  think  ye  of  Al-Lat  and  Al-Ozza,  and  Manat  the  third 
compromise.  wjth  them ?  "  At  this  verse,  so  the  story  runs,  the  devil  suggested 
to  Mahomet  words  of  reconciliation.  "  These  are  the  sublime  Females  " 
[otherwise  "  cranes  "],  "  whose  intercession  may  be  hoped  for  ;  "  whereupon 
the  Koreish  were  delighted  at  this  recognition  of  their  deities,  and  when  Ma- 
homet concluded,  "  "Wherefore  bow  down  before  Allah  and  serve  Him,"  they 
all  prostrated  themselves  and  worshipped  ;  and  professed  themselves  ready 
to  recognise  the  prophet,  since  he  had  granted  them  part  of  their  idolatry. 
But  Mahomet  went  home  disquieted,  and  in  the  evening  was  visited  by 
Gabriel,  who  said  to  him,  "What  hast  thou  done?  thou  hast  repeated  be- 
fore  the  people  words  that   I   never   gave   unto   thee."     Then   Mahomet 

withdrawal  grieved  sorely  and  said,  "  I  have  spoken  of  God  that  which  He 
by  Mahomet.  hath  not  said."  Then  he  was  comforted,  and  Allah  erased  part 
of  the  sura,  making  it  read,  after  "  Manat  the  third,"  "  What?  shall  there  be 
male  offspring  for  them,  and  female  for  you  ?  That  were  an  unfair  division. 
They  are  naught  but  names,  which  ye  and  your  fathers  have  invented." 
When  the  Meccans  heard  of  this,  their  hostility  broke  out  with  renewed 
violence. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  story  indicates  a  period  of  attempted 

compromise,  which  failed,  owing  to  the  unreality  of  any  change  produced 

.    in  the  Meccans.     A  profession  which  was   no    conversion  was 

RGtu.ru  of 

fugitives,  and  useless  in  establishing  a  reformation.  The  news  of  it  brought 
second  flight.  hack  the  Abyssinian  refugees  ;  but  finding  enmity  again  in 
full  activity,  they  returned  in  added  numbers,  including  Mahomet's 
daughter  Rokkaya  and  her  husband  Othman.  The  Koreish  were  very 
scornful  after  this  change  of  front,  and  said,  "  Ah,  is  this  he  whom  Allah 
sent  as  an  Apostle ;  verily,  he  had  nearly  seduced  us  from  our  gods, 
unless  we  had  patiently  persevered  therein."  "  Verily  thou  plainly  art  a 
fabricator." 

In  the  midst  of  these  discouragements,  Mahomet  made  two  notable  con- 
verts, his  uncle  Hamza,  and  Omar,  a  young  man  who  had  till  then  been 

„  M  strongly  hostile  to  the  new  faith.     Omar  was  twenty-six  years 

Hamza  and  to  J  .  . 

Omar      old,  tall  and  commanding  in  figure,  with  a  strong  and  impetuous 

converted.   temperj  and  he  had  great  personal  influence,  though  neither  rich 

nor  of  a  principal  family.     He  was  converted  owing  to  his  discovery  that 

his  sister  Fatima  and  her  husband  Said  had  believed  in  the  new  faith,  and 

he  was  welcomed  cordially  by  Mahomet.     From  this  time  people  were  not 


LIFE   OF  MAHOMET. 


5°9 


afraid  to  profess  the  new  faith  openly.  Omar  first  offered  his  prayers  publicly 
at  the  Kaaba,  and  performed  the  accustomed  walks  round  its  precincts,  and 
other  adherents  of  Mahomet  soon  followed  his  example.     The  Koreish  were 


MAHOMET,    PKOPHET    OF    ISLAM. 

alarmed,  and  became  still  move  hostile  to  the  prophet  and  all  his  Ho^mty  of 

family,  the  Hashimites.      Meanwhile  he    attacked    them    more 

fierce!^  by  his  revelations,  many  of  them  at  this  time  being  alleged  to  be 


5io  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

confirmed  by  the  Jewish  scriptures.     Not  a  few  of  the  chapters  of  the  Koran 

which  date  from  this  period  contain  narratives  distorted  evidently  from 

the  Old  Testament  narratives,  or  from  Jewish  traditions.     Again  and  again 

,,    he  refers  to  his  own  revelation  as  confirming  and  attesting:  the 
Mahomet  s  °  *? 

alliance  with  Book  of  Moses  or  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  In  fact,  he  claimed, 
that  "  the  learned  men  of  the  children  of  Israel  "  recognised  this ; 
and  there  is  very  strong  reason  to  believe  that  some  of  the  Jews  to  whom  he 
was  known  gained  the  idea  that  he  might  be  "  the  Prophet  whom  the  Lord 
would  raise  up."  There  is  no  proof  that  Mahomet  ever  studied  from  an  actual 
copy  of  the  Old  Testament.  But  his  utterances  became  more  and  more 
intermingled  with  Jewish  stories,  and  he  even  claimed  the  revelation  of 
these  as  proof  of  his  mission.  His  enemies  said  :  "  They  are  fables  of  the 
ancients  which  he  hath  had  written  down ;  they  are  dictated  to  him  morn- 
ing and  evening  ;  "  and  Mahomet's  only  answer  was,  "  He  hath  revealed  it 
who  knoweth  that  which  is  hidden  in  heaven  and  in  earth." 

The  Meccans  were  not  likely  to  relish  the  plain  denunciations  of  Maho- 
met, threatening  them  with  a  terrible  overthrow ;  but  these  threatenings 
were  so  often  repeated  that  the  people  at  last  expressed  a  wish  that  the  day 
might  arrive ;  and  they  termed  his  revelations  tedious.    Finally,  they  resolved 
Boycotting'  to  adopt  a  very  severe  form  of  boycotting  Mahomet  and  the  Ha- 
°f  dfnis  foi-  shimites.     They  would  not  intermarry  with  them;   they  would 
lowers,     neither  sell  to  nor  buy  from  them  ;  in  fact,  dealings  of  all  kinds 
should  cease.     This  ban  was  put  into  writing  and  sealed  with  three  seals  ; 
then  it  was  hung  up  in  the  Kaaba,  as  a  sign  of  its  religiously  binding 
nature.     So  severe  a  measure  naturally  frightened  those  at  whom  it  was 
aimed,    and   they   withdrew    strictly   within    the   quarter   of  Abu   Talib, 
separated  by  cliffs,  buildings,  and  a  gateway  from   the  rest  of 
Mecca  (a.d.   616-7).     Not   being   strong  enough  to   send   out  a 
caravan  of  their  own,  they  soon  began  to   suffer  from  scarcity.     No  one 
ventured  outside,  except  during  the  sacred  months.     Yet  the  Hashimites 
maintained  themselves  thus  for  two  or  three   years,  a  few  of  the  other 
Meccans  now  and  then  venturing  to  help  them.     Mahomet  devoted  himself 
to  preaching  to  those  of  his  clan  who  were  unconverted,  and  to  strengthen- 
ing the  believers.    "  Conduct  thyself  gently  unto  the  believers  that  are  with 
thee,"  says  his  revelation  about  this  time,  "  and  put  thy  trust  in  Him  that 
is  glorious  and  merciful." 

During  the  sacred  pilgrimages,  however,  he  preached  to  the  strangers 

who   flocked   to   Mecca,    warning    them    against  idolatry,  proclaiming  the 

worship  of  the  One  God,  and  promising  them  dominion  on  earth 

preaches  to  and  Paradise  hereafter,  if   they   would  only   believe.      But   he 

s  rangers.   wag   geiiera]]y   repulsed   with  the  words,  "  Thine  own  kindred 

and  people  should    know  thee  best     wherefore  do    they  not  believe  and 

follow  thee  ?  " 

At  last  the  ban  was  removed,  after  events  ot  which  there  is  more  than 
one  traditional  account.  It  had  been  discovered  that  insects  had  eaten  up 
the  parchment  record  in  the  Kaaba ;  and  five  chief  men  of  the  Koreish  went 


LIFE   OF  MAHOMET.  5 1 1 

to  the  quarter  of  Abu  Talib,  and  commanded  all  the  refugees  to  return 
to  their  respective  homes  in  safety.  Yet  this  apparent  victory  was  the 
prelude  of  worse  losses  :  Khadijah  died  (a.d.  619-620),  and  then  Death  of 
the  venerable  Abu  Talib.  Protection  of  his  party  became  more  K^adya^- 
difficult,  and  Mahomet  began  to  turn  his  thoughts  towards  other  places. 
He  went  and  preached  at  Ta'if  (sixty  miles  east  of  Mecca),  but  failed  ;  he 
was  hooted  and  stoned  out  of  the  place,  and  was  sunk  in  the  deepest  despond- 
ency. His  prayer  at  this  time  has  been  handed  down.  In  it  he  Mahomet's 
bewails  his  feebleness  and  insignificance.  "Oh,  Thou  most  despondency, 
merciful,  Thou  art  the  Lord  of  the  weak,  and  Thou  art  my  Lord.  Into 
whose  hands  wilt  Thou  abandon  me  ?  Into  the  hands  of  the  strangers  that 
beset  me  round,  or  of  the  enemy  to  whom  Thou  hast  given  the  mastery  over 
me  ?  .  .  .  I  seek  for  refuge  in  the  light  of  Thy  gracious  countenance, 
by  which  the  darkness  is  dispersed,  and  peace  ariseth  both  for  this  world 
and  the  next,  that  Thy  wrath  light  not  upon  me,  nor  Thine  indignation.  It 
is  Thine  to  show  anger  until  Thou  art  pleased  ;  and  there  is  not  any  power 
or  resource  but  in  Thee."  On  his  way  home  during  one  night,  while  in 
prayer  or  while  dreaming,  he  saw  a  company  of  the  jinn,  or  genii,  listening 
to  the  Koran,  and  eager  to  embrace  the  faith. 

Returning    to    Mecca,  Mahomet    married    again, — two    months   after 
Khadi jah's  death— Sauda,  the  widow  of  Sakran,  an  early  convert ;  and  was 
betrothed  to  Ayesha,  the  young  daughter  (only  seven  3-ears  of 
age)  of  his  bosom  friend  Abu-bekr.     Thus  he  first  gave  way  to 
that  polygamy  which  has  been  one  of  the  great  features  of  Mohammed- 
anism.    When  the  time  of  pilgrimage  came  round  again,  Ma- The  pilgrims 
hornet  preached  earnestly  to  the  pilgrims;  and  met  with  a  little  from  Medina, 
band  of  persons  from  Medina  250  miles  north  of  Mecca,  who  showed  an 
unusual  readiness  to  hear  him.     He  found  that  they  had  close  connections 
with  the  numerous  Jews  of  Medina,   and  asked  them  whether  he  could 
find  protection,  and  a  hearing  in  their  city.      They  promised  to  let  him 
know  the  next  year.     In  the  meantime  they  made  known  the  doctrines 
he  had  taught  them.     They  learnt  how  the  Jews  were  expecting  another 
prophet  to  arise,  and  they  identified  Mahomet  with  this  prophet ;  so  that 
when  the  pilgrims  from  Medina  again  met  Mahomet,  twelve  men  pledged 
themselves  to  him  in  the  following  terms  :  "  We  will  not  worship  First  piedge 
any  but  the  One  God  ;  we  will  not  steal,  neither  will  we  commit    of  Acaba- 
adultery,  nor  kill  our  children  ;  we  will  not  slander  in  any  wise ;  and  we  will 
not  disobey  him  (i.e.  the  Prophet)  in  anything  that  is  right."     This  is  called 
the  First  Pledge  of  Acaba,  from  the  locality  where  it  was  taken  ;  and  also 
the  Pledge  of  Women,  because  it  does  not  include  any  vow  to  defend  the 
Prophet,  and  thus  was  afterw-ards  the  pledge  required  of  womeu.    Mahomet's 
reply  was,  "  If  ye  fulfil  the  pledge,  Paradise  shall  be  your  reward.     He 
that  shall  fail  in  an}?-  part  thereof,  to  God  belongeth  this  concern,  either  to 
punish  or  forgive." 

The  twelve  returned  to  Medina  as  missionaries  of  the  new  faith,  and  at 
once  zealously  spread  it,  and  with  such   success  that  they  sent  to  Mahomet 


5r2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


for   a   teacher  versed   in   the   Koran,    who    could    give  fuller   instruction. 

Musab,    a   great-grandson    of    Hashim,   was    sent   and   received 

won  at     with  general  assent,  and  Mahomet  from  this  time  had  visions  of 

a  journey  to  Medina.      To  this   period  apparently  belongs   his 

vision  of  being  carried  by  Gabriel  on  a  winged   horse  past  Medina  to  the 

temple  at  Jerusalem,  where  he  was  welcomed  by  the  Prophets.     Thence  he 

appeared  to  mount  from  one  heaven  to  another,    appearing  at 

Jerusalem  last  in  the  presence  of  Allah,  from  whom  he  received  the  com- 

and  of  heaven.  manc|  ^^  jj-g  pe0p}e  were  ^0  pray  five  times  in  the  day.     "When 

he  awoke  and  told  his  vision,  some  of  his  followers  were  staggered  and 
drew  back,  others  believed  and  accepted  it.  However,  the  only  mention 
of  this  wonderful  vision  in  the  Koran  is  in  the  seventeenth  Sura;  "Celebrated 
be  the  praises  of  Him  who  took  his  servant  a  journey  by  night  from  the 
Sacred  Mosque  (the  Kaaba)  to  the  remote  Mosque  (the  Temple  at  Jerusalem), 
the  precinct  of  which  we  have  blessed,  to  show  him  of  our  signs.  Verily 
He  both  hears  and  looks." 

At  this  time  there  was  a  great  struggle  going  on  between  the  Byzan- 
tine empire  and  the  Persians,  who  for  some  years  were  encroaching  every- 
The  Emperor  where,  but  in  621  were  driven  back  by  the  emperor  Heraclius. 

Heraciius.  j^efore  nis  victories  Mahomet,  whose  sympathies  were  with  the 
Greek  empire,  prophesied  his  success.  Finding  his  efforts  at  Mecca  fruit- 
less, he  retired  from  his  endeavour — with  a  revelation  to  justify  him — "  We 
have  not  made  thee  a  keeper  over  them,  neither  art  thou  unto  them  a 
guardian."  His  resource  was  in  calmness  and  confidence  of  future  success. 
"  Verily  we  will  destroy  the  unjust ;  and  we  will  make  you  to  dwell  in  the 
land  after  them  "  (K.  xiv.  17).     A  famine  came  upon  Mecca — a  punishment 

Famine  at  from  Allah ;  relief  came, — it  was  Allah's  goodness,  to  give  the 
Mecca.  Meccans  yet  another  chance.  Meanwhile  the  Koran  said  to  the 
unbelievers,  "  Work  ye  in  your  place, — wait  ye  in  expectation  ;  we  too  in 
expectancy  will  wait."  Mahomet's  claims  rose  higher  still,  and  he  taught, 
"  Whosoever  rebels  against  God  and  His  prophet,  verily  for  him  is  the  fire 
of  hell ;  they  shall  be  therein  alway,  for  ever."     He  asseverated  about  his 

Mahomet's  mission  with  the  strongest  language,  putting  into  the  mouth  of 
high  claims.  Allah  the  most  dire  threats  against  Mahomet  if  he  had  fabricated 
anything  concerning  Him.  In  temporal  want  he  was  thus  reassured  :  "  Do 
not  strain  after  what  We  have  provided  a  few  of  them  with — the  show  of 
this  life — to  try  them  by  ;  but  the  provision  of  thy  Lord  is  better  and  more 
lasting.  Bid  thy  people  pray,  and  persevere  in  it ;  We  do  not  ask  thee  to 
provide,  We  will  provide,  and  the  issue  shall  be  to  piety." 

In  March,  622,  when  the  pilgrimage  again  brought  his  adherents  from 
Medina,  Mahomet  learnt  at  a  meeting  by  night,  that  they  had  increased  to 
second  pledge  a  large  number.     At  this  meeting  more  than  seventy  persons 

of  Acaba.  from  Medina  pledged  themselves  to  defend  Mahomet  at  the  risk 
of  their  lives,  and  took  an  oath  which  has  been  called  the  second  pledge  of 
Acaba  ;  and  he  expressed  himself  ready  to  go  with  them  to  Medina.  Mahomet 
named  twelve  of  the  chief  men,  saying,  "  Moses  chose  from  amongst  his 


L    L 


5 14  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

people  twelve  leaders.  Ye  shall  be  sureties  for  the  rest,  even  as  were  the 
apostles  of  Jesus  ;  and  I  am  the  surety  for  my  people."  The  meeting  was 
suddenly  broken  up  by  a  noise,  and  next  day  the  chiefs  of  the  Koreish  sought 
to  discover  what  had  taken  place,  under  threats  of  hostility.  When  they 
found  out  the  true  nature  of  the  meeting,  they  pursued  the  Medina  pilgrims, 
but  could  not  come  up  with  them.  This  was  followed  by  a  renewed  persecu- 
tion of  the  Mohammedans  at  Mecca;  and  a  few  days  afterwards  Mahomet  com- 
manded them  to  depart  to  Medina,  since  Allah  had  given  them  brethren  and 
commence-  a  refuge  in  that  city.  It  was  in  April,  G22,  that  the  flight  began, 
"nigM  to  e  from  which  the  Moslem  chronology  begins.  The  emigration  went 
Medina.  on  secretty  for  the  most  part,  house  after  house  at  Mecca  being 
found  abandoned.  Within  two  months  about  150  emigrants  had  reached 
Medina.  The  Koreish  looked  on  helpless  and  amazed,  having  no  precedent 
for  forcibly  detaining  them.  Finally  only  Mahomet,  Abu  Bekr,  and  their 
families,  including  Ali,  were  left  in  Mecca ;  and  the  Koreish  plotted  how 
they  might  detain,  expel,  or  kill  Mahomet.  Hearing  of  their  arrangement 
Mahomet  to  visit  his  house,  Mahomet  left  it  secretly,  took  Abu  Bekr  with 
leaves  Mecca.  ninij  anc[  both  crept  through  a  back  window  and  escaped  un- 
noticed from  the  southern  suburb  of  the  city,  and  took  refuge  in  a  cave  of 
Mount  Thaur,  where  they  hid  for  two  or  three  days.  The  Prophet  in  the 
Koran  (ix.  42)  thus  describes  the  situation :  "  And  God  did  help  him,  when 
those  who  disbelieved  drove  him  forth  the  second  of  two  [i.e.  with  only  one 
companion].'"  When  they  two  were  in  the  cave  alone,  he  said  to  his  corn- 
Takes  refuge  panion  :  "  Be  not  cast  down,  for  verily  God  is  with  us.  And  God 
in  a  cave.  seil^  (jown  jj{s  Shechinah  upon  him,  and  aided  him  with  hosts 
ye  could  not  see,  and  made  the  word  of  the  unbelievers  to  be  abased,  and 
the  word  of  God  to  be  exalted,  for  God  is  mighty  and  wise."  Meanwhile, 
seeing  the  daylight  through  a  crevice  in  the  cave,  Abu  Bekr  said,  "  What 
if  one  of  them  were  to  look  beneath  him ;  he  might  see  us  under  his  very 
feet."  "  Think  not  this,  Abu  Bekr,"  said  the  Prophet,  in  perhaps  his  sub- 
limest  utterance,  "  We  are  two,  but  God  is  in  the  midst,  a  third."  They 
Arrives  at  were  fed  by  friends  secretly  and  not  discovered  ;  at  last,  they  set 
Medma,  622.  on^  towards  Medina,  where  they  arrived,  it  is  believed,  on  the 
28th  of  June,  622.  Thus^the  Hegira  (or  flight)  was  completed.  Mahomet's 
and  Abu  Bekr's  families  remained  behind  at  Mecca  for  a  time. 

[Wellhausen,  "Life  of  Mohammed,"  Encyclopedia  Britannica;  Robertson  Smith,  "Religion  of 
the  Semites  ;  "  Muir,  "  Life  of  Mahomet"  ;  Bos  worth  Smith,  "  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism"; 
Hughes,  "Dictionary  of  Islam."] 


CHAPTER    IV. 

3Life  of  iHafcomet*    part  H. 

Mahomet  at  Medina— He  enters  the  city  on  a  camel  —Brotherhood  of  refugees  and  citizens— The  first 
mosque— Its  fame— Mahomet  and  the  Jews  — Jewish  "  witnesses" — Changed  direction  of  prayer 
— The  Ramadan  fast— Day  of  sacrifice  The  call  to  prayer— Mahomet's  pulpit-Mode  of  con- 
ducting service  War  and  politics— Incentives  to  war  -Promised  rewards  -Battle  of  Badr— War 
against  kin— Compulsion  and  cruelty  towards  Jews  Mahomet's  new  wives— Battle  of  Ohod — 
War  of  the  ditch— Pledge  of  the  Tree— Treaty  with  the  Koreish — The  Jews  of  Khaibar— 
Mahomet's  messages  to  great  powers  —Mahomet  visits  Mecca,  629— Mahomet  marches  on  Mecca, 
630— Destroys  the  idols  AD.  Mecca  submits  to  him  Battle  of  Honein-The  Coptic  maid  and 
Mahomet  — His  growing  dominion  —  Taif  submits  Ban  proclaimed  against  unbelievers  — 
Mahomet's  last  pilgrimage,  632-  His  illness  and  death— Funeral— Personal  appearance — 
Character-  Moral  influence. 

THE  beautiful  oasis  of  Medina,  crowded  with  date-palms  and  other  fruit- 
trees,  and  inhabited  by  two  tribes  of  Arabs, — of  whom  the  more  power- 
ful, the  Khazraj,  included  Mahomet's  adherents, — as  wrell  as  by  many  Jews. 
was  far  more  inviting  and  favourable  to  the  Prophet  than  Mecca.  Mahomet  at 
He  was  received  with  a  joyful  welcome  by  his  converts,  whom  he  Medina, 
bade  to  show  their  joy  by  good-will  to  their  neighbours,  by  sending  portions 
to  the  poor,  by  increased  famil}-  unity,  and  b}r  prayer  at  night.  "  Thus," 
he  said,  ;'  shall  ye  enter  Paradise  in  peace." 

After  a  short  stay  in  Coba,  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Medina,   Mahomet 
entered  the  city  on  a  Friday,   seated  on  a  camel,  with  Abu  Bekr  behind 
him.     He  halted  at  a  place  of  prayer  on  the  way,  and  performed 
his  first  Friday  service,  giving  a  sermon  on  the  new  faith.     From    city  on  a 
that  day  to  this,  Friday  has  been  the  Mahometan  Sunday.     The 
after-journey  was  a  grand  triumphal  procession ;  and  so  numerous  and  pressing- 
became  the  invitations  to  the  Prophet  to  take  up  his  abode  with  particular 
persons,  that  he  announced  that  the  camel  must  decide.     She  entered  the 
eastern  quarter,  and  sat  down  in  a  large  open  courtyard,  near  Abu  Ayoub's 
house ;  in  his  house,  therefore,  Mahomet  lived,  until  a  house  of  prayer,  with 
houses  for  his  wives,  had  been  built  in  the  courtyard,    which   Mahomet 
bought.     Meanwhile,  the  change  from  the  dry  climate  of  Mecca  to  the  damp 
and  cold  of  Medina  were  very  trying  to  his  followers,  most  of  whom  suffered 
from  fever.     Mahomet  hit  upon  an  excellent  plan  for  raising  their  spirits 
and  attaching  them  to  their  new  home.      He  enjoined  them   to   form  a 
peculiar  brotherhood,  each  stranger  taking  a  man  of  Medina  as 
his  brother,  and  the  pair  undertaking  a  degree  of  mutual  devotion  of  refugees 

iiici  citizens 

even  beyond  the  claims  of  blood.     After  a  time  this  proved  un- 
necessary or  inconvenient,  and  in  about  a  year  and  a  half  it  was  abolished. 
The  new  mosque  was  on  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  great  mosque  of 

515 


516  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Medina ;  and  though  less  capacious  than  the  latter,  it  was  very  large,  being 
The  first  about  one  hundred  cubits  (say  150  feet)  square  ;  and  the  roof  was 
mosque.  0f  palm_tree  trunks,  covered  in  with  palm-wood  rafters.  The 
worshippers  directed  their  faces  towards  the  north,  while  Mahomet,  when 
in  prayer,  stood  near  the  north  wall  and  looked  towards  the  north-west,  to 
Jerusalem,  with  the  people  at  his  back  ;  when  preaching  he  faced  them. 
On  the  eastern  side  rooms  were  built  for  the  Prophet's  wives  and  daughters, 
his  marriage  with  his  child-wife  Ayesha  being  now  completed.  To  the 
north  was  a  shelter  for  poor  adherents  who  had  no  homes,  and  who  slept  in 
the  mosque. 

"  Though  rude  in  material,"  sa}rs  Muir,  "  and  comparatively  insigni- 
ficant in  extent,  the  mosque  of  Mahomet  is  glorious  in  the  history  of  Islam. 
It  f  Here  the  prophet  and  his  companions  spent  the  greater  portion 

of  their  time  ;  here  the  daily  service,  with  its  oft-recurring 
prayers,  was  first  publicly  established ;  here  the  great  congregation 
assembled  every  week,  and  trembled  often  while  they  listened  to  the 
orations  of  the  Prophet  and  the  messages  from  heaven.  Here  he  planned 
his  victories.  From  this  spot  he  sent  forth  envoys  to  kings  and  emperors 
with  the  summons  to  embrace  Islam.  Here  he  received  the  embassies  of 
contrite  and  believing  tribes ;  and  from  hence  issued  commands  which 
carried  consternation  amongst  the  rebellious  to  the  very  ends  of  the 
Peninsula.  Hard  by,  in  the  room  of  A}Tesha,  he  yielded  up  the  ghost ;  and 
there  he  lies  buried." 

Mahomet's  attitude  to  the  Jews  gradually  changed.     At  first  he  was 
most  anxious  to  conciliate  them,  professed  his  approval  of  them,  laid  emphasis 
Mahomet  and  upon  the  points  of  agreement  between  them,  and  even  framed  a 
the  Jews.     sor£  0£  treaty,  agreeing  to  aid  and  succour  and  defend  them,  and 
permitting  them  the  full  maintenance  of  their  religion.     But  as  his  claims 
grew,  as  he  began  to  emphasise  his  position  as  the  "  greater  Prophet  "  spoken 
of  by  their  scriptures,  the  Jews  of  Medina  felt  that  they  could  not  accept 
him  as  their  lawgiver  in  place  of  or  in  addition  to  Moses,  since  he  was  not 
Jewish     of  Jewish  blood.    A  few  joined  him  entirely,  becoming  practically 
"  Wltnesses-"  Mahometans,  and  these  were  carefully  utilised  as  "witnesses"  to  the 
Prophet's  claims,  asserting  that  their  brethren  merely  denied  them  through 
jealousj7.     The  portions  of  the  Koran  now  issued  were  full  of  attacks  upon 
the  Jews,  reciting  their  old  idolatry  and  disobedience  to  God.    At  first  Jeru- 
salem was  the  chief  sacred  place,  as  we  have  seen,  towards  which  Mahomet 
turned  in  prayer.     Before  he  had  been  eighteen  months  in  Medina,  one  day 
Mahomet,  having  already,  it  is  related,  desired   permission  of  God  to  turn 
changed    towards  the  Kaaba  at  Mecca,  suddenly  received  it  in  the  midst 
direction  of  of  service,  and  turned  round  to  the  south,  towards  Mecca.     From 
this  time  the  Jews  were  hostile  to  the  Mahometans.     Previously, 
Mahomet  had  adopted  the  Fast  Day  of  the  Atonement  from  the  Jews  ;  he 
The  Ramadan  now  established  his  own  peculiar  fast,  and  extended  it  over  the 
month  of  Ramadan — as  a  day-fast  from  meat,  drink,  and  all  enjoy- 
men's,  which  however  were  lawful  at  night.     At  the  end  of  the  month 


LIFE   OF  MAHOMET.  517 

a  festival  was  held,  called  "  the  breaking  of  the  fast,"  marked  by  abundant 

alms  to  the  poor.     He  also  established   a  day  of  sacrifice,  which      Day  of 

was  celebrated  on  the  concluding  day  of  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.    sacriflce- 

After  a  solemn  service,  two  fat  kids  were  sacrificed  by  the  prophet,  the  first 

for  the  whole  people,  the  second   for  himself  and   his   family.     After  the 

direction  of  prayer  was  changed,   a  special  call  to  prayer  was  The  can  to 

established,  to  which  a  supernatural  origin  was  ascribed.     Bilal?     Prayer- 

Mahomet's  negro  servant,  ascending  a  lofty  wall  near  the  mosque  before 

daybreak,  on  its  first  glimmer  proclaimed,  "  Great  is  Allah  !  great  is  Allah  ! 

I  bear  witness  that  there  is  no  God  but  Allah.    I  bear  witness  that  Mahomet 

is  the  Prophet  of  Allah!    Come  unto  Prayer  !    Come  unto  Happiness !    Great 

is  Allah!     Great  is  Allah!     There  is  no  God  but  Allah,  Prayer  is  better 

than  sleep,  Prayer  is  better  than  sleep  !  "     And  the  same  call  was  repeated 

at  each  of  the  five  hours  of  prayer.     Mahomet's  dignity  and  convenience 

were  further    promoted   by  the    construction    of  a   pulpit,    the   Mahomet's 

platform  of  which  was  raised  three  steps  above  the  floor,  and      PulPlt;- 

placed  near  the  southern  wall  of  the  mosque.     It  became  an  object  of  great 

sanctity  to  Mahometans,  oaths  being  taken  close  to  it,  and  a  false  swearer 

being  condemned  to  hell. 

We  may  here  quote  from  Muir  the  traditional   account  of  Mahomet's 

mode  of  first  conducting  service  in  his  pulpit.     "  As  he  mounted  the  pulpit, 

turning  towards  the  Kaaba,  he  uttered  a  loud  Tdkbir,  '  Great  is     Mode  of 

the  Lord  ! '  and  the  whole  assembly  from  behind  burst  forth  into  conducting 

.  S6rvic©. 

the  same  exclamation.     Then  he  bowed  himself  in  prayer,  still 

standing  in  the  pulpit  with  his  face  averted  from  the  people ;  after  which 
he  descended,  walking  backwards,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  pulpit  prostrated 
himself  towards  the  Kaaba.  This  he  did  twice,  and  having  ended  the 
prayers,  he  turned  towards  the  congregation,  and  told  them  he  had  done 
this  that  they  might  know  and  imitate  his  manner  of  prayer."  His 
mode  of  conducting  the  Friday  service  was  as  follows  :  "  As  the  Prophet 
mounted  the  steps  of  the  pulpit  he  greeted  the  assembly  with  the  salutation 
of  peace.  Then  he  sat  down,  and  Bilal  sounded  forth  the  call  to  prayer. 
After  the  prescribed  prostrations  and  reciting  of  the  Koran,  he  delivered 
two  discourses,  twice  sitting  down  ;  and  he  would  point  with  his  fingers, 
enforcing  his  instructions:  the  people  raised  their  faces  towards  him,  listen- 
ing attentively,  and  fixing  their  eyes  upon  him  ;  when  he  ended,  they 
joined  in  a  universal  Amen.  As  he  discoursed  he  leant  upon  a  staff.  His 
dress  on  these  occasions  was  a  mantle  of  striped  Yemen  stuff,  six  cubits  in 
length,  thrown  over  his  shoulders ;  the  lower  garment  was  a  girdle  of  fine 
cloth  from  Oman,  but  of  smaller  dimensions  than  the  other.  These  robes 
were  worn  only  on  Friday,  and  on  the  two  great  festivals ;  at  the  conclusion 
of  each  service,  they  were  folded  up  and  put  carefully  away." 

The  later  life  of  Mahomet  may  be  considered  as  a  period  of  war  and 
politics  even  more  than  of  religion  ;  or  rather,  his  religion  became    war  and 
identified  with  war  and  politics.     From  the  time  of  his  flight  to    P°utlcs- 
Medina,   though   the   Meccans    abstained    from    active   hostilities,   he    had 


518  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


tlireatened  divine  vengeance  against  them,  and  events  proved  that  he  only 
bided  his  time.  We  cannot  detail  the  marauding  expeditions  which  were 
sent  out  by  Mahomet  or  led  by  him  against  Meccan  caravans,  with  varying 
success.  One  of  these  attacked  a  caravan  during  the  sacred  month  of 
Rajab  ;  one  of  the  Koreish  was  killed  and  two  were  taken  prisoners.  After 
a  period  of  discouragement,  Mahomet  declared  a  revelation  that  "  war  dur- 
ing the  sacred  month  was  grievous,  yet  to  obstruct  the  way  of  God  and  to 
hinder  men  from  the  Holy  Temple  was  worse."  The  warlike  spirit,  so 
incentives  to  temptingly  combining  religious  incentives  with  those  of  plunder, 
war.  grew  apace,  and  Mahomet  produced  a  revelation  in  favour  of  war 
against  unbelievers,  until  all  opposition  ceased  and  there  was  no  religion 
but  Allah's.  "  Kill  them  wheresoever  ye  find  them ;  and  expel  them 
from  that  out  of  which  they  have  expelled   you.     .     .     .     Yet  fight  not 

Promised    against  them  beside  the  Holy  Temple,  until  they  fight  with  you 

rewards,  thereat."  "  An  excellent  provision  in  Paradise  "  was  promised  to 
those  who  fell  in  battle.  Contributions  were  solicited  towards  war,  and  a 
higher  place  was  to  be  granted  to  those  who  contributed  before  the  victory. 
•:  Who  is  he  that  lendeth  unto  the  Lord  a  goodly  loan?  He  shall  double 
the  same,  and  he  shall  have  an  honourable  recompense." 

The  first  important  battle  for  the  new  faith  was  that  of  Badr,  fought  in 
December,  623,  when  Mahomet  with  308  followers  attacked  the  Koreish 

Battle  of  950  strong,  and  put  them  to  flight,  after  many  of  their  principal 
Badr.  men  iiacj  \)een  s]aini  Two  prisoners  whom  he  hated  personally 
Mahomet  put  to  death,  and  others  were  set  free  on  payment  of  heavy 
ransoms.  Thus  was  started  that  career  of  bloodshed  and  conquest  which 
has  distinguished  Mohammedanism  more  than  any  other  religion,  even 
remembering  the  Crusades  and  other  wars  of  Christians.  No  religion  has 
ever  made  extension  by  war  so  important  an  element.  In  the  matter  of 
dissolving  old  relationships  and  ties,  Islam  was  but  like  numerous  other 
religions ;  still  this  was  a  new  attitude  in  Arabia,  which  struck  the  Koreish 
war  against  with  consternation.  Brother  was  ready  even  to  slay  brother  at 
Mn-  the  bidding  of  the  Prophet.  The  new  brotherhood  superseded 
everything,  and  no  toleration  wras  allowable  towards  unbelievers.  Active 
natures  found  full  scope  for  their  energies ;  and  no  man  could  hope  for  dis- 
tinction in  Islam  by  a  life  of  contemplation  such  as  the  Buddhists  favoured. 
The  new  religion  showed  that  it  was  to  be  founded  upon  human  passion, 
upon  pride  of  domination,  upon  fanaticism,  quite  as  much  as  upon  simplifica- 
tion of  truth,  and  remodelling  of  belief  about  God,  and  new  principles  and 
fashions  in  personal  conduct.  The  very  process  of  winning  the  first  victory 
became  in  the  hands  of  Mahomet  and  his  principal  followers  a  method  of 
strengthening  their  convictions  and  their  hold  upon  their  followers  at  the 
same  time.     The  men  of  Medina  extended  their  pledge  to  defend  Mahomet 

Loyalty  of  *n  Medina  m  these  words,  "Prophet  of  the  Lord,  march  whither 

men  of     thou  listest,  encamp  wherever  thou  mayest  choose,  make  war  or 

conclude  peace  with  whom  thou  wilt.     For  I  swear  by  Him  who 

hath  sent  thee  with  the  Truth,  that  if  thou  wast  to  march  till  our  camels 


LIFE    OF  MAHOMET.  519 


fell  clown  dead,  we  should  go  forward  with  thee  to  the  world's  end."  The 
distribution  of  the  spoils  too  was  made  the  occasion  of  a  revelation  claim- 
ing one-fifth  for  God  and  the  prophet  and  his  kin,  together  Division  of 
with  the 'orphans  and  the  poor.  In  numerous  other  ways  this  spoils  of  war- 
victory  was  skilfully  used  to  deepen  the  convictions  of  the  believers,  and  the 
influence  of  Mahomet  as  a  Divine  teacher. 

Bloodshed  leads  to  bloodshed.  Mahomet  could  now  brook  no  opposi- 
tion. Jews  and  Jewesses,  who  attacked  him  or  spread  defamatoiy  verses 
about  him  and  his  doings,  were  assassinated  one  after  another  „        .  . 

.  .  ...  .  .      Compulsion 

by    his    followers,  either    by  his    direct  instigation   or  with  his  and  cruelty 

subsequent  approval.     Tribe  after  tribe  of  Jews  were  either  com- 
pelled to  submit  to  Islam  and  profess  its  faith,  or  were  expelled,  or  attacked 
and   exterminated.     And  sensuality  followed  hard  on  bloodshed.   Mahomet's 
New  wives  were  added  to  Mahomet's  harem  ;  and  from  this  time  new  wives- 
i'>24)  there  was  scarcely  a  year  of  his  life  in  which  he  did  not  take  a  new 
wife. 

The  Meccans,  after  long  mourning,  decided  to  take  active  steps  against 
Mahomet ;  and  early  in  025  the  two  met  outside  Medina  at  Mount  Ohod, 
and  after  a  partial  victory  for  the  Mohammedans,  they  were  taken  Battle  of 
in  the  rear,  Mahomet  was  wounded,  and  his  uncle  Hamza  slain  ;  oho± 
but  the  Meccans  retired  after  their  victory,  and  Mahomet  retained  his  in- 
fluence at  Mecca.  He  executed  a  capital  sentence  on  a  follower  who  in  the 
battle  had  slain  an  enemy  of  his  own  side,  and  those  who  had  been  killed 
at  Ohod  were  regarded  as  martyrs.  Passages  in  the  Koran  (ii.  and  iii.) 
represent  God  as  causing  alternations  of  success  as  tests,  and  encourage  the 
believers  to  perseverance,  even  if  Mahomet  himself  should  be  killed  ;  and  no 
soul  died  without  the  permission  of  God. 

In  March,  027,  the  expelled  Jews,  allied  with  the  Koreish  and  two  great 
Bedouin  tribes,  in  all  10,000  strong,  attacked  Mahomet  at  Medina.  He 
entrenched  himself  behind  a  wide  ditch  or  foss  which  he  dug  war  of  the 
across  the  exposed  side  of  the  city  ;  and  his  followers  defended  it  dltch- 
so  well  that  the  attacking  army  after  fourteen  days'  siege  broke  up  and 
returned  home.  After  this  Mahomet  massacred  the  men  of  the  last  re- 
maining independent  Jewish  tribe  in  Medina,  600  or  700  in  number,  who 
had  had.  some  negotiations  with  the  enemy  but  had  broken  them  off,  and 
who  now  refused  to  join  his  ranks ;  their  women  and  children  being  sold 
into  slavery. 

Mahomet  now  prepared  to  attack  Mecca  itself.  He  first  attempted  to 
visit  Mecca  (in  March,  628)  with  1500  men,  but  was  forced  to  halt  at 
Hoclaib}^a,  just  outside  the  sacred  territory,  the  Koreish  refusing  nedge  of  the 
to  let  him  perform  the  circuit  of  the  Kaaba.  On  this  occasion,  Tree- 
when  in  a  state  of  alarm  and  suspecting  treachery,  Mahomet  made  all  the 
pilgrims  give  a  pledge  to  serve  him  faithfully  till  death  (this  is  called  the 
Pledge  of  the  Tree,  from  the  acacia-tree  under  which  it  was  sworn).  The 
Koreish,  realising  the  devotion  of  Mahomet's  followers,  offered  him  a  com- 
promise, by  which  he  was  to  withdraw  for  that  year,  and  in  the  next  return 


52o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


and  remain  three  days  within  the  sacred  territory  and  offer  the  sacrifices  he 
desired.  Mahomet,  willing  to  accept  this,  did  not  even  demur  to  his  being 
described  in  the  treaty  as  "  Mohammed  the  son  of  Abdallah,"  instead  of  by 
his  title  "  Apostle  of  God,"  and  he  allowed  the  Koreish  to  nse  that  name 
Treaty  with  of  God  which  they  chose.  The  treaty  provided  for  a  truce  of  ten 
the  Koreish.  yearSj  wfth  freedom  for  all  to  join  either  Mahomet  or  the  Koreish. 
Mahomet,  although  his  people  were  somewhat  disappointed  at  his  agreeing 
to  these  terms,  realised  that  he  had  gained  much  in  being  recognised  as  an 
independent  political  power,  and  in  being  allowed  to  enter  Mecca  un- 
disturbed the  next  year.  He  produced  a  new  revelation  describing  the 
result  as  a  victory  ;  and  his  later  followers  echo  this  view,  showing  that  the 
treaty  had  been  won  without  fighting,  and  that  it  led  very  many  to  join 
Islam.  Strengthened  by  this  result,  Mahomet  turned  his  arms  against  the 
rich  Jews  of  Khaibar,  north  of  Medina  (628)  and  subdued  them  in  detail 
with  no  little  cruelty.  In  the  same  year  he  sent  a  message  to  the  victorious 
Mahomet's  Byzantine  emperor  Heraclius,  demanding  that  he  should  acknow- 
messagesto  ledge  him  as  Apostle,  lay  aside  the  worship  of  Jesus,  and  return 
powers.  ^  Wy^  0f  the  One  God.  A  similar  message  was  sent  to  the 
Persian  king  Siroes,  without  result.  An  embassy  to  the  Roman  governor  of 
Egypt  was  received  with  honour,  though  without  submission  ;  but  presents 
were  sent  to  Mahomet,  including  two  Coptic  girls,  one  of  whom  he  added 
to  his  harem.  About  the  same  time  the  Abyssinian  prince  is  reported  to 
have  signified  his  acceptance  of  Islam.  These  and  other  incidents  testify 
to  the  rapid  growth  of  Mahomet's  influence.  This  reacted  upon  the  Arab 
mind,  susceptible  to  motives  of  power  and  booty  ;  and  Mecca  was  now  to 
drop  into  Mahomet's  mouth,  like  a  ripe  plum. 

In  March,  029,  Mahomet,  according  to  the  compromise,  visited  Mecca 
with  2,000  men,  performed  the  sevenfold  circuit  of  the  Kaaba,  reciting, 

__-       .     "  There  is  no  God  but  Allah  alone.     It  is  He  that  hath  holden 
Mahomet 

visits  Mecca,  His  servant  and  exalted  his  army.  Alone  hath  He  discomfited 
the  confederated  hosts."  Then  he  sacrificed  the  appropriate 
animals  on  the  rising  ground  of  Marwa,  and  finally  shaved  his  head.  On  the 
second  day  Mahomet  entered  the  Kaaba,  Bilal  sounded  the  call  to  prayer 
at  midday  from  the  top  of  the  building,  and  the  Moslems  responded  and 
performed  their  accustomed  devotions.  Thus  was  the  Kaaba  reclaimed  for 
Islam.  As  a  diversion  from  more  serious  matters,  Mahomet  arranged  yet 
another  marriage,  with  Meimuna,  a  bride  of  over  fifty  years  old — this  being 
his  last  marriage.  Some  leading  men  of  Mecca  joined  him.  During  029 
some  further  victories  over  various  Arab  tribes,  and  the  conquest  of  Syrian 
border  tribes  to  the  south  of  the  Dead  Sea  added  to  his  prestige. 

At  the  end  of  G29,  some  alleged  infractions  of  the  treaty  of  Hodaibya  led 

Mahomet  to  march  secretly  on  Mecca  with  nearly  10,000  men,  in  January, 

Mahomet    630.    Suddenly  all  their  tent  fires  were  lighted  within  view  of  the 

on  Mecca,  (-'ity?   and   the   sight   spread   consternation   among  the  Koreish. 

63°-         Abbas,  Mahomet's  uncle,  had  joined  him  just  before,  and  he  now 

became  a  medium  by  which  a  leader  of  the  Koreish,  named  Abu  Sofyan, 


LIFE    OF  MAHOMET. 


521 


approached  Mahomet  and  tendered  his  submission.  Afc  once  Mahomet  and 
Lis  army  entered  the  city,  with  scarcely  any  opposition.  Ho  went  to  the 
Kaaba,  sainted  the  sacred  stone,  and  made  the  seven  circuits  of  the 
temple ;  then  one  by  one,  by  his  orders,  the  idols  of  Mecca  were  Destroys 
destroyed,  including  the  great  image  of  Hobal  in  front  of  the  the  iciols- 
Kaaba.  He  next  worshipped  outside  and  inside  the  temple  ;  had  the  pictures 
of  Abraham  and  the  angels,  which  decorated  the  Kaaba,  destroyed,  and 
ordered  all  believers  in  Allah  throughout  Mecca  to  destroy  all  images  in  their 
houses.  At  the  same  time  he  had  the  pillars  marking  the  boundaries  of  the 
sacred  territory  repaired,  showing  his  intention  to  keep  up  the  sanctity  of 


i 


MEDINA".    THE    MODEIIN    CITY. 


Mecca  ;  but  while  expressing  his  intense  attachment  to  Mecca,  he  comforted 
the  people  of  Medina  by  declaring  that  he  should  live  and  die  in  the  city 
which   had   first   hospitably   received   him.      Four   persons,   renegades   or 
criminals,  were  put  to  death  after  this  peaceful  conquest.     The  rest  of  the 
people  unanimously  submitted  to  the  Prophet,  many,  no  doubt,      Mecca 
being  influenced  by  fear,  by  seeing  that  his  was  the  winning  side,     Sub^its 
by  the  attractions  of  war,  power,  and  probable  plunder.    Various 
images   and   shrines   of   idols   in   the   neighbourhood  of  Mecca  were  soon 
destroyed. 

The  next  important  event  in  Mahomet's  history  was  the  battle  of  Honein, 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


against  the  powerful  Hawazin  tribe,  in  which  Mahomet's  forces  at  first 
Battle  of  wavered,  and  were  only  encouraged  to  make  a  firm  stand  by  his 
Honein.  reminding  the  men  of  Medina  of  their  oath  of  Hodaibya  ;  their 
valour  turned  the  day  in  his  favour.  Then  Mahomet  ascribed  the  victory 
to  the  aid  of  great  unseen  angelic  hosts.  Taif  was  then  besieged,  but  its 
defenders  were  valiant  and  skilful,  and  the  siege  was  raised.  The  distri- 
bution of  the  booty  from  Honein  caused  much  dissatisfaction  among  the 
Medina  men,  because  great  favour  was  shown  to  the  Meccans,  especially  to 
Abu  Sofyan ;  but  Mahomet  again  appeased  them  by  expressing  his  un- 
changeable gratitude  to  them,  and  his  determination  to  stick  to  them  as 
against  all  the  world. 

His  relations  with  one  of  the  beautiful  Coptic  maids,  Mary,  sent  from 
Egypt,  now  caused  much  vexation  among  his  wives,  owing  to  his  evident 
The  Coptic  Pre^erence  for  her.     She  gave  birth  to  a  son,  Ibrahim,  the  only 
maid  and    one  born  to  Mahomet  at  Medina ;  and  his  death  at  about  sixteen 
months  caused  the  prophet  great  grief.     Mahomet,  in  the  man- 
ner  characteristic  of   his  later  life,  produced  a   "  revelation "   to  suit  the 
particular  case,  to  approve  what  he  had  done  and  what  he  wished  to  do,  and 
cautioning  his  wives  against  the  consequences  of  murmuring  against  him. 

Mahomet's  dominion  now  began  to  assume  the  proportions  of  an  empire  ; 

those  who  adopted  the  faith  submitted  to  his  secular  rule,  and  paid  annual 

His  growing  tithes  to  consecrate  their  wealth,  these  being  applied  towards  the 

dominion,    cliarities  and  other  expenses  of  the  Prophet.     Those  who  refused 

to  pay  were  compelled.     A  noted  Arab  poet,  Kab,  }delded  his  submission  in 

a  notable  poem  ;  when  he  had  recited  the  lines  : — 

"  Verily  the  Prophet  is  a  light  illuminating  the  world, 
A  naked  sword  from  the  armoury  of  God," 

Mahomet  was  so  delighted  that  he  took  his  mantle  from  his  shoulders  and 
threw  it  upon  the  poet,  as  a  gift.  From  this  incident,  the  poem  was  known 
as  ':  The  Poem  of  the  Mantle  "  ;  later  the  mantle  became  the  property  of 
the  Caliphs,  till  the  fall  of  Bagdad.  Embassies  were  received  from  all  parts 
of  Arabia,  and  even  beyond,  acknowledging  Mahomet's  chiefship  and  office, 
and  receiving  presents,  confirmations  of  authority,  special  privileges,  etc. 
(a. p.  030,  031).  Of  the  Christian  tribes  which  submitted,  some  were  allowed 
to  continue  in  their  religion  as  before,  others  were  bidden  not  to  baptize  their 
children,  though  they  might  maintain  their  worship.  Instructors  in  the 
faith  of  Islam  were  often  sent  back  with  the  embassies.  In  030  an  expedition 
headed  by  Mahomet  received  the  submission  of  numerous  Christian  and 
Jewish  tribes  to  the  south  of  Palestine.  Some  of  his  adherents  who  had 
held  back  from  this  expedition  were  rebuked  in  severe  terms  in  the  latest 
revealed  chapter  of  the  Koran  (ix.).  Those  who  had  no  pretext  to  offer,  were 
put  under  a  strict  boycott,  but  pardoned  on  their  abject  submission. 

The  people  of  Ta'if  had  not  yet  submitted,  but  still  continued  in  idolatry. 
Orwa,  one  of  their  chiefs,  embraced  the  new  faith  at  Medina,  and  returned 
to  preach  it  to   his  people.      After    he  had  announced   his   conversion  at 


LIFE   OF  MAHOMET.  523 

Tai'f,  and  shouted  the  call   to  prayer  from  the  top  of  his  house,  he  was 

shot   at  with   arrows    and    mortally  wounded.      Hence    he  was 

J  .  .  Tail  submits. 

accounted  a  martyr.  The  Taiifites  continued  their  idolatry,  and 
suffered  from  the  predatory  attacks  of  the  Moslems,  which  compelled  them 
to  keep  within  their  walls.  At  last  they  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Prophet, 
who  gave  them  instructions,  and  refused  to  grant  them  permission  to 
continue  in  several  sinful  habits,  or  to  maintain  their  idol  Al-Lat  for  three 
years  longer  as  they  desired.  After  abating  their  demand  to  one  year,  or 
even  a  month,  the  onfy  concession  they  could  get  from  Mahomet  was,  that 
they  should  not  be  compelled  to  destroy  the  idol  with  their  own  hands.  A 
follower  of  Mahomet  was  sent  to  do  this  ;  and  it  was  done  amid  the  loud 
laments  of  the  women  and  children. 

Abu  Bekr  and  300  pilgrims  were  deputed  to  perform  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca  in  631,  Mahomet  not  sharing  in  it  because  a  vast  number  of  heathen 
tribes  still  went  to  Mecca  and  performed  idolatrous  rites.     It  was    Ban  pro- 
announced  that   every  pilgrimage   hereafter   would  be   forcibly     Against 
limited  to  worshippers  of  the  One  Clod,  after  which  time  all  un-  unbelievers, 
believers  should  be  fought  against.     This  decree  was  promulgated  to  all  the 
pilgrims  and  thus  spread  throughout  Arabia.     Christians  and  Jews  were  to 
be  subjugated  and  made  to  pay  tribute.     Christian  churches  were  to  be 
destroyed  and  mosques  built  on  the  sites.      Various  officers  were  sent  out  to 
heathen   and  to  submissive  tribes,   charged  not  only  with  their  religious 
instruction,  but  also  with  their  judicial  and  social  regulation,  according  to 
the  Koran  and  Mahomet's  other  instructions. 

Early  in  632  Mahomet  prepared  for  the  great  pilgrimage,  and  set  out 
for  Mecca  with  a  vast  company,  including  all  his  wives,  and  with  a  hundred 
camels  destined  for  sacrifice.  He  now  found  mosques  to  pray  in  Mahomet's 
at  the  several  stages  of  the  journey  ;  and  in  them  he  led  public  last  piigTim- 
worship.  When  he  arrived  in  sight  of  the  Kaaba,  he  raised  his 
hands  to  heaven  and  said  :  ':  0  Lord,  add  unto  this  house  in  the  dignity 
and  glory,  the  honour  and  the  reverence  Avhich  already  Thou  hast  bestowed 
on  it.  And  they  that  for  the  greater  pilgrimage  and  the  lesser  frequent  the 
same,  increase  them  much  in  honour  and  dignity,  in  piety,  goodness,  and 
glory."  Then  he  completed  the  circuits  and  the  rites  of  the  lesser  pilgrimage, 
and  ordered  those  who  had  brought  no  victims  to  put  off  their  pilgrim's  garb. 
The  first  day  of  the  greater  pilgrimage  he  preached  in  the  Kaaba,  and  passed 
the  night  in  a  tent  at  Mina.  Next  day,  proceeding  to  the  height  of  Arafat, 
he  consecrated  it  as  a  pilgrimage  station,  recited  several  parts  of  the  Koran 
relating  to  the  pilgrimage,  and  concluded,  "  This  daj'  have  I  perfected  your 
religion  unto  3rou,  and  fulfilled  my  mercy  upon  you,  and  appointed  Islam  for 
you  to  be  your  religion."  He  returned  by  moonlight  to  Mozdalifa,  and  said 
the  sunset  and  the  evening  prayers  together  ;  and  all  his  recorded  behaviour 
is  imitated  by  pilgrims  to  this  day.  Then  returning  to  Mina,  shouting  the 
pilgrims'  cry  : — 

'•LaLbeik  (Here  am  I,  O  Lord!)  Labbeik 
There  is  no  other  God  but  Thee.     Labbeik  ! 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Praise,  blessing,  and  dominion  be  to  Thee.     Labbeik ! 
No  one  may  share  with  Thee  therein.     Labbeik,  Labbeik  ! 

At  Mina  he  cast  stones  at  Acaba,  according  to  ancient  custom,  slew  the 
victims  brought  for  sacrifice,  and  shaved  his. head  and  part  of  his  beard, 
pared  his  nails,  etc.,  and  put  off  the  pilgrim's  dress.  The  flesh  of  the 
victims  and  other  animals  was  distributed  for  food,  and  a  feast  was  held. 
Next  day  he  gave  a  celebrated  parting  discourse  in  the  Mina  valley,  re- 
peating some  of  his  principal  injunctions.  "  Know  that  every  Moslem  is  the 
brother  of  every  other  Moslem.  All  of  you  are  on  the  same  equality.  Ye 
are  one  brotherhood."  After  inquiring,  "  Know  ye  what  month  this  is.  what 
territory  this  is?  "  and  receiving  the  answer,  "  The  sacred  month,  the  sacred 
territory,"  he  said,  "  Even  thus  sacred  and  inviolable  hath  God  made  the  life 
and  the  property  of  each  of  you  unto  the  other  until  you  meet  your  Lord." 
At  the  same  time  he  proclaimed  the  rectification  of  the  calendar  by  which 
the  month  of  pilgrimage  was  to  be  fixed  in  future.  He  subsequently 
completed  the  ceremonies  of  the  greater  pilgrimage  and  then  returned  to 
Medina. 

Fresh  "  prophets  "  arose  in  several  regions   of  Arabia,  some  of  whom 
were  indignantly  denounced  by    Mahomet.      Aswacl,  who  had  raised  the 
standard  of  rebellion,  was  assassinated  just  before  Mahomet's  own   death! 
The  Prophet  had  planned  an  expedition  against  the  Syrian  border  of  thel 
Byzantine    empire.      About  this  time  he  became   ill,    having   previously- 
shown  signs  of  old  age.     One  night  he  visited  the  burial-ground,   and  re- 
mained there  long  in  meditation,  then  prayed  for  those  buried  there.     On  I 
the  way  home  he  said  to  his  attendant :  "  The  choice  hath  verily  been 
ms  last     offered  me  of  continuance  in  this  life,  with  Paradise  hereafter,  or 
mness.      to  meet  my  Lord  at  once  ;  and  I  have  chosen  to  meet  my  Lord."! 
He  rapidly  grew  worse,  and  betook  himself  to  the  apartment  of  AyeshaJ 
who  attended  him  devotedly.     For  seven  or  eight  clays  his  fever  permitted! 
him  to  attend  the  mosque  and  feebly  lead  the  public  prayers.      On  a  final 
day  he  publicly  intimated  his  approaching  death ;  and  on  Abu  Bekr  bursting 
into  tears,  he  begged  him  not  to  weep,  and  said  to  the  people :  u  Verily,  the 
chiefest  among  you  all  for  love  and  devotion  to  me  is  Abu  Bekr.     If  I  were 
to  choose  a  bosom  friend,  it  would  be  he  ;  but  Islam  hath  made   a  closerl 
brotherhood  amongst  us  all."     Next  day  Abu  Bekr  was  deputed  to  lead 
prayers.      Mahomet   suffered  greatly,  and  gave    utterance  to   expressions 
symbolising  his  belief  that  sins  were  expiated  by  physical  sufferings.     He 
was,  however,  not  too  distracted  to  be  able  to  reprove  the  desire  to  make  the 
tombs  of  prophets  objects  of  worship,   and  to  say,  "  0   Lord,  let  not  my 
tomb  be  an  object  of  worship."     One  of  his  ejaculations  during  his  suffer- 
ings was,  "  0  my  sOul,  why  seekest  thou  for  refuge  elsewhere  than  in  God 
alone  ?  "     Recovering  a  little,  Mahomet  again  entered  the  mosque,  saying, 
with  a  joyful  smile  on  his  face,  "The  Lord  verily  hath  granted  unto  me 
refreshment  in  prayer."     Afterwards  he  spoke  to  the  people,  saying,  "  As 
for  myself,  verily,  no  man  can  lay  hold  of  me  in  any  matter  ;  I  have  not 
made  lawful  anything  but  what  God  hath  made  lawful ;  nor  have  I  pro- 


LIFE    OF  MAHOMET.  525 


libited  aught  but  that  which  God  in  his  book  hath  prohibited."     After  this 

kxertion  he  grew  much  weaker,  praying  for   aid   in  the  agonies  of  death. 

Pne  of  his  last  ejaculations  was,  "  Lord,  grant  me  pardon,  and 

loin  me  to  the  companionship  on  high."    He  died  soon  alter  noon, 

pnly  an  hour  or  two  after  his  visit  to  the  mosque,  on  Monday  the  8th  of 

June,  (132. 

It  was  immediately  necessary  to  choose  a  chief  or  deputy  (Caliph)  to 
•epresent  Mahomet ;   for  the  men  of  Medina  desired  to  appoint  a  chief  for 
themselves.     But  Omar  and  Abu  Bekr  gained  the  adhesion  of  all    Adu  Bekr 
,he  leaders  at  Medina  to  the  appointment  of  the  latter,  who  had  elected  Caiipb. 
>een    "  the  second  of  the   two  in   the   cave,"  and  had  been    deputed  by 
Mahomet  himself  to  lead  public  worship.     The  Prophet's  corpse  was  visited 
>y  all  Medina,  and  then  buried  in  a  vault  dug  out  under  the  place  Mahomet's 
where  he  died.      Abu  Bekr    and   Omar's    farewell    to  him  ex-      bunaL 
jressly  made  mention  of  his  having  sought  no  recompense  for  delivering  the 
Taith  to  the  people,  and  having  never  sold  it  for  a  price  at  any  time.     A  red 
nantle  which  he  had  worn  was  placed  beneath  his  body,  which  was  enclosed 
n  white  cloth  and  striped  Yemen  stuff,  without  a  coffin.      The  vault  was 
overed  over  with  unbaked  bricks  and  the  grave  filled  up. 

In  person  Mahomet  was  a  little  above  the  middle  height,  of  a  handsome 
,nd  commanding  figure;  he  had  a  large  head  with  broad  open  brow,  jet  black 
ongish  hair,  deep  black  piercing  eyes,  and  a  long  black  bushy  His  person 
>eard.  His  face  had  something  very  winning  in  its  expression,  andcliaracter- 
nd  his  smile  Avas  gracious  and  condescending ;  but  his  frown  or  angry 
00k  was  such  that  men  quailed  before  it.  His  gait  was  quick  and  decided, 
hough  stooping  in  later  \7ears  ;  and  he  never  turned  round  in  walking.  In 
onversmg,  he  turned  his  full  face  and  whole  body  towards  the  speaker. 
;  In  shaking  hands,  he  was  not  the  first  to  withdraw  his  own  ;  nor  was  he 
lie  first  to  break  off  in  converse  with  a  stranger,  nor  to  turn  away  his  ear." 
le  treated  the  most  insignificant  of  his  followers  with  consideration,  visited 
he  meanest,  made  each  man  in  company  think  himself  the  most  favoured 
piest,  sympathised  with  both  joys  and  griefs,  was  gentle  to  little  children, 
md  ministered  to  every  one's  personal  comfort.  His  warm  attachment  to 
Km  Bekr,  Ali,  Zeid,  Othman,  and  Omar  was  intensely  reciprocated  by 
hem.  He  never  assumed  lordly  airs  nor  demanded  personal  services,  he 
voulcl  do  everything  for  himself,  even  mend  his  own  sandals  and  clothes. 
ie  greatly  enjoyed  food,  yet  could  readily  live  as  plainly  as  his  followers ; 
iut,  a  true  Oriental,  he  enjoyed  perfumes  and  the  society  and  charms  of 
vomen  extremely.  "Whatever  he  may  have  been  in  his  earlier  days,  when 
£hadijah  was  alive,  in  his  later  years,  the  attractions  of  women  proved  his 
mman  frailty  perhaps  more  than  anything,  and  led  to  the  deplorable 
brogation  of  his  laws  in  his  own  favour.  The  extreme  instance  of  this 
>vas  seen  when  he  longed  for  the  wife  of  his  adopted  son  and  friend  Zeid, 
nd  produced  a  "  revelation  "  commanding  him  to  marry  her.  Yet  he  was 
evoted  to  all  his  wives. 

In    his  conduct  to  enemies,   Mahomet  showed    both    good    and    bad 


526  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


qualities  ;  politic  mercy,  to  gain  them  over,  but  also  cruelty  in  numerous 

executions,  and    craft   in  planning  or  allowing  assassinations,    in  attacks 

,„     ..       during  the    sacred  months,  and  in  the  use  made  of  Jews  and 
Was  ne  <=>  . 

sincere?     Christians.     That  he   was  an  erring  mortal,  in  no  sense  an  in- 
fallible model  of  conduct,  must  be  the  verdict  on  Mahomet.     Who  shall 
pronounce  on  his  sincerity  all  through  ?     In  many  ways,  especially  before 
the  Flight,  he  showed  marks  of  entire  sincerity ;  but  to  believe  that  he  was  ] 
self-deceived  in  every  act  at  Medina,  is  to  stretch  self-deception  to  an  ex- 
treme.    The  fact  that  he  produced  successive  revelations  to  enjoin  things 
he  desired  to  do,  may  possibly  be  read  in  two  wa}rs :  either  he  deliberately  • 
invented  the  revelations  to  suit  the  emergency,  or,  being  of  an  excitable, 
susceptible  nature,  his  broodings  on  a  subject  brought  about  the  state  ofi 
mental  exaltation  in  which  he  genuinely  heard,  or  imagined  that  he  heard, 
the  appropriate  "  revelation."     As  regards  both  his  assassinations  and  his 
marriages,  they  show  a  very  great  but  not  an  incredible  degree  of  moral  ■ 
warp  or  of  moral  infancy,  or  else  a  degree  of  self-delusion  which  is  scarcely"] 
compatible  with  the  practical  wisdom  of  very  many  of  his  actions.     "We 
find  him,  after  his  early  struggles  and  the  commencement  of  his  preaching, 
constantly  imbued  with  a  belief  in  special  providence,  extending  almost  tol 
fatalism.     He  certainly  believed   that   everything    was   predestined ;    but 
events  were,  he  believed,  capable  of  being  influenced  by  prayer.     With  all! 
this,  he  had  several  superstitious  beliefs,  and  was  guided  by  omens  and 
prognostications.     We  may  perhaps  explain  much  of  his  character  by  the 
view  that  his  own  inward  struggles,  his  moral  debates,  and  his  aspirations 
seemed  to  him  the  very  voice  of  God  speaking  to  him.     He   lacked  the' 
physical  courage  to  face  bodily  danger  in  battle.     At  Mecca,  however,  hej 
showed  true  bravery  in  preaching  so  long  amid  hostile  surroundings,  and 
in  remaining  behind  when  nearly  all  his  adherents  had  departed  for  Medina. 
His  denunciation  of  idolatry,  and  his  preaching  of  the  one  God  and  of  the 
equality  of  man  before  God,  must  ever  distinguish  him  honourably  as  a  great 
religious  teacher.     He  had  a  style  of  delivery,  an  evident  earnestness  o$ 
belief,  which  carried  home  his  statements  of  truth  and  his  eloquent  and 
imaginative  poetic  outbursts. 

At  Medina  sensuality,  deception,  cruelty,  and  intolerance  stained  the 
prophet's  life.  Ceremonial  routine,  material  assistance,  became  more  im- 
portant, outwardly,  than  inward  conviction  and  purity.  But  there  was 
enough  good  in  the  faith  as  Mahomet  left  it,  enough  that  was  influential 
on  mankind,  to  make  Islam  the  second  among  the  great  faiths  of  the  world- 
counting  Judaism  and  Christianity  together  as  the  first);  and  there  was 
enough  mingled  good  and  exclusiveness  to  make  it  the  most  difficult  of  all 
for  Christianity  to  contend  against. 


OHAPTEE  V. 
QL\)t  Itoran  anli  its  CcarDingsi, 

Formation  of  the  text— The  general  prayer— Teaching'  atjput  God  -Names  of  God— Righteousness 
define!— Nature  of  God — Account  of  creation — Angels— Eblis,  or  the  Devil  The  Moslem  paradise 
—Hell— Intermediate  state -The  day  of  judgment  Prophets  Attitude  towards  Jews- Pre- 
destination-Idolatry and  Idolaters -Islam -The  creed  Prayer— The  fast  of  Ramadan  Alms- 
giving—The holy  pilgrimage  Parents  and  children  Murder  and  theft  Divorce  and  concubinage 
—Marriage— Position  of  wives  Rhetorical  passages  Structure  of  Koran  Delineation  of  old 
prophets-  Chronological  sequence    Miracles    Reverence  for  Koran    Versions    Commentaries. 

THE  Koran  (more  precisely  Qur'an,  a  reading),  which  as  a  whole  is  not 
so  long  as  the  New  Testament,  was  not  in  existence  as  a  complete 
hook  in  the  lifetime  of  Mahomet;  but  it  was  settled  in  its  present  form 
within  twenty  years  of  his  death.  Separate  chapters  or  smaller  Formation  of 
fragments  were  written  down,  by  followers  who  happened  to  be  the  text- 
present  when  he  first  recited  them,  upon  palm-leaves,  leather,  stones,  or 
anything  else  that  was  at  hand.  Abdallah  and  Zeid  the  son  of  Thabil 
were  among  his  amanuenses.  Copies  were  afterwards  made,  and  many 
Moslems  learnt  to  recite  large  portions  by  heart ;  but  no  completed  collection 
of  them,  apparently,  was  kept  by  Mahomet.  After  his  death,  when  many 
who  knew  much  of  the  Koran  had  fallen  in  battle,  Omar  feared  that  the 
whole  might  be  forgotten,  and  induced  Abu  Bekr  to  have  a  collection  of 
copies  made.  Zeid  was  charged  with  this  duty,  and  he  made  a  fair  copy  of 
all  he  could  obtain,  which  passed  through  the  first  two  caliphs  to  Haphsa, 
one  of  Mahomet's  widows,  Omar's  daughter.  But  disputes  arose  as  to  the 
true  text,  and  Othman  in  650-1  ordered  Zeid  with  three  others  to  make  an 
authoritative  text ;  they  took  care  to  accomplish  this,  burning  all  discordant 
texts  besides  their  own  and  that  which  Haphsa  possessed.  The  latter  however 
was  soon  destroyed,  and  thus  we  have  not  to  consider  conflicting  versions 
of  the  Koran.  That  the  chapters  as  we  now  have  them  are  substantially 
authentic  is  suggested  by  the  language,  and  by  the  mixture  of  subjects  in  the 
chapters,  no  designed  order  being  discernible  in  them.  There  are  but  a  few 
passages  existing  which  purport  to  have  been  originally  in  the  Koran  and 
rejected  by  Zeicl.  Four  copies  were  made  of  the  Koran,  one  of  which  was 
kept  at  Medina,  and  one  sent  to  each  of  the  three  (at  that  time)  important 
Moslem  cities  of  Damascus,  Basra,  and  Cufa.  At  present  there  is  no  likeli- 
hood that  any  one  of  them  exists ;  but  copies  probably  dating  from  the  first 
century  after  the  flight  are  known. 

We  will  first  endeavour  to  set  forth  the  chief  doctrines  about  God 
and  divine  things,  and  then  the  chief  moral  precepts  of  the  Koran.  It  opens 
with  the  famous  short  chapter  which  for  the  Moslem  answers  to  the  Lord's 
Prayer.     It  runs  thus  : 

537 


5 28  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


"  In  the  name  of  God,  the  Compassionate,  the  Merciful.     Praise  belongs 

to  God,  the  Lord  of  the  worlds,  the  Merciful,  the  Compassionate,  the  Ruler 

The  general  of  the  day  of  judgment.     Thee  we  worship  and  Thee  we  ask  for 

prayer.     ajc]_     Direct  us  in  the  right  way,  the  way  of  those  to  whom  Thou 

art  gracious,  not  of  those  Thou  art  angry  with,  nor  of  those  who  err." 

It  cannot  be  said  that  Mahomet  here  expresses  ideas  unknown  before   ) 
his  time,  or  which  he  is  not  likely  to  have  heard  from  others,  especially  the  ] 
Teaching    Jews.     The   term    "  the  Merciful "    is   directly    a  Jewish  word.  1 
aooutGod.   rpiie    chapter   (112)   on   unity   directly   resembles    the  Christian  j 
statement  of  the  doctrine  :  "  Say,  He  is  God  alone,  God  the  Eternal.     He   ' 
begets  and  is  not  begotten  ;  nor  is  there  like  unto  Him  any  one."     Accord- 
ing to  the  Koran,  "  Allah  is  eternal  and  everlasting,  one  and  indivisible, 
not  endued  with  form,  nor  circumscribed  by  limit  or  measure  ;   compre- 
hending all  things,  but  comprehended  of  nothing"  :  here  again  thoroughly 
agreeing  with  Jewish  and  Christian  belief.    There  are  ninety-nine  principal 
epithets  or  names  applied  to  God,  expressing  most  of  His  attri- 
butes, as  the  Merciful,  the  Compassionate,  the  Holy,  the  Faithful, 
the  Creator,  the  Forgiver,  the  Provider,  the  Knowing,  the  Judge,  the  Seer, 
the  Strengthener,  the  Wise,  the  Answerer  of  Prayer,  the  Loving,  the  Living, 
the  One,  the  First,   the   Last,  the  Avenger,   etc. :    here    again  furnishing 
nothing  new  to  Christians,  however  new  they  may  have  been  to  the  Arabs, 
to  whom  Mahomet  made  them  known. 

A  concise  summary  of  the  teaching  of  the  Koran  is  found  in  ii.  172. 
"  Righteousness  is  not  that  ye  turn  your  faces  towards  the  east  or  the  west: 
Righteous-  out  righteousness  is,  one  who  believes  in  God,  and  the  last  day, 
ness  defined.  aiL(j  ^he  angels}  and  the  Book,  and  the  prophets  ;  and  who  gives 
wealth  for  the  love  of  God  to  kindred,  and  orphans,  and  the  poor,  and  the. 
wayfarer,  and  beggars,  and  those  in  captivity,  and  who  is  steadfast  in 
prayer,  and  gives  alms  ;  and  those  who  are  sure  of  their  covenant  when 
they  make  a  covenant ;  and  the  patient  in  poverty,  and  in  distress,  and  in 
time  of  violence." 

It  is  expressly  stated  (vi.  101)  that  God  has  no  offspring,  because  He  has 
no  consort.  Many  passages  describe  Him  as  all-seeing  and.  knowing,  and 
Nature  of  omnipotent  and  omnipresent.  "  No  vision  taketh  in  Him,  but 
God-  He  taketh  in  all  vision  ;  He  is  the  subtle,  the  all-informed.  He 
has  created  men,  in  order  that  they  should  worship  Him."  God  is  represented 
sometimes  as  creating  both  evil  and  good,  and  as  creating  evil  spirits  and 
men  for  hell  ;  but  again  men  are  assured  that  the  evil  that  befalls  them 
is  of  themselves.  "  God  misleadeth  whom  He  will,  and  guideth  whom  He 
will "  (xxxv.  9). 

The  creation  is  in  1.  37,  as  in  Genesis,  related  to  have  been  accomplished 

in  six   clays,  but  in  xli.  7,  two  days  is  the  period  assigned.     There  is  no 

Account  of  attempt   at   a   detailed  history  of  it,  but  as  to  the  creation  of 

creation.    man   ft   jg   g^,  u  q.0(j   created  you  from  earth  (or  dust),  then 

from  a  clod,  then  He  made  pairs."     In  ii.  2D  God  is  said  to  have  taught 

Adam  the  names  of  all  things  and  to  have  ordered  the  angels  to  worship 


THE   KORAN  AND   ITS   TEACHINGS. 


5 -'9 


Adam;  and  tliey  all  did  so  except  Eblis  (Satan).  A  brief  account  of  the 
temptation  and  fall  is  given,  after  which  it  is  said  Ihat  God  relented  towards 
Adam.     This  account  is  evidently  an  imperfect  version  of  the  account  in 

<  renesis. 

The  Koran  represents  God  aa 
attended  by  angels,  pure  beings 
created  from  lire,  neither 
eating  nor  drinking,  nor 
having  sexes.  They  ask  forgiveness 
for  the  dwellers  upon  earth.  Two 
angels  are  assigned  to  each  human 


Angels. 


INTERIOB   OF   IHE   MOSQUE    OF   THE    HOLY    PBOPHBT    AT    MEDINA. 

being,  standing  on  his  right  and  on  his  left,  and  recording  all  his  actions. 
One  angel,  Rhazwan  (goodwill),  presides  over  paradise,  and  another,  Malik 
(compare  Moloch),  over  hell.  Two  others  perforin  the  examination  of  per- 
sons immediately  after  burial,  allowing  them  to  rest  in  peace  if  they  confess 

M    M 


53o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

that  there  is  hut  one  God,  and  that  Mahomet  is  His  prophet ;  but  if  not, 
beating  them  very  severely,  and  leaving  them  to  be  torn  by  dragons  and 
serpents  till  the  resurrection.  Several  archangels  are  named :  Gabriel, 
Michael,  Israfel  (who  is  to  sound  the  last  trumpet),  and  Azrael,  the  angel 
of  death.  Much  of  the  teaching  about  angels  is  evidently  based  on  Jewish 
ibiis,  or  the  ideas.  The  idea  of  the  devil,  Iblis  or  Shaitan,  is  plainly  an 
Devil.  adaptation  from  Jewish-Christian  sources ;  and  the  lack  of  any 
originality  on  the  subject  is  made  up  for  by  giving  many  repetitions  of 
the  story  that  Iblis  fell  because  he  refused  to  worship  Adam.  The  belief 
in  the  ginn  or  genii, — the  evil  hinds  being  termed  "  efreet," — has  been 
sufficiently  referred  to.  Mahomet  is  believed  to  have  converted  a  tribe  of 
them  by  his  preaching,  when  returning  from  Taif. 

The  descriptions  of  the  Moslem  paradise  or  heaven  are  famous  for  the 
sensual  delights  depicted;  but  they  are  not  so  elaborate  and  sensual  in  the 
The  Moslem  Koran  as  in  the  traditional  sayings  of  the  Prophet.     It  is  com- 
Paradise.    m0nly  said  that  there  are  eight  different  heavens ;  namely,  the 
Garden  of  Eternity,  the  Abode  of  Peace,  the  Abode  of  Rest,  the  Gardens 
of  Eden,  the  Gardens  of  Refuge,  the  Gardens  of  Delight,  the  Gardens  of  the 
Most  High,  and  the  Gardens  of  Paradise  ;  but  they  are  nowhere  mentioned 
at  once,  and  may  be  taken  as  different  descriptions  of  the  same  place.     The 
following  are  some  passages  from  the  Koran  relating  to  heaven:  "Their 
reward  for  their  patience  shall  be  paradise  and  silken  robes,  reclining  therein 
on  bridal  couches  ;  naught  shall  they  know  of  sun  or  piercing  cold ;  its 
shades  shall  close  over  them,  and  low  shall  its  fruits  hang  down  :  and  ves- 
sels of  silver  and  goblets  like  flagons  shall  be  borne  round  among  them  " 
ilxxvi.  12).     "Theirs  shall  be  the  houris  with  large,  dark  eyes,  like  pearls 
hidden  in  their  shells,  in  recompense  for  their  labours  past.  .    .    .    Unfailing, 
unforbidden,  and  on  soft  couches  and  of  a  rare  creation  have  we  made  the 
houris  ;   and  we  have  made  them  ever  virgins,  clear  to  their  spouses,  and  of 
equal  age  "  (lvi.  22-35).     "  Therein  are  rivers  of  water  which  corrupt  not ; 
rivers  of  milk,    whose  taste  changeth    not ;  and  rivers  of    wine,   delicious 
to  those  who  drink  it ;  and  rivers  of  clarified  honey ;  and  therein  are  all 
kinds  of  fruit  for  them  from  their  Lord  "  (xlvii.  16,  17).     It  is  very  note- 
worthy that  the  sensual  descriptions  of  Paradise,  and  especially  the  passages 
referring  to  women,  were  nearly  all  included  in  the  earlier  series  revealed 
at  Mecca,  when  as  yet  Mahomet  had  only  one  wife,  much  senior  to  him  \ 
while  only  two  or  three  simple  passages,  describing  the  believers  as  having 
"  four  wives,"  were  promulgated  at  Medina.    As  regards  the  other  promised 
delia'hts,  Professor  Palmer  well  describes  them  as  "  an  intense  realisation 
of  all  that  a  dweller  in  a  hot,  parched,  and  barren  land  could  desire  ;  namely, 
shade,  water,  fruit,  rest,  and  pleasant  companionship  and  service." 

Hell  is  most  frequently  termed  in  the  Koran  "  the  Fire,"  also  Gehen- 
num  (the  Jewish  Gehenna).      It  is   said  to  have  seven  portals  and  seven 
divisions  :  Gehenna,  the  purgatory  for  all  Mahometans  (xix.  72)  ; 
Laza,  the  flaming  fire  ;  Hutamah,  the  raging  fire  that  splits  every- 
thing to  pieces ;  Sair,  the  broiling  fire ;  Sagar,  the  scorching  fire  ;  Jaliim, 


THE   KORAN  AND  ITS   TEACHINGS.  531 

the  fierce  fire  ;  and  Hawiyeh,  the  abyss.  The  second  has  been  by  the 
Moslem  commentators  assigned  to  Christians,  the  third  to  Jews,  etc.,  without 
any  authority  from  the  Koran.  The  latter  describes  hell  fire  as  "  leaving 
naught,  sparing  naught,  blackening  the  skin "  ;  over  it  preside  nineteen 
angels.  In  Gehenna  transgressors  shall  have  no  coolness  nor  any  drink, 
save  boiling  water  and  running  sores''  (lxxviii.  24,  w2-~>j.  We  need  not  quote 
the  details  of  torment  which  the  Traditions  attribute  to  the  Prophet. 

The  Koran  teaches  nothing  very  definite  about  the  intermediate  state 
between  death  and  judgment,  except  as  regards  unbelievers ;  but  intermediata 
the  good  are  supposed  to  rest  in  blissful  unconsciousness.  state- 

The  "  Last  Day  "  is  variously  termed  in  the  Koran  the  day  of  standing 
up,  of  separation,  of  reckoning,  of  awakening,  of  judgment,  the  encom- 
passing day,  and  the  hour.  This  event  is  the  subject  of  some  of  -n^  Day 
the  most  poetical  passages  in  the  Koran.  Thus:  "  Tlnnketh  of  Jud&ment- 
man  that  we  shall  not  reunite  his  bones?  Ay,  his  very  finger  tips  are  we 
able  evenly  to  replace.  .  .  .  When  the  e}'e  shall  be  dazzled,  when  the 
moon  shall  be  darkened,  and  the  sun  and  the  moon  shall  be  together, 

"On  that  day  man  shall  cry,  Where  is  there  a  place  to  flee  to  ?  But 
in  vain  ;  there  is  no  refuge :  with  thy  Lord  on  that  day  shall  be  the  sole 
asylum. 

"  On  that  day  shall  man  be  told  of  all  that  he  hath  done  first  and  last : 
yea,  a  man  shall  be  the  eye-witness  against  himself"  (lxxv.). 

Again :  "  Surely  among  delights  shall  the  righteous  dwell,  but  verily 
the  impure  in  hell-fire.  They  shall  be  burned  at  it  on  the  day  of  doom, 
and  they  shall  not  be  able  to  hide  themselves  from  it.  Who  shall  teach 
thee  what  the  clay  of  doom  is  ?  It  is  a  day  when  one  soul  shall  be  power- 
less for  another  soul:  all  sovereignty  on  that  day  shall  be  with  God" 
1  lxxxii.)  Further  details  will  be  given  in  dealing  with  present-day  beliefs  of 
the  Mahometans. 

The  prophets  recognised  in  the  Koran   are,  in  addition  to  Jesus  and 

Mahomet,  all  Jewish;  namely,  Adam,  the  Chosen  of  God;  Noah, the  Preacher 

of  God ;    Abraham,   the  Friend  of  God  ;    Moses,    the  Converser 

'  '  '  •  Prophets. 

with  God  ;  Jacob,  Joseph,  and  Job.    A  number  of  others  are  men- 
tioned.    All  these  are  said  to  have  received  inspired  books,  but  they  are 
superseded  by  the  Koran.     A  very  much  adapted  account  of  Moses  and  his 
doings  occupies  considerable  portions  of  the  Koran. 

Jesus,  a  "Spirit  from  God,"  the  "Prophet  of  God,"  the  "Servant  of  God," 
the  Word  of  Truth,  is  presented  in  the  Koran  as  a  Divine  being,  but  not  the 
Son  of  God,  for  "God  could  not  take  to  Himself  a  Son."  Yet  the  Attitude 
miraculous  conception  of  Jesus,  the  annunciation  of  the  Virgin towardsJesus. 
Mary,  and  the  sinlessness  of  Jesus  are  taught.  Jesus  is  described  as  the 
greatest  miracle- worker  of  all  the  prophets,  and  there  is  an  account  of  His 
calling  a  furnished  table  down  from  heaven,  to  become  a  recurring  festival 
and  sign.  This  may  be  really  a  notion  derived  from  the  Communion  as 
celebrated  by  the  early  Christians.  The  mission  of  Jesus  is  thus  mentioned, 
the  speaker  being  supposed  to  be  God  Himself :  "  We  gave  Him  the  evangel, 


532  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

and  we  put  into  the  hearts  of  those  who  followed  Him  kindness  and 
compassion,"  His  crucifixion,  and  His  return  to  God  are  mentioned,  with 
this  singularity,  that  the  Jews  did  not  crucify  Him  in  reality,  but  only  "  His 
likeness,"  God  having  taken  Him  up  to  Himself :  this  being  the  belief  of 
not  a  few  early  Christians.  Jesus  is  represented  in  the  Koran  as  denying 
His  own  divinity,  and  threatening  with  hell-fire  those  who  associate 
aught  with  God.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  specifically  denied  ;  but  it 
would  appear  that  Mahomet  imagined  that  the  Christian  Trinity  consisted 
of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Virgin.  The  Koran  does  not  refer  speci- 
fically to  the  second  coming  of  Jesus,  but  the  traditions  about  the  Prophet 
speak  of  him  as  describing  this  event  as  a  very  material  affair ;  they  also 
represent  Jesus  as  now  existing  in  one  of  the  heavens. 

Predestination  is  one  of  the  primary  teachings  of  the  Koran — a  doc- 
trine that  has  become  a  most  disastrous  and  paralysing  fatalism  for  very 
Pre.       many  Mahometans.     Nothing  can  happen  to  us  but  what  God 
.destination.  }ias  nXed.     God  misleads  whom  He  will.     None  can  die  except 
by  His  decree.     Many  are  decreed  to  err  and  to  enter  hell.     These  doctrines 
are  still  more  freely  set  forth  in  the  traditions  about  Mahomet. 

Idols  and  idolatry  naturally  form  a  prominent  subject  of  denunciation 
in  the  Koran.  The  nothingness  of  idols  is  brought  out  in  passages  remind- 
idoiatry  inS  us  °*"  well-known  passages  in  the  Psalms  and  prophets, 
and  idolaters  though  much  inferior  to  the  Old  Testament  gems.  In  iv.  51, 
after  the  destruction  of  the  Meccan  idols,  we  read,  "  Verily  God  will  not 
forgive  the  union  of  other  gods  with  Himself.  .  .  .  And  he  who  uniteth 
gods  with  God  hath  devised  a  great  wickedness."  Idolaters  were  then 
strictly  forbidden  to  enter  the  sacred  temple  at  Mecca.  The  forgiveness 
of  idolaters  might  not  be  prayed  for,  even  by  their  kin,  and  the  example 
of  Abraham  was  alleged  in  support  of  this.  With  all  this  denunciation 
of  idolatry,  Mahomet  retained  the  black  stone  as  an  object  of  reverence, 
and  also  several  rites,  such  as;  the  "  runnings  to  and  fro,"  and  "  stonings  of 
pillars,"  which  were  connected  with  previous  idolatrous  worship  (see  later, 

p.  560). 

Unbelievers  who  deny  a  future  life  and  judgment  are  admonished  that 
they  are  destined  for  torment.  "  Lost  now  are  they  who  deny  a  meeting 
with  God,  until,  when  the  hour  cometh  suddenly  upon  them,  they  say,  'Oh, 
woe  to  us  for  past  negligence  of  this  hour  ! '  And  they  shall  bear  their  bur- 
dens on  their  back.  Will  not  that  be  evil  which  they  shall  carry  ?"  They 
will  abide  in  fire  for  ever.  Believers  are  exhorted  not  to  form  intimacies 
among  unbelievers,  for  they  long  to  corrupt  them.  Those  who  become  infi- 
dels after  having  believed  are  denounced  as  unpardonable  offenders. 

Coming  now  to  the  practical  duties  of  Moslem  believers,  they  may  be 

summed  up  in  the  one  word  which  most  fitly  represents  Mahometanism, — 

Islam,  resignation  to  the  will  of  God,  "  To  God  are  we  resigned." 

Islam  is  said  to  have  been  the  religion  of  all  the  prophets  before 

Mahomet.     Those  who  profess  this  religion  are  Muslims  or  Moslems,  Musal- 

inans  being  the  Persian  form  of  the  original  Arabic  word. 


THE   KORAN  AND   ITS   TEACHINGS  533 

The  five  principal  elements  of  Islam  as  enjoined  in  the  Koran  are  :  (1) 
Belief  in  the  one  (loci,  and  in  Mahomet  as  His  prophet;  (2)  Reciting  the 
daily  prayers ;  (3)  Giving  the  legal  alms;  (4)  Observing  the  fast  of 
Ramadan;  (5)  Making  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  once  during  lit'.'. 
The  creed  (Kelimah)  as  such  does  not  occur  in  the  Koran  ;  but  the  first  part 
of  it,  "  Thero  is  no  god  but  God,"  is  in  xlvii.  21  :  and  the  second  part, 
'•  Mahomet  is  the  apostle  of  God,"  is  in  xlviii.  29;  but  the  whole  often  occurs 
in  the  Traditions  about  Mahomet. 

Prayer  is  often  enjoined  in  the  Koran,  but  the  five  daily  prayer-times 
are  not  mentioned  in  any  one  passage.  Thus:  "Glorify  God  when  it  is 
evening,  and  at  morning, — and  to  Him  be  praise  in  the  heavens 
and  earth, — and  at  afternoon  and  at  noontide."  The  evening 
prayer  is  regarded  as  including  both  that  before  sunset  and  after  sunset. 
The  traditions  relate  that  Mahomet  received  instructions  during  his  ascent 
to  heaven  to  recite  prayers  five  times  a  day,  having  by  pra}-er  reduced  the 
requirement  from  fifty  to  five.  The  details  of  modern  Moslem  prayers  we 
shall  describe  later. 

The  fast  of  Ramadan  (or  Ramazan),  the  ninth  month  of  the  Mahometan 
year,  is  expressly  enjoined  in  ii.  179-184.  The  fast  is  prescribed  "  that  ye 
may  fear  God  for  certain  days."  It  is  not  to  be  kept  by  those  who  The  fast  of 
are  ill  or  on  a  journey,  but  they  must  fast  the  same  number  of  Ramadan- 
other  days.  The  fast  is  to  be  kept  by  day  only ;  and  eating  and  drinking 
are  allowed  after  dark  until  the  earliest  dawn.  The  first  observation  of  the 
new  moon  of  the  month  is  to  be  the  beginning  of  the  fast.  Tradition 
ascribes  to  Mahomet  the  saying,  that  during  Ramadan  "  the  gates  of 
paradise  are  open  and  the  gates  of  hell  are  shut,  and  the  devils  are  chained 
by  the  leg,  and  that  only  those  who  observe  it  will  be  permitted  to  enter  at 
the  gate  of  heaven  called  Raiyan."  On  one  particular  night  in  this  month, 
believed  to  be  the  twenty-seventh,  the  Koran  is  said  to  have  been  revealed, 
and  to  have  come  down  in  one  volume  to  the  lowest  heaven,  from  whence  it 
was  revealed  to  Mahomet  in  portions  by  the  archangel  Gabriel.  This  is 
called  the  night  of  power  :  "  Herein  descend  the  angels  and  the  spirit  by 
permission  of  their  Lord  in  every  matter,  and  all  is  peace  till  the  breaking 
of  the  morn"  (xcvii.).  Two  sayings  in  the  Tradition  are  worthy  of  note  :  "If 
a  keeper  of  fast  does  not  abandon  lying,  God  cares  not  about  his  leaving  off 
eating  and  drinking  "  ;  "  There  are  many  keepers  of  fast  who  gain  nothing 
by  fasting  but  thirst,  and  there  are  many  risers  up  at  night  and  performers 
of  prayers  who  gain  nothing  by  their  rising  but  wakefulness." 

The  duty  of  almsgiving  is  often  enjoined  in  the  Koran.  "  Zakat,"  or 
the  legal  alms,  literally  purification,  expresses  a  portion  of  property  given  a3 
a  sanctification  of  the  rest.  It  is  paid  separately  upon  different  Alms^vln 
kinds  of  property  that  have  been  at  <  least  one  year  in  possession 
of  an  adult;  but  not  upon  the  necessaries  of  life,  slaves  employed  in  service, 
books,  craftmen's  tools,  etc.  These  alms  may  be  paid  to  an  appointed  collec- 
tor, or  given  independently  to  the  poor  and  needy,  to  slaves  and  debtors,  for 
the  service  of  God  in  religious  warfare,  or  to  travellers.     Alms  beyond  this 


534  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

are  called  Sadaqali,  that  which,  manifests  righteousness.  Cheerful  givers 
of  well-gotten  wealth  are  highly  praised,  and  promised  repayment  by  God. 
Among  the  traditional  sayings  attributed  to  Mahomet  are  these :  "  The 
upper  hand  is  better  than  the  lower  one.  The  upper  hand  is  the  giver  of 
alms  and  the  lower  hand  is  the  poor  beggar  "  ;  "  The  best  of  alms  are  those 
given  by  a  man  of  small  means,  who  gives  of  that  which  he  has  earned  by 
labour,  and  gives  as  much  as  he  is  able  "  ;  "  Doing  justice  between  two 
people  is  alms  ;  assisting  a  man  on  his  beast  is  alms ;  good  words  are  alms.'' 
The  holy  pilgrimage  (liajj  or  liadj)  to  Mecca  is  thus  commanded  (xxii. 
28) :  "  Proclaim  to  the  peoples  a  pilgrimage.  Let  them  come  to  thee  on 
The  holy  foot  and  on  every  fleet  camel,  arriving  by  every  deep  defile  :  that 
pilgrimage,  they  may  bear  witness  of  its  benefits  to  them,  and  make  mention 
of  God's  name  on  the  appointed  clays  over  the  brute  beasts  with  which  He 
hath  supplied  them  for  sustenance :  and  let  them  pay  their  vows  and  cir- 
cuit the  ancient  house."  Numerous  regulations  are  given  as  to  the  time 
and  conduct  of  the  pilgrimage.  The  actual  mode  of  its  observance  we  will 
give  in  a  later  chapter. 

As  regards  general  moral  duties,  the  Koran  is  explicit.     Parents  are  to 

be  kindly  treated,  especially  in  old  age,  spoken  to  respectfully,  deferred  to 

Parents  and  humbly.       Only  if  they  desire  to  draw  their  children  away  to 

children.    ic]0latiy,  they  must  not  be  obeyed.      A  murderer  is  accounted 

worthy  of  hell.      "  Whosoever  slayeth  a  believer  purposely,  his  reward  is 

hell "  (iv.  95) ;  further,  "  It  is  incumbent  on  you  to  exercise  vengeance  for 

Murder     murder  "  (ii.  173),  but  the  heir  or  next  of  kin  may  pardon  or  com- 

and  theft.    p0Unc[  the  offence.     Theft,  when  property  is  taken  out  of  proper 

custody  in  a  secret  manner,  is  punishable  by  the  amputation  of  a  hand, 

according  to  v.  42,  "  If  a  man  or  woman  steal,  cut  off  their  hands."     As 

to  offences  against  chastity,  the  Koran  is  severe ;   immoral  persons  whose 

guilt  is  proved  are  to  receive  a  hundred  stripes ;  guilty  persons,  if  married, 

were  at  first  shut  up   in  their  houses  (iv.  19) ;  later  they  were  stoned  to 

Divorce  and  death,  according  to  a  tradition  that  Mahomet  ordained  it.     But  a 

concubinage,  practically  unlimited  right  of  concubinage  was  permitted,  both 

by  Mahomet's  example  and  by  Koranic  precept.     Thus,  "  Unlawful  to  you 

are  married  women,  except  such  as  your  right  hand  possesses,"  i.e.  those 

taken  in  war,  or  slaves  (iv.  28) ;  but  free  Mahometan  women  might  not  be 

taken  as   concubines.     While   not   allowing   to    men   generally  the   same 

licence  as  to  the  Prophet  himself,  the  Koran  permits  marriage  with  four 

.         wives  :  "If  women  seem  good  in  your  eyes,  marry  two,  or  three, 

or  four";  and  a  verse  can  even  be  produced  (iv.  27)  apparently 

sanctioning  merely  temporary  marriages.     Marriage  was  enjoined  on  every 

Moslem.      Some   of  the   sayings  on  marriage  attributed  to  Mahomet  are  : 

"  Marry  women  who  will  love  their  husbands  and  be  very  prolific,  for  I 

wish  you  to  be  more  numerous  than  any  other  people."     "  When  a  Moslem 

marries,  he  perfects  half  his  religion  ;  and  he  should   practise  abstinence 

for  the  remaining  half."     "  When  any  of  you  wishes  to  demand  a  woman 

in  marriage,  if  he  can  arrange  it,  let  him  see  her  first."     "  A  woman  ripe 


THE   KORAN  AND   ITS    TEACHINGS.  535 

in  years  shall  have  her  consent  asked  in  marriage  ;  and  if  she  remain 
silent-  her  silence  is  her  consent,  and  it'  she  refuse  she  shall  not  be  married 
by  force."'  No  definite  religious  ceremony  of  marriage  is  prescribed.  The 
Koran  prohibits  marriage  between  near  relatives,  including  cousins,  between 
foster-relatives,  between  parents  and  step-children;  and  a  man  may  not 
marry  his  wife's  sister  during  her  lifetime,  unless  the  first  married  be 
divorced. 

Severe  subjection  is  the  position  assigned  to  wives  in  the  Koran.  Thus 
we  read  :  "  Chide  those  whose  refractoriness  ye  have  cause  to  fear.  Remove 
them  into  sleeping  chambers  apart,  and  beat  them."'  "When  a  Position  of 
man  calls  his  wife,  she  must  come,  though  she  be  at  an  oven."  wes. 
But  there  are  numerous  passages  enjoining  that  wives  should  be  treated 
with  kindness,  and  extolling  the  happiness  of  marriage  with  an  amiable  and 
beautiful  wife.  And  it  must  be  admitted  that,  the  Koran  elevates  woman 
considerably  beyond  her  previous  position  in  Arabia,  which  was  that  of  a 
mere  chattel,  passing  with  the  estate  of  husband  and  father,  so  that  a  son 
frequently  married  the  wives  of  his  deceased  father  as  of  right.  A  number 
of  passages  in  the  Koran  speak  of  men  and  women  as  equal  in  regard  to 
their  religious  duties  and  ultimate  blessedness.  They  are  to  be  treated  with 
equity ;  but  men  are  acknowledged  to  be  superior  to  women  on  account  of 
various  natural  gifts. 

The  Koran  allows  divorce  on  grounds  of  aversion ;  the  divorced  woman 
must  be  generously  treated  and  must  not  remarry  till  four  months  are  past. 

Our  previous  quotations  have  given  comparatively  little  indication  of  the 
elevated,  rhetorical,  and  impassioned  style  of  much  of  the  Koran.  Rhetorical 
The  following  quotations  will  illustrate  this :—  passages. 

"  When  the  heaven  is  cleft  asunder,  and  when  the  stars  are  scattered, 
when  the  seas  gush  together,  and  when  the  tombs  are  turned  upside  down, 
the  soul  shall  know  what  it  has  sent  011  or  kept  back. 

"  0  man,  what  has  seduced  thee  concerning  thy  generous  Lord,  who 
created  thee  and  fashioned  thee  and  gave  thee  symmetry,  and  in  what 
form  He  pleased  composed  thee  ?  Verily  the  righteous  are  in  pleasure  and 
the  wicked  are  in  hell ;  they  shall  broil  therein  upon  the  judgment  day,  nor 
shall  they  be  absent  therefrom  (lxxxii.) . 

"  Blessed  be  He  in  whose  hand  is  the  kingdom,  for  He  is  mighty  over 
all :  Who  created  death  and  life,  to  try  you,  which  of  you  does  best ;  for  He 
is  the  mighty,  the  forgiving !  who  created  seven  heavens  in  storeys  :  thou 
canst  not  see  any  discordance  in  the  creation  of  the  Merciful." 

There  is  a  singular  analogy  between  the  following  and  Christ's  parable 
of  the  ten  virgins.  "  On  the  day  when  the  hypocrites,  men  and  women, 
shall  sa}r  to  those  who  believe,  '  Wait  for  us  that  we  may  kindle  at  your 
light,'  it  will  be  said,  '  Get  ye  back  and  beg  a  light.'  And  there  shall  be 
struck  out  between  them  a  wall  with  a  door;  within  it  shall  be  mercy,  and 
outside  before  it  torment.  They  shall  cry  out  to  them,  '  We  were  not  with 
you!'  They  shall  saj',  'Yea,  but  ye  did  tempt  yourselves,  and  did  wait,  and 
did  doubt ;  and  your  vain  hopes  beguiled  you ;  and  the  beguiler  beguiled  you 


53&  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 


about  God.  Wherefore  to-day  there  shall  not  be  taken  from  you  a  ransom, 
nor  from  those  who  misbelieved.  Your  resort  is  the  fire';  it  is  your  sovereign, 
and  an  ill  journey  will  it  be."  Those  who  desire  further  quotations  of  this 
kind  must  be  referred  to  translations  of  the  Koran. 

It  is  singular  how  few  aphoristic  sentences,  proverbs,  or  gems  of  moral 
truth  are  to  be  found  in  the  book.  Apart  from  its  claim  of  inspiration,  it 
structure  of  ranks  by  no  means  high  as  to  literary  form.  It  is  a  mixture  of 
Koran,  longer  and  shorter  chapters,  some  including  a  great  many  subjects, 
almost  unconnected  in  many  cases.  Mahomet  does  not  appear  to  have 
written  anything  down  himself ;  and  some  at  least  of  his  passages  seem  to 
have  been  the  outpouring  of  uncontrollable  excitement,  giving  the  greatest 
show  of  probable  "  inspiration."  Dr.  Noldeke,  one  of  the  best  authorities  on 
the  Koran,  says  [Encyclopcedia  Britannica,  xvi.  698),  '  We  must  bear  in  mind 
that  he  (Mahomet)  was  no  cold  systematic  thinker,  but  an  Oriental  visionary, 
brought  up  in  crass  superstition,  and  without  intellectual  discipline ;  a  man 
whose  nervous  temperament  had  been  powerfully  worked  on  by  ascetic 
austerities,  and  who  was  all  the  more  irritated  by  the  opposition  he  en- 
countered, because  he  had  little  of  the  heroic  in  his  nature.  Filled  with  his 
religious  ideas  and  visions,  he  might  well  fancy  he  heard  the  angel  bidding 
him  recite  what  was  said  to  him.  There  may  have  been  many  a  revelation 
of  this  kind  which  no  one  ever  heard  but  himself,  as  he  repeated  it  to 
himself  in  the  silence  of  the  night  (lxxiii.  4).  Indeed,  the  Koran  itself 
admits  that  he  forgot  some  revelations  (lxxxvii.  7).  But  by  far  the  greatest 
part  of  the  book  is  undoubtedly  the  result  of  deliberation,  touched  more  or 
less  with  emotion,  and  animated  by  a  certain  rhetorical  rather  than  poetical 
glow."  With  the  exception  of  the  word  "  undoubtedly,"  the  foregoing- 
passage  is  perhaps  near  the  truth.  It  is  quite  evident  in  reading  the  Koran 
that  numerous  passages  contradict  or  repeat  one  another ;  and  the  abro- 
gation of  certain  passages  or  the  alteration  of  their  effect  by  subsequent 
revelations  may  be  taken  as  proof  of  the  lack  of  justification  for  the  idea  of 
infallible  inspiration  of  the  Koran  ;  but  of  course  this  presents  no  difficulty 
to  the  Moslem,  for  to  him  God  is  a  being  who  can  and  does  change  His 
edicts  at  pleasure,  and  who  might  prescribe  opposite  things  in  succession 
if  it  pleased  Him. 

One  of  the  most  singular  evidences  of  Mahomet's  lack  of  literary  percep- 
tion is  furnished  by  his  delineation  of  the  old  prophets,  who  are  in  effect 
Delineation  cmPucates  of  Mahomet  himself.  "  They  preach  exactly  like  him, 
of  old  they  have  to  bring  the  very  same  charges  against  their  opponents, 
who  on  their  part  behave  exactly  like  the  unbelieving  inhabitants 
of  Mecca  "  (N.).  Mahomet  further  shows  his  ignorance  of  the  Jewish  scrip- 
tures by  his  mistakes,  such  as  naming  Haman  minister  of  Pharaoh,  making 
the  fertility  of  Egypt  depend  on  rain,  and  not  on  the  Nile.  We  will  not 
further  pursue  the  litera^  analysis  of  the  Koran,  being  concerned  here 
chiefly  with  its  religious  import. 

Although  it  is  by  no  means  arranged  in  chronological  order,  it  is  very 
possible  to  mark  out  most  of  the  chapters  of  the  Koran,  according  as  they 


THE   KORAN  AND  ITS   TEACHINGS.  537 


were  delivered  at  Mecca  before  the  flight  or  at  Medina  ;  and  they  have  still 
further  been  subdivided  into  six  sets  characterising  different  chronological 
periods.  In  the  earliest,  while  the  Prophet  was  still  meditating  sequence, 
on  evil  and  the  terrors  of  the  Last  Day,  his  st}de  is  more  poetic,  fragmentary, 
and  impassioned,  with  brief  sentences  and  rapidly  changing  rhymes.  To 
this  period  belongs  the  Moslem  prayer  which  opens  the  Koran.  With  these 
are  some  most  vivid  pictures  of  hell  and  the  judgment.  A  second  series 
marks  the  opening  phases  of  the  Prophet's  ministry ;  in  one  chapter,  when 
Mahomet  has  been  bidding  his  clan  accept  the  truth,  Aim  Laheb  exclaims. 
"  Perdition  to  you  !"  and  in  answer  the  Prophet  curses  him  and  his  wife 
(cxi.).  The  later  Meccan  chapters  deal  largely  with  the  same  subjects 
which  had  been  dealt  with  more  briefly  in  earlier  ones,  with  the  addition  of 
many  narratives  from  the  Jewish  Scriptures  and  Rabbinical  and  Arab 
legends.  "  A  sermonising  tone  predominates.  The  suras  are  very  edifying 
for  one  who  is  already  reconciled  to  their  import ;  but  to  ns  at  least  they  do 
not  seem  well  fitted  to  carry  conviction  to  the  minds  of  unbelievers.  .  .  . 
In  realit}^  these  longer  Meccan  suras  appear  to  have  been  peculiarly  influen- 
tial for  the  propagation  of  Islam  "  (N.).  The  Medina  chapters  are  mostly 
connected  with  some  definite  historical  event,  or  some  circumstance  which 
called  forth  the  particular  revelation.  "  At  one  time  it  is  a  summons  to  do 
battle  for  the  faith  ;  at  another,  a  series  of  reflections  on  recently-experienced 
success  or  misfortune,  or  a  rebuke  for  their  weak  faith,  or  an  exhortation  to 
virtue.  He  often  addresses  himself  to  the  doubters,  some  of  whom  vacillate 
between  faith  and  unbelief;  others  make  a  pretence  of  faith,  while  others 
scarcely  take  the  trouble  even  to  do  that.  ...  A  part  of  the  Medina 
pieces  consists  of  formal  laws  belonging  to  the  ceremonial,  civil,  and  criminal 
codes,  or  directions  about  certain  temporary  complications.  The  most 
objectionable  parts  of  the  whole  Koran  are  those  which  treat  of  Mahomet's 
relations  with  women  "  (N.).  We  must  not  omit  to  state  that  the  Koran 
bears  testimony  to  itself  in  more  than  one  emphatic  passage  ;  thus,  "  If  men 
and  genii  were  assembled  together  that  they  might  produce  a  book  like  the 
Koran,  they  must  fail  "  (xvii.  90). 

As  regards  miracles,  the  Koran  does  not  assert  that  Mahomet  workei  I 
them,  and  only  a  few  which  are  incredible  have  been  attributed  to  him  by 
his  followers.     In  xxix.  49,  we  read,  "  They  say,  Why  are  not 

r\  t      •  r~A  *  1  JJX1PELC16S. 

signs  sent  down  to  him  from  his  Lord  ?     Say,  signs  are  111  the 
power  of  God  alone,  and  I  am  only  an  open  warner."    In  xvii.  92-97,  where 
the  unbelievers  are  represented  as  asking  for  miracles,  Mahomet  is  directed 
to  say,  "  Praise  be  to  my  Lord.     Am  I  more  than  a  man,  and  an  apostle?  " 
Mahometan  commentators  refer  to  the  cleaving  of  the  moon  (liv.),  the  assist- 
ance of  angels  at  the  battle  of  Bedr  (hi.),  the  night-journey  to  heaven  (xvii.), 
and  the  revelation  of  the  Koran  itself  as  miracles  recorded  in  the  Koran. 
And  indeed  the  reverence  with  which  Mohammedans  regard  the    Reverence 
Koran  corresponds  with  this  belief.     "They  dare  not  touch  it   forK°ran- 
without  being  first  washed  and  purified,  and  they  read  it  with  the  greatest 
care  and  respect,  never  holding  it  below  their  girdles.     They  swear  by  it, 


538  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

consult  it  on  all  occasions,  carry  it  with,  them  to  war,  write  sentences  of  it  on 
their  banners,  suspend  it  from  their  necks  as  a  charm,  and  always  place  it 
on  the  highest  shelf  or  some  place  of  honour  in  their  houses."  Whatever 
defects  we  find  in  the  Koran,  it  made  Arabic  a  literary  language,  it  has 
influenced  the  belief  and  conduct  of  countless  millions  of  men,  and  it  is  at 
this  day  reverenced  and  obeyed  by  an  increasing  number  of  persons.1 

The  Koran  was  first  printed  in  Arabic  at  Rome  in  1530,  but  was  either 
burned  or  remained  unpublished.  In  1649  an  edition  was  published  at 
Hamburg,  and  there  have  been  several  subsequent  editions.  The 
Mahometans  themselves  have  issued  versions,  interlinear  with  the 
original,  in  Persian,  Pushto,  Urdu,  Turkish,  and  numerous  other  languages. 
A  translation  of  the  Koran  into  Latin  was  made  in  1143  for  Peter,  the  Abbot 
of  Cluny,  but  was  not  published  till  1543  at  Basle.  This  version  was  after- 
wards further  translated  into  Italian,  German,  and  Dutch.  The  first  French 
translation  was  done  in  1547  ;  this  was  translated  into  English  in  1649-1688. 
The  well-known  English  translation  by  Sale  appeared  in  1734.  The  Eev. 
J.  M.  Rodwell  published  a  translation  into  English  in  1861,  distinguished 
by  the  arrangement  of  the  chapters  in  their  supposed  chronological  order. 
Palmer's  translation  (1880)  is  more  literal  and  less  elegant. 

Commentaries  in  Arabic  upon  the  Koran  were  made  very  early,  and 
probably  the  Commentary  of  Tabari  (839-023)  contains  much  of  their  sub- 
stance. Thousands  of  commentaries  have  since  been  written, 
'  and  many  of  them  are  most  important  aids  to  understanding 
obscure  passages.  There  are  many  other  Arabic  works  connected  with  the 
Koran,  its  spelling  and  pronunciation,  its  beauties,  the  number  of  its  verses 
and  letters,  etc.  The  devotion  of  Moslems  to  their  sacred  book  is  natural 
when  we  consider  that  they  believe  it  to  have  been  eternally  existent  and 
uncreated  in  the  Divine  thought. 

1  Eodwell's  Koran  ;  Palmer's  Koran  ("  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,"  vols.  6,  9).  Hughes,  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Islam," — Encyclopedia  Britannica,  vol.  17,  Art.  "Mohammedanism,"  section,  "  Koran," 
by  Dr.  Noldeke.     "Islam,"  Quarterly  Bevieiv,  vol.  127,  by  E.  Deutsch. 


MOSQUE    07   AHMED   KHIAcjA   AND    MARKET   PLACE,    AT    BAGDAD. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

iHofcmt  tfslam.   $art  L 

The  First  Caliphs— The  Ommyads— The  death  of  Hosain  -The  Abbaside  caliphs  — Harun-al-Raschid— 
The  Fatimite  dynasty— Caliphs  in  Spain— Saladin— Fall  of  Bagdad— Various  Sultanates  -  Sun- 
nites  and  Shiites— Distribution  and  numbers —Various  Sects— Motazilites  -Jabarites  Kharijites 
— Malikites— Hanifites— Shaflites— Hanbalites— The  Ulema —Imams —Extra-Koranic  beliefs— The 
exalted  name  of  God— The  essence  of  the  Deity— Sins— Mahometan  oaths— Abstinence— Restric- 
tions on  eating— Ablution— Public  prayer— The  sermon— Circumcision— Marriage -Divorce  — 
Concubinage— Slaves— Death— Burial— Funeral  processions— The  immediate  fate  of  the  soul- 
Mosques— Endowment  and  government— The  Sacred  Mosque  at  Mecca— The  Sacred  Hajj,  or  pil- 
grimage—The Prophet's  Mosque  at  Medina— The  Mosque  of  Omar— The  Dome  of  the  Rock -Great 
mosque  at  Damascus— The  Mosque  of  Cordova— Mosques  and  tombs  at  Cairo— St.  Sophia  at  Con- 
stantinople— Indian  mosques  and  tombs— The  Jummoo  Musjid  at  Delhi— The  Taj  Mehal. 

INASMUCH  as  the  religion  of  Mahomet  speedily  became  inextricably 
mingled  with  political  history,  in  accordance  with  the  injunctions 
frequently  repeated  in  the  chapters  of  the  Koran  revealed  at  Medina,  to 
spread  Islam  by  the  sword,  we  shall  but  briefly  refer  to  its  historical  advance, 
both  because  it  is  better  dealt  with  in  works  of  general  history,  and  because 
we  are  principally  concerned  with  marked  developments  in  its  religious 
aspect. 

Islam  was  consolidated  in  Arabia  by  means  of  the  wars  which  at  once 
arose  after  Mahomet's  death,  to  secure  the  predominance  of  the  Caliphate, 
and  the    wars  of   extension    by  which    it    was  successively    or    The  First 
simultaneously  carried  into  S}rria,  Persia,  and  Egypt.     The  Gos-     CallPns- 
pel  of  Christ  was  in  these  lands  for  a  time  overwhelmed  ;  and  the  people, 
who  had  but  slightly  assimilated  it,  readily  threw  it  off  at  the  bidding 


54o  THE    WORLD'S  RELfGIOAS. 


of  tlieir  conquerors.  The  names  of  Alm-bekr  (632-634),  Omar  (634-644), 
< Hliman  (644-656),  and  Ali  (656-661),  the  first  four  caliphs,  are  mainly 
associated  -with  this  rapid  career  of  conquest",  Omar  especially  having 
consolidated  the  Arabian  State  at  Medina.  At  the  beginning  of  his  reign 
he  uttered  a  sentence  which  has  become  famous  :  "  By  God,  he  that  is 
weakest  among  you  shall  be  in  my  sight  the  strongest,  until  I  have  vindi- 
cated for  him  his  rights ;  but  him  that  is  strongest  will  I  treat  as  the  weak- 
est, until  he  complies  with  the  laws." 

By  a  strange  stroke  of  fate,  the  f  amily  of  the  Koreish  which  furnished 

the  leader,  Omayya,  in  the  battle  of  Ohod,  and  to  which  one  of  Mahomet's 

The        most  violent  opponents,  Abu  Sofyan,  belonged,  gave  rise  to  the 

ommyads.   great    Ommyad  line   of  Caliphs,   which   lasted  from   Othman's 

murder  in  661  to  the  death  of  Merwan  II.  in  750.     Moawiya,  the  first  of 

the  line,  made  Damascus  his  capital ;  his  religion,  like  that  of  most  of  his 

successors,  became  largely  subservient  to  his  political  aims.    Long  war  raged 

between  them  and  the  adherents  of  Ali's  descendants,  the  cousin  of  Mahomet 

and  husband  of  Fatima,  the  only  child  who  survived  him.     The  Ommyads 

plundered  Medina,  took  Mecca,  and  burnt  the  Kaaba,  which,  however,  was 

The  death  of  soon  rebuilt.     The  slaughter  of  Hosain,  the  son  of  Ali,  on  the 

Hosain.  10th.  Moharram  (Oct.)  680,  at  Kerbela,  has  given  rise  to  one  of 
the  most  sacredly  observed  festivals  in  certain  Mohammedan  countries. 
Early  in  the  eighth  century  the  power  of  the  Ommj-ads  had  extended  to 
the  borders  of  China,  over  North  Africa,  and  all  Spain.  Before  720,  the 
Abbaside  movement  had  arisen,  named  from  Abbas  the  paternal  uncle  of 
Mahomet.  His  descendants  enjoyed  the  greatest  consideration  among  the 
Moslems,  and  on  Ali's  son's  death  remained  nearest  of  kin  to  the  Prophet. 
The  Ommyad  Caliphs,  however,  insulted  them  so  shamefully  that  they 
conceived  the  idea  of  supplanting  the  ruling  dynasty,  and  allied  to  them- 
selves Ali's  party,  b}>-  giving  out  that  one  of  his  descendants  had  appointed 
an  Abbaside,  Mohammed,  his  heir.  The  advance  of  the  Moslems  into 
Europe  was  now  first  checked  by  Charles  Martel  in  732,  who  defeated  Abd- 
el-Rahman  near  Poitiers,  and  afterwards  drove  the  invaders  back  into 
Spain. 

Various  provinces  of  the  Arab  Empire  broke  away  and  set  up  for  them- 
selves. The  Ommyad  dynasty  fell  in  750,  and  Abu  '1-Abbas  became 
The  Abbaside  Caliph  at  Cufa  on  the  Euphrates.    The  establishment  of  the  dy- 

caiiphs.  nasty  cost^  it  is  saidj  600,000  lives.  The  next  caliph,  Mansur, 
transferred  his  capital  to  Bagdad,  which  was  long  the  most  famous  Moslem 
city.    Meanwhile  Africa  and  Spain  revolted  from  the  power  of  the  Abbasides, 

Harunai-  but  they  made  great  progress  in  Asia  Minor.     The  most  cele- 

Raschid.  brated  Eastern  caliph,  Harun-al-Easchid  (786-809),  was  devoted 
in  his  religious  duties,  especially  in  pilgrimage,  and  attempted  to  secure 
the  succession  to  the  Caliphate  to  his  three  sons  in  order,  by  a  deed  which 
he  hung  up  in  the  Kaaba,  which,  however,  his  eldest  son  destroyed,  and 
in  consequence  lost  his  crown  and  his  life  five  years  after  his  accession. 
The  second  son  of  Harun,  Maimun,   after  a  stormy  beginning,  led  a  life 


541 


542  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


of   literary  ease,  encouraged    authors,    and   set   himself   to  overthrow  the 

widespread  doctrine  that  the  Koran  was  the  uncreated  word  of  God ;  and 

his  successor   continued  the  same  polic}'.     From  their  time  the  power  of 

the  Eastern  Caliphate  declined.     Razi  (934-940)  was  the  last  Caliph  who 

The  Fatimite  led  prayers  and  preached  to  the  people.     In  910  the  Fatimite 

dynasty.     c]ynasty  was  founded  in  Egypt,  by  Obaid  Allah,   surnamed  the 

Mahdi,  "  the  directed  one,"'  hence  fit  to  guide  others,  and  assuming  to  be  a 

descendant  of  Fatimah,  and  consequently  entering  into  the  rights  of  Ali. 

caliphs     The  empire  of  the  Fatimites  lasted  in  Egypt  and  North  Africa 

in  Spain,    till  1171.     The  Ommyad  Caliphs  of  Cordova,  in  Spain,  maintained 

their  rule  from  755  to  1236,  and  the  Moorish  Caliphs,  or  Sultans,  of  Granada 

held  sway  from  1238  to  1492. 

Meanwhile    the  Crusades  had  contributed  greatly  to    the    decline  of 
the  Eastern  Caliphate.     At  first  the  Arab  conquerors  of  Palestine,  in  the 
The        seventh  century,  allowed  Christian  pilgrims  to  Jerusalem  to  build 
crusades.    a  church  and  a  hospital.     Under  the  Fatimite  Caliphs,  who  con- 
quered Palestine   and  Syria  in  the  tenth  century,    the  position  of  Chris- 
tians was  less  favourable.     In  1065  the  Seljuk  Turks  from  the  Caucasus, 
new  converts  to  Islam,  overrunning  Palestine,  committed  great  atrocities 
on  Christians.     This  resulted  in  the  first  Crusade,  which  Avas  successful  in 
wresting  Syria,  Palestine,  and  much  of  Asia  Minor  from  the  Mahometans 
(1099).     But  this  dominion  was  practically  won  back  by  Saladin, 
a  Kurdish  chieftain  who  had  made  himself  Sultan  of  Egypt,  and 
the  Christians  remained  free  to  make  pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem    exempt 
from  taxation.     A  still  more  formidable  enemy  to  the  Caliphs,  however, 
approached  from  the  north  and   east,  in  the   person  of  Jenghiz  Khan  and 
Fail  of      the  Mongols.     Finally  Hulaga,  the  Mongol  sovereign,  took  Bag- 
Bagdad,     dad  in  1258,  and  destroyed  the  Eastern  Caliphate.     Before  this, 
however,    governor    after    governor  of  dependent  provinces    had   become 
various     practically  independent ;  and  hence  we  find  one  power  at  Kairwan, 
sultanates.  in  Tripoli,  another  in  Fez  (Morocco),  another  in  Khorasan,  and 
others  in  various  parts  of  India.     The  Ottoman  Turks  set  up  their  dynasty 
in  Constantinople  in  1299,  and  it  still  continues. 

In  giving  an  account  of  modern  Islam,  we  must  first  direct  attention  to 
the  two  predominant  and  hostile  divisions  into  which  it  is  divided,  and 
sunnites  and  which  date  back  to  the  early  times  of  the  Caliphate.  The  Sun- 
shiites.  nites,  followers  of  the  Tradition  or  path  (Sunnah),  acknowledge 
the  first  four  caliphs  as  rightful  successors  of  Mahomet,  and  accept  the 
six  "authentic''  books  of  tradition,  in  addition  to  the  Koran,  as  the 
guide  of  faith  and  conduct.  This  does  not  imply  that  the  Shiites,  the 
other  great  division,  reject  the  Traditions,  but  the  Sunnites  have  appropri- 
ated the  name  ;  while  the  Shiites,  or  "  followers  "  of  Ali,  reject  the  right  of 
the  first  four  caliphs  as  true  successors  of  the  Prophet,  and  reckon  Ali, 
Mahomet's  cousin,  as  the  first  true  imam  or  caliph.  They  call  themselves 
the  true  believers,  and  are  also  known  as  the  imamiyahs,  believing  that 
Islam  consists  in  knowledge  of  the  rightful  imam.     They  have  traditions 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


543 


of  the  nomination  of  AH  to  succeed  him  by  Mahomet,  and  believe  that 
special  revelations  were  made  to  Fatima,  Ali's  wife,  which  were  inherited 
by  the  last  imam,  the  Mahdi.  They  recognise  in  all  twelve  imams,  includ- 
ing Ali,  his  sons  Hasan  and  Hosain,  Ali  son  of  Hosain,  and  seven  of  his 
descendants,  the  last,  Mohammed,  the  so-called  Mahdi,  or  Director,  being 
supposed  to  be  still  alive,  though  withdrawn  from  sight,  to  reappear  in  the 
last  days,  according  to  the  Prophet's  prediction. 

The    Sunnites    are     the 
majority  in  Arabia,  Turkey, 
North   Africa,  In-  Distribution 
dia,   Turkestan,        and 

.  n   ,        •   .  n     numbers. 

Afghanistan,    and 

Eastern  Asia,  and  in  all  they 
number  something  like  150 
millions ;  while  the  Shiites 
are  most  numerous  in  Persia 
and  in  India,  though  scat- 
tered here  and  there  through- 
out Islam.  They  are  variously 
estimated  at  between  ten  and 
twenty  millions.  Besides 
these,  there  are  the  Abadiyeh 
of  Oman  and  Zanzibar,  and 
the  Zirdites  of  Yemen,  esti- 
mated by  Mr.  Blunt  at  four 
and  two  millions  respec- 
tively, and  the  Wahhabis  in 
Nejd  and  some  other  regions, 
said  to  number  eight  millions. 
Consequently  the  followers  of 
Mahomet  at  the  present  day 
cannot  be  reckoned  fewer 
than  175  millions. 

Besides      the       existent 
-i  sets,  we  may  mention  among 

those  of  the  past, 

.  ,.  .,  .Various  sects, 

the     followers    of 

Hasan  of  Basra,  in  the  first 

century  of   Islam,    who    set 


IXl'EKIor.  OF  A  MOSQUE,  CAIRO, 

(Sfto  oing  fhe  r«ltnt  and  the  Kibldh). 

himself  to  settle  dogmatic  difficulties  which  the  Koran  left  unsolved.  ^  One 
of  his  disciples,  Wasil,  founded  the  sect  of  the  Motazilites  (dissentient), 
or  Kadarites,  recognising  man's  power  (kadar)  over  his  own 
actions,  in  contradistinction  to  the  orthodox  view  of  predestina- 
tion. Wasil  denied  the  eternity  of  the  attributes  of  God,  reasonin 
if  they  were  eternal,  they  constituted  so  many  independent  deities, 
objected  to  predestination,  that  it  was  incompatible  with  the  belief  in  future 


MotazUites. 
;    that 

Wasil 


544  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Jabarites. 


rewards  and  punishments ;  lie  also  admitted  a  purgatory.  Another  sect,  the 
Jabarites,  agreed  with  the  Motazilites  as  to  the  attributes  of  God 
but  maintained  the  most  uncompromising  view  of  predestination, 
denying  to  man  the  slightest  share  in  shaping  his  own  conduct.  Somewhat 
like  the  Calvinists,  they  believed  that  every  man  was  predestined  to  heaven 
or  hell,  and,  more  consistent  than  the  Calvinists,  they  denied  human  responsi- 
bility. A  third  sect,  the  Sifatites,  partisans  of  the  attributes,  interpreted 
the  Koranic  accounts  of  God  literally,  and  were  gross  anthropomorphists. 

Another  form  of  dissent  from  the  Koran  and  its  orthodox  upholders 
arose  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,  among  the  partisans  of  Ali. 
It  refused  to  acknowledge  the  exclusive  right  of  the  Koreish  to 
furnish  a  Caliph  and  Imam  to  Islam,  and  maintained  that  the 
origin  of  the  leader  of  the  faithful  was  a  matter  of  indifference,  if  he  did 
his  duty  well.  This  sect,  known  as  the  Kharijites,  were  truer  followers  of 
Mahomet  than  the  orthodox  ;  they  held  that  a  man  was  responsible  for 
his  actions,  in  spite  of  predestination,  and  that  a  great  sinner  could  not  be 
a  good  Moslem.  They  were  ultimately  suppressed  in  Asia,  but  long  con- 
tinued to  have  much  influence  in  northern  Africa.  These  sects,  together 
with  the  Shiites,  subsequently  described,  were  the  "  protestants  "  to  whom, 
by  antagonism,  much  of  the  character  of  Mohammedan  orthodoxy  is  due. 

The  Sunnis  are  divided  into  four  principal  sects,  the  Malikites,  Hanifites, 
Shafiites,  and  Hanbalites ;  named  after  their  founders,  Malik,  Abu  Hanifa, 
Shani,  and  Ibn  Hanbal.     These  were  all  established  under  the 
Abbaside   Caliphs,    and    really  differ  comparatively   little   from 
one  another.      The  first  great  collection  of  the  traditions  of  Mahomet  was 
made  by  Malik,  at  Medina,  in  the  eighth  century.      These  he  regarded  as 
superseding  human  judgment.      Abu  Hanifa,  his  contemporary,  who  died 
at  Bagdad  in  770,  eclipsed  him  in  fame,  being  the  main  pillar  of  the  deduc- 
tive  method,  which  undertook  to  create  precedents  in  Moslem 
law  by  analogy,  in  agreement  with  the  spirit  of  the  Koran,  the 
Tradition,  and  the  decisions  of  the  first  four  caliphs.     His  system,  known  as 
the  Hanifite  law,  is  the  most  followed  of  any.      Shafii  (born  770),  a  descen- 
dant of  the  Prophet's  grandfather,  a  pupil  of  Malik,  founded  an  intermediate 
system  between  the  deductive  and  the  traditional.     One  of  his 

SlicLfiitcs 

pupils,  Ibn  Hanbal,  founded  the  fourth  orthodox  sect,  which  was 
a  kind  of  puritanism,  aiming  at  restoring  the  primitive  purity  of  religious 
observances.      His  followers  are  now  comparatively  few,  though 
it  is  alleged  that  the  Wahhabis  represent  the  spirit  of  his  teaching. 
Moslem  orthodoxy  has  become  fixed  within  narrow  limits,  and  does 
not  vary  much  from  century  to  century  or  from  place  to  place.      Its  dis- 
cussions  and   learning   are   confined   to   a   narrow   kind   of   scholasticism, 

mr_     ,         analogous  to  that  of  the  Middle  Age  schoolmen.    Even  more  than 
The  ulema.   .  °  °  . 

m  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  believers  are  in  the  hands  of 

a  clergy,  the  ulema,  or  knowers  (singular  alim),  who,  without  being  endued 

with  any  temporal  power,  and  without  having  any  ordination  or  apostolical 

succession,  constitute  a  spiritual  hierarchy  of  despotic  power  and  enormous 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


545 


Influence.  In  fact,  they  are  much  more  powerful,  socially  and  politically, 
than  the  temporal  rulers  of  Moslem  countries.  As  a  specimen  of  their  strong 
self-assertion,  we  may  quote  the  declaration  of  the  ulema  in  Spain,  when 
the  Sultan  Mansur  threatened  them  for  opposing  him  :  "  All  the  evil  you 
say  of  us  applies  to  yourself ;    you  seek  unjust  gains,  and  support  your 


ENTBANCE    TO    THE    MEDUESSE    (COLLEGE)    OF    ABDUL    AZIZ    KUAN,    BOKHARA. 

injustice  by  threats ;  you  take  bribes  and  practise  ungodliness  in  the  world. 
But  we  are  guides  on  the  path  of  righteousness,  lights  in  the  darkness,  and 
bulwarks  of  Islam.  We  decide  what  is  just  or  unjust,  and  declare  the  right. 
Through  us  the  precepts  of  religion  are  maintained.  We  know  that  the  Sultan 
-will  soon  think  better  of  the  matter  ;  but  if  he  persists,  every  act  of  his 

N    N 


54&  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

government  will  be  null,  for  every  treaty  of  peace  and  war,  every  act  of 
sale  and  purchase,  is  valid  only  through  our  testimony."  Leaving  the 
vizier's  presence,  they  were  followed  by  the  Sultan's  apology  before  they 
had  passed  out  of  the  palace  gate. 

The  mode  in  which  the  numbers  of  the  ulema  are  kept  up  is  by  a. 
sort  of  university  education,  which  is  now  chiefly  obtainable  at  the  famous 
mosque  of  El  Azhar,  at  Cairo,  but  formerly  from  the  famous  universities  of 
Damascus,  Bagdad,  Kairwan,  Seville,  Cordova,  etc.,  where  there  were  thou- 
sands of  students.  They  almost  all  come  from  the  lower  classes,  in  whom 
fanaticism  is  most  abundant,  and  not  unfrequently  obtain  permission  to 
sleep  in  the  mosque,  and  receive  daily  rations  from  the  funds  of  the 
mosque.  They  enter  their  names  according  to  their  respective  sects,  and 
attend  the  lectures  of  their  professors,  which  are  given  around  the  pillars  of 
the  great  court.  The  subjects  are  Arabic,  Mohammedan  dogma,  the  Koran, 
tradition,  and  the  law.  The  Hanafite  decisions  are  most  effective  in  law- 
courts  ;  but  nevertheless  the  Shafiite  and  Malikite  students  are  much  more 
numerous,  and  there  are  very  few  Hanbalites.  The  work  of  a  professor  is 
not  mentally  onerous,  for,  strange  to  say,  they  merely  give  explanations 
from  commentaries,  being  forbidden  to  add  anything  of  their  own.  There 
are  various  standard  compendiums  and  treatises  of  great  length,  consisting 
chiefly  of  arguments  like  those  of  the  medieval  school-men,  which  the 
students  have  to  master.  A  few  other  subjects,  such  as  rhetoric  and  logic, 
may  be  taken  up  ;  but  the  general  course  is  very  narrow,  and  confirms  the 
natural  narrowness  of  the  pupils.  All  that  does  not  directly  appertain  to 
theology  is  regarded  as  superfluous  or  injurious.  Theology,  being  considered 
to  be  already  perfect,  can  supply  no  opportunity  of  progress  beyond  a  cer- 
tain narrow  limit.  "  All  originality  is  crushed  out,  and  a  blind  and  ludicrous 
dependence  on  written  tradition — even  in  things  profane — takes  its  place."' 
The  students,  after  three  or  four  years  thus  spent,  having  obtained  certifi- 
cates from  the  professors,  gain  a  government  appointment  in  a  law  court,  or 
become  teachers,  prayer-leaders,  cadis,  or  muftis  in  the  smaller  towns,  or 
occupy  themselves  in  the  various  offices  for  which  a  theologian  is  required. 
There  are  many  sources  from  which  an  income  may  be  derived,  gifts  being 
not  the  least  abundant  of  these  ;  and  the  higher  ulema  back  up  their  brethren 
in  all  ways,  so  that  they  form  in  effect  a  powerful  corporation.  There  is  no 
charge  for  the  instruction  given  in  El-Azhar,  and  there  is  no  endowment 
for  the  professors.  In  Bokhara  there  is  still  a  considerable  attempt  at 
theological  education,  and  there  are  eighty  colleges  or  schools  attached  to 
mosques  ;  but  they  are  for  the  most  part  centres  of  mere  fanatic  ignorance. 
In  India  every  considerable  mosque  has  its  college  of  divinity  students,  and 
their  heads  are  generally  termed  mollahs  (or  maulawis) ;  some  of  them  are 
good  Arabic  scholars,  but  are  otherwise  very  ignorant. 

Considering  their  unofficial  position,  it  is  surprising  how  great  a  power 
the  ulema  wield.  This  is  in  consequence  of  their  representing  the  spiritual 
influence  of  the  Prophet ;  while  even  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  though  he  calls 
himself  "  the  successor  of  the  Prophet,"  cannot  exercise  the  powers  of  a  pope. 


MODERN  ISLAM.  547 


He  however  nominates  the  Sheikh-nl-Islam  (senior  or  president  of  Islam),  or 
mufti  of  Constantinople,  who  represents  him  among  the  ulema,  and  whose 
judgments  on  points  of  faith  and  law  cannot  be  appealed  against.  But  the 
choice  of  this  personage  is  limited  to  the  moilahs,  or  chiefs  of  religious 
bodies  ;  and  as  no  one  can  become  one  of  the  ulema  but  by  examination  and 
certification  by  older  ulema,  and  thus  the  priesthood  is  animated  by  a  power- 
ful esprit  de  corps. 

The  imams,  or  leaders  in  prayer,  are  the  most  important  essential 
officials  of  the  mosques.  The  true  imam,  or  caliph  of  all  the  Moslems,  is 
the  deputy  or  representative  of  the  Prophet,  and  should  perform 
almost  every  function  which  Mahomet  performed  ;  but  the  term 
has  become  applied  to  the  leader  of  any  system  or  school  of  theology  or 
law,  and  to  leaders  in  prayer  at  all  mosques.  There  is  no  ceremony  of 
ordination,  nor  is  any  ministerial  act  performed  by  the  imam,  except  that 
of  standing  in  front  and  repeating  the  prayers  and  reciting  the  Koran.  In 
fact,  wherever  there  are  three  worshippers,  one  of  them  must  act  as  imam 
and  the  other  two  follow  him.  Tradition  says  that  the  Prophet  spoke 
thus:  "Let  him  act  as  imam  to  a  congregation  who  knows  the  Koran 
thoroughly ;  and  if  all  present  should  be  equal  in  that  respect,  then  let  him 
perform  who  is  best  informed  in  the  rules  of  prayer ;  and  if  they  are  equal 
in  this  respect  also,  let  him  act  as  imam  who  has  fled  for  the  sake  of  Islam  ; 
and  if  equal  in  this  respect  likewise,  let  that  person  act  who  is  oldest ;  but 
the  governed  must  not  act  as  imam  to  the  governor." 

Passing  now  to  the  teachings  and  beliefs  of  these  ':  clergy "  and  of 
intelligent  Moslems,— although  they  rely  so  much  on  the  Koran,  they  have 
imperceptibly  developed  and  codified  much  teaching  that  is  not 
formally  contained  therein.  For  instance,  as  to  the  personality  Koranic 
and  nature  of  God,  their  detailed  statements  are  to  a  large  extent 
worthy  of  Christian  doctors  and  full  of  philosophic  acumen.  Of  course,  be- 
lieving so  absolutely  in  predestination  and  control  by  the  Almighty,  they 
hold  doctrines  which  large  sections  of  Christendom  would  reject,  and  which 
come  very  near  to  complete  Pantheism.  Thus  the  words  "  There  is  no  God 
but  God,"  to  the  Moslem,  to  quote  Mr.  Palgrave's  language,  "imply  that 
this  one  supreme  Being  is  also  the  only  Agent,  the  only  Force,  the  only  act 
existing  throughout  the  universe,  and  leave  to  all  beings  else  nothing  but 
pure  unconditional  passiveness,  alike  in  movement  or  in  quiescence,  in  action 
or  in  capacity."  Thus  even  all  evil,  so-called,  is  His  creation.  Yet  "He 
has  with  respect  to  His  creatures  one  main  feeling  and  source  of  action, 
namely,  jealousy  of  them,  lest  they  should  perchance  attribute  to  them- 
selves something  of  what  is  His  alone.  Hence  He  is  ever  more  prone  to 
punish  than  to  reward,  to  inflict  pain  than  to  bestow  pleasure."  {Central 
and  Eastern  Arabia.)  It  is  a  consequence  of  this  position,  that  no  pre- 
eminence can  rightfully  be  claimed  before  God  by  any  man ;  all  are  equally 
His  servants. 

There  is  one  exalted  name  of  God,  supposed  only  to  be  known  to  the 
prophets  and  great  saints;  and  it  is  said  that  Mahomet  declared  that  whoever 


54S 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


calls  upon  God  by  that  name  will  obtain  all  his  desires.     Consequently  the 

The  exalted  Moslem  fakirs  and  mystics  spend  much  of  their  time  in  trying 

name  of  God.  t0  find  it  out ;    those  who  assert  that  they  know  it  gain  great 

influence  over  the  suparstitious.     The  attributes  of  God  are  classified  under 

the  heads  of  "Life,  Knowledge,  Power,  Will,  Hearing,  Seeing,  and  Speech." 

As  a  specimen  of  the  best  kind  of  Moslem  theological  statement,  we 

may  quote  from  the  famous  scholastic  divine  Al-Ghazzali  in  the  eleventh 

The  essence  century  (1058-1111).      He  writes  thus  of  the  essence  of  God: 

of  the  Deity.  «  jje  jg  one?  and  bath  no  partner  ;  singular,  without  anything  like 

Him ;    uniform,  having  no  contrary ;    separate,  having  no   equal.      He  is 

ancient,  having  no  first ;  eternal,  having  no  beginning ;  remaining  for  ever, 

having  no  end ;    continuing  to  eternity,   without   any  termination.      He 

persists  without  ceasing  to  be  ;  remains  without  failing,  and  never  did  cease, 

nor  ever  shall  cease  to  be  de- 
scribed by  glorious  attributes, 
nor  is  subject  to  any  decree  so 
as  to  be  determined  by  any 
precise  limits  or  set  times,  but 
is  the  First  and  the  Last,  and  is 
within  and  without.  .  .  .  He 
is  too  holy  to  be  subject  to 
change,  or  any  local  motion ; 
neither  do  any  accidents  dwell 
in  Him,  nor  any  contingencies 
befall  Him,  —  but  He  abides 
through  all  generations  with 
His  glorious  attributes,  free 
from  all  danger  of  dissolution. 
As  to  the  attribute  of  perfec- 
tion, He  wants  no  addition  to 
His  perfection."  And  so  on 
through  a  long  exposition.  This 
is  quoted,  not  as  proving  any  originality  in  the  Moslem  beliefs,  but  as  show- 
ing the  high  level  attained  in  some  directions,  and  as  a  proof  that,  so  far 
as  regards  the  Divine  attributes,  Christians  have  much  in  common  with 
Moslems — a  fact  which  should  moderate  denunciations  or  censure,  and  give 
rise  to  an  attitude  of  tolerance. 

With  such  beliefs  as  to  the  absoluteness  of  Divine  control,  it  is  sur- 
prising that  Mahometans  should  admit  the  possibility  of  sin  ;  but  they  do 
this,  although  there  have  been  long  discussions  on  predestination, 
and  strong  endeavours  to  reconcile  it  with  man's  responsibility. 
Learned  Mohammedans  divide  sins  into  two  classes :  the  kabirah,  or  great, 
which  condemn  the  sinner  to  a  purgatorial  hell ;  and  saghirah  or  little  sins, 
inherent  in  man's  nature.  The  great  sins  are  generally  stated  as  seventeen 
in  number :  infidelity,  despairing  of  God's  mercy,  considering  oneself  safe 
from  His  wrath,  bearing  false  witness,  constantly  committing  little  sins, 


MOSLEM    POSTURES    OF    MAYER. 


Sins. 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


549 


falsely  charging  a  Moslem  with  adultery,  taking  a  false  oath,  drinking  wine, 
practising  magic,  defrauding  orphans  of  their  property,  usury,  committing 
adultery,  unnatural  crimes,  stealing,  murder,  cowardice  in  battle  with 
infidels,  disobedience  to  parents. 

Mahometans  are  considerably  given  to  oaths,  and,  it  may  be  imagined, 
at  times  run  great  risks  of  condemnation  for  perjury.      The  Koran  itself 
contains   many   extreme   oaths,    and    it   is   not    surprising    that  Mahometan 
Mahomet's  followers  imitate  him  in  this.     There  are  many  fine      oath8- 
distinctions  drawn,  after  the  Talmudic  manner,  as  to  the  various  kinds  and 
qualities  of  oaths,  and  the  guilt  of  breaking  them.    The  most  effective  oaths 
are,  saying  three  times  "  By  the  great  God,"  taking  hold  of  the  Koran  and 
saying  "  By  what  this  contains  of  the  Word  of  God,"  placing  a  sword  on 
the  Koran  and  saying  "I  impose  on  myself  divorcement."    Notwithstanding 
this,  lying  is  pretty  frequent 
among  "  the  faithful." 

As   to    abstinence    from 

wine  and  intoxicating  liquors, 

this  is  one  of  the 

.     .      Abstinence. 

most  characteristic 
Moslem  virtues  ;  but  in  many 
cases  the  rule  of  abstinence  is 
broken  through.  It  is  to  the 
credit  of  Moslem  consistency, 
that  opium  and  tobacco  have 
been  recognised  as  included 
under  the  same  ban  as  wine  ; 
but  the  supposed  prohibition 


MOSLEM    POSTUKES    OF    PEAIEli. 


is  less  regarded  than  in  the 
case  of  intoxicants. 

One  of  the  special  pro- 
hibitions generally  observed, 
is  that  which  forbids  eating 
pork  ;  and  there  is  reason  in  this  in  hot  climates.  Moreover  various  animals' 
flesh  is  forbidden  as  food,  the  list  being  very  like  that  of  the  Restrictions 
Mosaic  code.  The  Koran  says  (ii.  167)  "  0  ye  who  believe,  eat  of  on  eatins- 
the  good  things  with  which  we  have  supplied  you,  and  give  God  thanks 
if  ye  are  His  worshippers.  Only  that  which  dieth  of  itself,  and  blood,  and 
swine's  flesh,  and  that  over  which  any  other  name  than  that  of  God  hath  been 
invoked,  hath  God  forbidden  you."  But  no  flesh  may  be  lawfully  eaten  un- 
less the  animal  has  been  killed  in  orthodox  Mahometan  fashion,  i.e.  by  cut- 
ting the  windpipe  and  gullet  through,  repeating  at  the  same  time,  "In  the 
name  of  God,  God  is  great."  According  to  the  traditions,  beasts  and  birds 
of  prey  may  not  be  eaten.  Moslems  have  no  religious  objection  to  eating 
with  Jews  and  Christians,  provided  the  meat  or  drink  be  lawful  for  them, 
and  in  fact  eat  with  them  in  various  countries,  but  not  in  India,  where 
hatred  of  a  conquering  race  has  established  the  custom  of  exclusiveness. 


55o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

The  extreme  attention  of  most  Mahometans  to  ablution  of  the  hands, 
mouth,  and  nose  before  eating,  is  well  known.  It  is  a  religious  ceremony, 
depending  on  the  traditional  precepts  of  the  prophet.  His  fol- 
lowers are  to  eat  in  God's  name,  to  return  thanks,  to  eat  with 
their  right  hand,  and  with  their  shoes  off.  The  devil,  it  is  said,  has  power 
over  that  food  which  is  eaten  without  remembering  God.  Before  begin- 
ning, it  is  necessary  to  say  "  Bismillah  !  "  (in  the  name  of  God),  and  after 
finishing,  "  Glory  to  God  !  "  Ablution  is  also  essential  before  worship.  The 
Koran  (v.  8)  says,  "  0  Believers,  when  ye  prepare  yourselves  for  prayer, 
wash  your  faces  and  hands  up  to  the  elbows,  and  wipe  your  hands  and  your 
feet  to  the  ankles."  The  detail  of  this  ablution  is  elaborate,  but  with 
practice  it  is  performed  in  three  minutes,  the  worshipper  reciting  prayers 
or  pious  ejaculations  meanwhile.  The  full  ablution  is  not  insisted  on 
before  each  prayer  time,  if  nothing  unclean  has  been  touched  and  no 
impurity  contracted.  When  water  cannot  be  had,  ablution  may  be  per- 
formed with  dust  or  sand.  In  special  cases  washing  of  the  whole  body 
is  prescribed,  and  among  these  occasions  are  the  admission  of  a  convert, 
Friday  prayers,  the  great  festivals,  and  the  washing  of  the  dead.  The 
Tradition  says,  that  he  who  performs  ablution  thoroughly  will  extract  all 
sin  from  his  body,  even  though  it  may  be  lurking  under  his  finger  nails. 

The  Moslem  rule  is,  that  public  prayer  shall  be  entirely  in  Arabic,  and 
the  place  of  prayer  must  be  free  from  impurity.  Before  it  commences  the 
muezzin  or  crier  gives  the  call  to  prayer  from  the  minaret  or 
'outside  the  mosque,  adding  in  the  early  morning  "Prayer  is 
better  than  sleep."  The  first  recitation  is  given  by  the  imam's  "  follower," 
or  by  the  crier,  and  is  the  same  as  the  call  to  prayers,  with  the  addition, 
"  Verity,  prayers  are  now  ready."  The  regular  prayers  then  begin,  all 
standing,  with  the  following  :  "  I  have  purposed  to  offer  up  to  God  onty, 
with  a  sincere  heart  this  morning  (or  afternoon,  or  evening),  with  my  face 
towards  the  kiblah,  two  (or  more)  rakeh  prayers."  The  word  rcikeh  signi- 
fies a  form  of  prayer ;  farz  are  prayers  enjoined  by  God  ;  sunnah,  those 
founded  on  the  Tradition  of  Mahomet ;  nafl,  the  voluntary  performance  of 
two  raJcehs.  The  number  of  rakehs  to  be  said  varies  for  the  different  hours 
of  prayer  ;  at  night  seven  are  said  after  all  the  usual  series  have  been  gone 
through.  A  devout  Moslem  will  go  through  the  same  form  of  prayer 
seventy-five  times  in  the  day.  Any  travelling  of  the  eyes  or  mind,  a  cough, 
etc.,  vitiates  the  prayer,  and  the  worshipper  must  recite  all  again.  Yet  a 
late-comer,  after  reciting  the  preliminary,  and  the  "  God  is  great,"  may  join 
the  congregation  at  the  stage  which  they  have  reached. 

The  subhan  follows,  ascribing  holiness  and  praise  to  God  and  praising 
His  name,  followed  by  the  declaration,  "  I  seek  refuge  from  God  from 
cursed  Satan."  Then  follows  the  first  chapter  of  the  Koran,  after  which 
the  worshipper  may  repeat  as  many  chapters  of  the  Koran  as  he  desires, 
but  at  least  should  say  one  long  or  two  short  verses.  Very  frequently  the 
122nd,  a  short  chapter,  is  chosen :  "  Say:  He  is  God  alone:  God  the  Eternal. 
He  begetteth  not  and  is  not  begotten  ;  and   there  is  none  like  unto  Him." 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


551 


i:  God  is  great,"  and  "  I  extol  the  holiness  of  my  Lord,  the  great,"  are  re- 
peated frequently  in  various  attitudes  of  devotion.  After  every  two  rakehs 
the  following  prayer  is  offered:  uO  God,  have  mere)'  on  Mahomet  and  on  his 
descendants,  as  Thou  didst  have  mercy  on  Abraham  and  his  descendants. 
Thou  art  to  be  praised  and  Thou  art  great"  ;  and  also,  "  0  God  our  Lord, 
give  us  the  blessings  of  this  life,  and  also  the  blessings  of  life  everlasting. 
Save  us  from  the  torments  of  fire."  At  the  end  of  prayers  follows  the 
salaam  :  "  The  peace  and  mercy  of  God  be  with  you  !  "  repeated  once  with 
the  head  turned  to  the  right  and  once  to  the  left,  followed  by  the  supplica- 
tion, a  series  of  prayers  from  the  Koran  or  the  Tradition,  and  not  infre- 
quently said  in  the  vernacular. 


EGYPTIAN  FUNEKAL  TEOCKSSION. 


There  are  also  special  prayers  for  Friday,  for  a  traveller,  at  funerals, 
during  the  fast,  during  eclipses,  etc. ;  but  the  specialty  consists  rather  in 
the  number  of  extra  rakehs  than  in  the  substance  of  the  prayers.  There 
are  many  directions  for  prayers  in  the  Traditions,  and  promises  or  assertions 
of  blessing  for  special  acts  of  prayer.  One  curious  regulation  is  as  follows  : 
il  When  any  one  of  you  says  his  prayers,  he  must  have  something  in  front 
of  him,  but  if  he  cannot  find  anything  he  must  put  his  walking-stick  into 
the  ground,  or  if  it  be  hard,  place  it  lengthways  before  him  ;  but  if  he  has 
no  staff,  he  must  draw  a  line  on  the  ground,  after  which  there  will  be  no 
detriment  to  his  prayers  from  anyone  passing  in  front  of  him."  Sincere 
as  the  Moslem  may  be,  one  cannot  but  see  how  mechanical  and  superstitious 
his  devotions  tend  to  become  when  governed  by  such  multitudinous  formal- 
ities and  repeated  so  often;  and,  in  fact,  the  lip-service  of  a  large  proportion 
of  Mohammedans  is  notoriously  combiued  with  deceit  and  evil. 


The  sermon 


552  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

The  Friday  sermon  is  given  at  the  time  of  noonday  prayer,  and  on  the 
two  great  festivals  at  the  prayer  after  sunrise.  There  is  usually  a  special 
preacher  who  delivers  this,  after  the  first  four  sets  of  prayers.  It 
is  in  Arabic,  and  includes  prayers  for  Mahomet,  his  companions, 
and  the  sovereign.  Its  nature  is  a  matter  of  choice  with  the  preacher,  but 
it  consists  very  largely  of  assertions  of  the  various  Moslem  doctrines.  An 
eloquent  New  Year's  Day  sermon  given  in  Lane's  "  Modern  Egyptians  "" 
contains  the  following  passages :  "  0  servants  of  God,  your  lives  have  been 
gradually  curtailed,  and  year  after  year  hath  passed  away  and  yo  are  sleep- 
ing on  the  bed  of  indolence,  and  on  the  pillow  of  iniquity.  Ye  pass  by  the 
tombs  of  your  predecessors,  and  fear  not  the  assault  of  destiny  and  destruc- 
tion, as  if  others  departed  from  the  world  and  ye  must  of  necessity  remain 
in  it.  Ye  rejoice  at  the  arrival  of  new  years,  as  if  they  brought  an  increase 
to  the  term  of  life,  and  swim  in  the  seas  of  desires  and  enlarge  your  hopes, 
and  in  every  way  exceed  other  people  in  presumption  ;  and  ye  are  sluggish 
in  doing  good.  Oh,  how  great  a  calamity  is  this !  God  teacheth  by  an 
allegory.  Know  ye  not  that  in  the  curtailment  of  time  by  indolence  and 
sleep  there  is  very  great  trouble  ?  Know  ye  not  that  the  night  and  day 
divide  the  lives  of  numerous  souls  ?  Ye  are  now  between  two  years.  .  .  . 
Is  any  of  you  determining  upon  diligence  in  doing  good  in  the  year  to 
come  ?  or  repenting  of  his  failings  in  the  things  that  are  passed  ?  "  etc.  In 
the  latter  half  of  the  sermon  :  "  0  God,  assist  the  forces  of  the  Moslems, 
and  the  armies  of  the  Unitarians  [i.e.  believers  in  the  one  God] !  0  God, 
frustrate  the  infidels  and  the  polytheists,  Thine  enemies,  the  enemies  of 
the  religion !  0  God,  invert  their  banners  and  ruin  their  habitations,  and 
give  them  and  their  wealth  as  booty  to  the  Moslems!"  etc.  "  0  Lord,  we 
have  acted  unjustly  towards  our  own  souls,  and  if  Thou  do  not  forgive  us 
and  be  merciful  to  us  we  shall  surely  be  of  those  who  perish." 

Circumcision,  usually  performed  on  boys  between  the  ages  of  five  and 

twelve,  is  not  a  sacred  rite,  though  ordained  by  the  Tradition.     There  is 

nothing  about  it  in  the  Koran,  and  no  record  of  Mahomet's  cir- 

Circumcision.  .   .  .  '  .... 

cumcision.     Marriage  also  is  celebrated  with  very  little  religious 

ceremony ;  at  the  making  and  signing  of  the  marriage  contract  the  open- 
.  ing  chapter  of  the  Koran  is  recited,  together  with  an  address  or 
exhortation  and  some  Koranic  prayers  and  recitations.  The 
actual  marriage  may  be  performed  with  much  or  little  religious  ceremony, 
according  to  the  discretion  of  the  cadi  or  other  person  performing  it ;  and 
the  ceremony  does  not  take  place  in  a  mosque.  The  bridegroom  usually 
repeats  after  the  cadi,  "  I  desire  forgiveness  of  God  ;  "  four  short  chapters  of 
the  Koran,  the  creed,  and  a  profession  of  belief  in  God,  the  angels,  the 
Koran,  the  Prophet,  the  Resurrection,  etc.  The  bridegroom  then  form- 
ally consents  to  the  marriage,  and  the  cadi  prays  that  mutual  love  may  reign 
between  the  couple,  as  between  Adam  and  Eve,  Abraham  and  Sarah, 
Joseph  and  Zuleika,  Moses  and  Sarah,  Mohammed  and  Ayesha,  Ali  and 
Fatima."  The  legal  regulations  about  marriage  are  more  properly  political 
than  religious  ;  four  lawful  wives  are  permitted.     Divorce  is  easy,  needing 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


553 


only  that  the  husband  should  say  to  his  wife,  "  Thou'  art  divorced,"  after 
which  three  months'  waiting  is  enjoined,  when    the  divorce  is 
[permanent.     A  husband  may  divorce  his  wife  after  any  misbe-     Divorce- 

Concubinage. 


Slaves. 


Ihaviour,  or  without  assigning  cause.     In  some  few  cases  a  wife 
'may  obtain  a  divorce.     Concubinage  with  any  woman  held  as 
a  slave   is   lawful ;    and   among   the   Shiahs,    temporary  marriages,  for  a 
few  hours,  afford  the  most 
degrading   form   of  concu- 
binage.    In   other  respects 
slaves     are     usually     well 
treated,  and  often  attached 
to   their    masters 
and      mistresses. 
The  Tradition    praises  and 
blesses  the  emancipation  of 
slaves,    and    the}'   are    not 
infrequently     emancipated, 
especially  at   the   death   of 
the  owner.     But  the  abso- 
lute power  which  a  Moslem 
master  has  over  the  life  and 
person  of  his  slave  is  most 
deleterious  to  the  character 
of  both  ;   and  this,  together 
with  the  looseness  of  matri- 
monial relations,  constitutes 
perhaps  the  most  evil  fea- 
ture of  Islam. 

The  Koran  teaches  that 
the  hour  of  death  is  fixed 
for  every  one ; 
and  in  the  Tra- 
dition Mahomet  teaches 
that  it  is  sinful  to  wish  for 
death.  "  Wish  not  for  death, 
not  even  if  thou  art  a  doer 
of  good  works,  for  perad- 
venture  thou  mayst  increase 
them  with  an  increase  of  life. 
Nor  even  if  thou  art  a  sinner,  for  with  increase  of  life  thou  mayest  obtain 
God's  pardon."  He  is  also  reported  to  have  said,  "  Whosoever  loves  to  meet 
God,  God  will  love  to  meet  him,  and  whoever  dislikes  to  meet  God,  God 
will  dislike  to  meet  him.  When  death  comes  near  a  believer,  God  gives 
him  a  spirit  of  resignation,  so  that  there  is  nothing  a  believer  likes  so  much 
as  death." 

When  a  Moslem  is  about  to  die,  some  skilled  reader  of  the  Koran  is  sent 


EGYPTIAN   MOHAMMEDAN   TOMB   WITH   TEK    ENTRANCE 
UNCOVERED. 


554  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

for,  that  lie  may  read  the  36th  chapter  to  tranquillise  the  soul.  The  creed  is 
also  said  aloud  by  all  present.  Early  burial  is  the  rule  in  Islam, 
as  the  sooner  the  dead  are  buried  the  sooner  they  are  believed  to 
reach  heaven  ;  while  the  bad  man  must  be  buried  quickly  that  his  lot  may 
not  fall  upon  his  family.  The  burial  service  is  believed  to  be  based  on  the 
practice  of  Mahomet.  It  may  properly  be  recited  by  the  nearest  relative, 
but  is  usually  led  by  the  family  imam  or  the  cadi.  It  is  said  in  a  mosque 
or  in  some  open  space,  and  includes  many  of  the  ordinary  prayers,  with 
prayer  for  the  soul  of  the  deceased,  after  which  the  people  say  :  "  It  is 
the  decree  of  God,"  to  which  the  chief  mourner  replies,  "  I  am  pleased  with 
the  will  of  God,"  and  then  says  to  the  people,  "  There  is  permission  to 
depart."  After  this  the  body  is  placed  on  its  back  in  the  grave,  with  the 
head  to  the  north  and  the  face  turned  towards  Mecca,  the  words  of  burial 
being,  "  We  commit  thee  to  earth  in  the  name  of  God,  and  in  the  religion 
of  the  Prophet."  On  the  third  day  after  burial  it  is  usual  for  the  relatives 
to  visit  the  grave  and  recite  selections  from  the  Koran,  the  whole  of  it 
being  sometimes  recited  by  mollahs  paid  for  the  purpose. 

Funeral  processions  on  foot  are  the  rule  with  Moslems,  and  it  is  a  merit- 
orious act  to  carry  the  bier.     This  is  done  at  a  quick  pace,  that  the  righte- 
Funerai     ons  may  arrive  soon  at  happiness.     The  elaborate  funeral  proces- 
processions.  s[ons  0f  Egypt  are  well  described  by  Lane  ("Modern  Egyptians," 
Minerva  Library,)  and  we  must  refer  readers  to  this  book  for  many  excel- 
lent accounts  of  Islam  in  Egypt. 

"We  have  already  given  an  account  of  the  Moslem  doctrine  of  Paradise, 
but  we  may  here  give  a  summary  of  what  Mahomet  is  alleged  to  have  said 
The  imme-  a^out  the  immediate  fate  of  the  faithful  dead.  At  death,  white-faced 
diate  fate  of  angels  descend  to  meet  them,  and  at  first  sit  apart,  while  the  Angel 
of  Death  comes  and  calls  the  pure  soul  to  come  forth  to  God's 
pardon  and  pleasure.  When  the  soul  comes  out,  the  Angel  of  Death  takes  it, 
but  the  other  angels  take  it  from  him  immediately,  and  carry  it  upwards  to 
heaven,  where  it  is  received  by  God,  his  name  is  inscribed  in  the  register  of 
good  Moslems,  and  then  the  soul  is  returned  again  to  the  body  to  wait  for 
the  resurrection  with  joy.  Similarly  an  infidel  is  attended  by  black-faced 
angels,  after  which  the  Angel  of  Death  comes  and  bids  the  impure  one  come 
forth  to  the  wrath  of  God.  The  angels  take  the  soul  up  to  the  highest 
heaven,  when  God  says,  "  Write  his  history  in  Sijjin,"  that  is,  the  lowest 
earth ;  and  the  soul  is  thrown  down  with  violence.  It  is  again  replaced 
in  the  body,  and  endures  misery,  and  begs  that  the  resurrection  may  be 
delayed.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Moslem  believes  seriously  in  a 
future  life  and  state  of  rewards  and  punishments ;  but  his  idea  of  paradise 
is  usually  very  material,  and  it  can  largely  be  secured  by  ceremonial  and 
formal  merits. 

Mohammedan  mosques  are  much  less  varied  and  complex  in  their  struc- 
ture than  Christian  churches.      They  are  usually  square  buildings  of  stone 

or  brick,  with  an  open  central  court-yard,  and  cloisters  and  cells 
Mosques.  * 

around  for  students.     In  the  centre  of  the  wall  turned  towards 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


555 


;vlecca  and  farthest  removed  from  the  entrance,  is  a  niche,  the  kihlah,  which 

Indicates  the  direction  of  the  Kaaba;  and  the  pulpit  is  placed  to  the  righi 


of  this.  A  large  tank  is  in  the  court-yard,  at  which  ceremonial  ablntions 
can  Toe  performed.  Frequently  in  Egypt,  Turkey,  and  Syria,  however,  the 
mosques  are  completely  covered  buildings.     The  side  turned  towards  Mecca 


556  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


is  the  only  extensive  covered  area  in  most  mosques.     In  front  of  the  pulpit 
there  may  be  a  raised  platform  from  which  exhortations  are  chanted,  and 
lecterns  for  the  reading  of  the  Koran.     There  are  also  minarets,  or  peculiar 
turrets   not  diminishing   regularly  in  size,   but  only  at   successive  stages 
marked  by  external  galleries,  from  the  uppermost  of  which  the  muezzin  '■ 
or  crier  sounds  the  calls  to  prayer  day  and  night.     Blind  men  are  often! 
emplojred  in  this  office,  since  they  cannot  see  into  the  privacy  of  houses  j 
from  their  elevated  station. 

The  mosques  are  often  most  costly  buildings,  decked  with  elaborate 
carving  in  marble  or  other  stone,  inlaid  with  mosaics,  agates,  etc.  The 
kiblah  and  the  pulpit  are  elaborate  works  of  art,  and  many  forms  of  gor- 
geous ornament  are  lavished  upon  various  other  parts  of  the  mosque. 
Windows  of  rich  tracery  pierced  in  marble  or  stucco,  filled  with  richly 
coloured  glass  in  small  pieces,  often  occur.  Many  mosques  have  rich  trea- 
sures of  valuable  Arabic  manuscripts. 

Most  mosques  have  considerable  endowments,  managed  by  an  officer 

who  often  appoints  the  imams,  of  whom  one  recites  the  Koran  and  leads  the 

Endowment  ^atiy  prayers,  while  the  other,  known  in  Arabia  and  Eg}Tpt  as 

and        the  khatib,  preaches  the  Friday  sermon.    The  imams  usually  have 

'  some  other   occupation,  such  as  school-teaching  or  trade.     The 

mosques  are  used  as  places  of  general  resort;   and  between  prayer-times 

people  are  to  be  seen  discussing  secular  topics,  and  even  eating  and  sleeping 

in  them,  contrary  to  the  precepts  of   the  Prophet.      They  are    also   very 

generally  used  as  places  of  rest  and  abode  for  travellers. 

The  Sacred  Mosque  at  Mecca  and  the  Prophet's  Mosque  at  Medina  must 

be  more  particularly  described.     The  former,  which  contains  the  Kaaba, 

(Cube-House)  or  House  of  the  Sacred  Black  Stone,  is  250  paces 

Mosque  at  long  by  200  broad,  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  a  colonnade  with 

ecca"  quadruple  rows  of  pillars  more  than  twenty  feet  high  on  the  east 
side,  and  triple  rows  on  the  remaining  sides.  Above  every  four  pillars,  sup- 
ported on  pointed  arches,  rises  a  small  dome,  externally  whitened.  These 
domes  are  said  to  be  152  in  number.  Lamps  hang  from  every  arch,  some 
being  lighted  every  night,  and  all  during  Ramadan.  A  great  outer  wall 
encloses  the  colonnade :  parts  of  this  are  ancient,  having  escaped  the 
various  destructions  and  repairs  which  have  occurred.  Some  of  the  walls 
are  gaudily  painted  in  stripes  of  red,  yellow,  and  blue,  as  also  are  the 
minarets.     The  style  of  the  columns  is  in  general  coarse  Saracenic. 

Seven  paved  causeways  converge  towards  the  Kaaba,  an  oblong  build- 
ing which  might  almost  be  called  a  low  tower,  eighteen  paces  long,  fourteen 
broad,  and  thirty-five  to  forty  feet  high ;  the  roof  is  flat.  It  is  roughly 
built  of  grey  stone,  the  present  building  dating  from  1627.  There  is  only 
one  door  into  it,  on  the  north  side,  about  seven  feet  from  the  ground,  and  it 
is  only  opened  two  or  three  times  a  year.  The  famous  "  Black  Stone  "  is 
let  into  the  wall  at  the  north-east  corner  of  the  building,  about  four  or  five 
feet  from  the  ground.  Burckhardt  described  it  as  an  irregular  oval  about 
seven  inches  in  diameter,  with  an  undulated  surface,  composed  of  about  a 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


557 


dozen  smaller  stones  of  different  sizes  and  shapes,  joined  by  a  little  cement 
and  surrounded  by  a  silver  setting.  It  appears  to  be  a  meteoric  stone;  but 
its  present  surface  does  not  show  its  nature,  for  it  is  greatly  worn  by  the 
millions  of  touches  and  kisses  it  has  received.  Its  colour  is  a  deep  reddish 
brown,  approaching  black.  On  the  north  side  of  the  Kaaba  near  the  door 
is  a  little  hollow  in  the  ground  lined  with  marble,  in  which  it  is  thought 
meritorious  to  pray,  as  it  is  the  spot  where  Abraham  and  Esbmael,  the  fabu- 
lous builders  of  the  Kaaba,  are  said  to  have  kneaded  their  chalk  and  mud 
for  mortar. 


MOSQUE    OF    THE    PALACE,    KHIVA. 

In  continuation  of  a  pre-Moslem  custom,  a  covering  (the  kisweh  or  veil) 
of  black  silk  stuff  conceals  the  exterior  of  the  walls  of  the  Kaaba  (the  roof 
being  bare),  openings  being  left  to  show  the  black  stone  and  another 
•stone  at  the  south-east  corner.  A  new  veil  is  put  on  every  year,  in  the  first 
month,  after  the  Kaaba  has  been  left  bare  for  about  a  fortnight.  At  first  it 
is  tucked  up  high  by  cords,  afterwards  it  is  gradually  let  down,  but  is  not 
fastened  tightly,  so  that  any  wind  moves  it  slowly.  These  movements  are 
treated  by  the  worshippers  as  signs  of  the  presence  of  its  guardian  angels. 

Opposite  the  four  sides  of  the  Kaaba  are  four  small  erections,  used  re- 
spectively by  the  imams  of  the  four  orthodox  sects  to  lead  the  devotions  of 


55S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


their  followers.  One  of  these  for  the  Shafiites  is  over  the  well  Zamzam, 
which  yields  an  overflowing  supply  of  water  for  drinking  and  ablution  to 
the  Meccans,  and  is  believed  by  the  Moslems  to  be  the  well  found  in  the 
wilderness  by  Hagar.  This  building  is  beautifully  ornamented  with  coloured, 
marbles.  At  one  time  the  shereef  of  Mecca  exacted  a  high  price  for  this 
water;  but  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  "Wahhabis  was  to  abolish  this  payment, 
and  the  water  is  now  distributed  gratis,  except  that  a  small  charge  is  made 
when  it  is  drawn  up  and  presented  by  the  regular  water  carriers.  It  is 
regarded  as  a  certain  cure  for  all  diseases,  and  a  great  improver  of  health, 
rendering  even  prayers  to  God  more  acceptable.  Enormous  quantities  of  it 
are  drunk  by  some  persons  ;  many  strip  themselves  and  have  bucketsful 
thrown  over  them  ;  and  few  pilgrims  leave  Mecca  without  taking  some  of 
this  water  to  drink  in  illness  or  for  their  ablution  after  death. 

A  movable  wooden  staircase  on  wheels  is  used  for  entering  the  Kaaba, 
being  ordinarily  kept  at  some  distance.  Not  very  far  from  this  is  the  pulpit, 
of  white  marble,  highly  ornamented,  the  preacher's  station  being  sur- 
mounted by  a  gilt  polygonal  steeple.  Here  several  of  the  elder  ulemas  in 
Mecca  preach  in  rotation,  girt  in  a  white  cloak  covering  head  and  body, 
and  with  a  stick  in  the  hand  as  if  prepared  against  a  sudden  surprise,  as  in 
the  early  ages  of  Islam.  Round  the  base  of  the  pulpit  the  congregation 
deposit  their  shoes.  Besides  one  or  two  other  less  important  buildings,  the 
enclosure  of  the  sacred  mosque  contains  a  small  one  which  is  said  to  contain 
the  sacred  stone  upon  which  Abraham  stood  to  build  the  original  Kaaba, 
and  believed  to  show  an  impression  of  his  foot ;  but  this  stone  is  always 
kept  entirely  covered.  At  this  building  worshippers  regularly  pray  for 
the  good  offices  of  Abraham. 

The  larger  part  of  the  enclosure  consists  of  gravelled  spaces  which, 
together  with  part  of  the  marble  pavement  surrounding  the  Kaaba,  is 
covered  at  evening  prayer  with  carpets  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  long  and 
four  feet  wide,  which  are  rolled  up  after  prayers.  Other  parts  are  covered 
with  pilgrims'  own  carpets,  or  with  mats  which  they  bring  with  them. 
During  the  pilgrimage  this  vast  space  is  sometimes  nearly  half  filled, 
although  the  Meccans  believe  that  the  mosque  could  contain  all  the  faithful 
at  once.  Burckhardt  could  never  count  more  than  ten  thousand  persons  in 
it  at  one  time.  The  mosque  has  no  fewer  than  nineteen  gates,  one  of  these, 
the  Bab-es-Salam,  being  that  by  which  every  pilgrim  must  enter  it.  None 
are  ever  closed ;  indeed  they  have  no  doors.  Burckhardt  entered  at  all 
hours  of  the  night  and  always  found  people  there,  either  at  prayers  or 
walking  about.  There  are  seven  minarets  on  the  exterior  of  the  mosque. 
A  number  of  houses  which  formerly  supported  the  wall  of  the  mosque  are 
now  private  property,  mostly  let  out  to  the  richest  pilgrims,  and  with 
windows  looking  into  the  mosque,  giving  the  privilege  of  performing 
Friday's  devotions  in  their  own  houses. 

This  sacred  mosque  is  the  one  true  temple  of  the  Mohammedans,  and 
inasmuch  as  it  contains  the  Kaaba  towards  which  every  Moslem  turns  in 
prayer,  it  is  the  only  place  of  prayer  where  believers  can  turn  in  any 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


;59 


direction  they  please  and  yet  fulfil  the  law.  It  will  be  very  evident  from 
the  description  of  other  mosques,  how  different  they  are  in  plan  from  this. 
It  is  a  striking  commentary  on  the  aim  of  Mahomet  to  uphold  the  unity  and 
spiritual  worship  of  God,  that  an  Arab  idol  of  long  standing  should  be  tho 
object  most  venerated  by  his  followers.  Sura  ii.  144,  145  says,  "  From 
whatever  place  thou  comest  forth,  then  turn  thy  face  towards  the  Sacred 
Mosque ;  for  this  is  a  duty  enjoined  by  thy  Lord." 

Here  is  the  most  convenient  place  for  describing  the  Sacred  Hajj,  or 


MOSQUE    OF    OilAU,    "  LOJIE    OF    IHB    KOCK,'      JEBUSAIiEM. 

pilgrimage  to  Mecca.      Just  as  the  old  Arab  idol,  or  fetish,  is  the  central 
object  of  Moslem  reverence,  so  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  which  had  ^  Sacred 
existed  long  before  Islam,  has  become  the  greatest  function  of  the  p  ^^ 
religion.     Every  Moslem  is  properly  bound  to  make  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca  once  in  his  life,  and  it  should  be  completed  in  the  twelfth  month 
of  the  Moslem  year,  although  an  ordinary  pilgrimage  may  be  made  at  any 
season.     Most  essential  features  are  the  visits  to  sacred  spots  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Mecca,  and  the  pilgrimage  ends  with  a  visit  to  the  Kaaba.    We 
cannot  detail  the  numerous  features  of  interest  attending  the  setting  out 


56o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

for  Mecca  from  distant  countries,  the  troubles  and  inconveniences  of  theB 
journey  or  voyage,  the  sacrifices  which  good  Moslems  will  make  to  accoin-B 
plish  this  great  life-object.  "We  will  simply  note  that  the  number  whoB 
reached  Mecca  in  1SS0  was  computed  by  Mr.  Blunt  as  somewhat  over! 
93,1  00,  of  whom  33,000  were  Arab  pilgrims,  15,000  British  subjects  from  I 
India,  1*2,000  Malays  chiefly  from  Java  and  other  Dutch  possessions.  9.500  I 
subjects  of  the  Ottoman  sultan,  8,500  Persians,  6,000  Egyptians,  G000  North 
Africans,  2,0(30  Soudanese  negroes,  and  1,000  Zanzibaris,  etc.  Thus  in  fifty  I 
years  about  five  millions  of  pilgrims  ma}'  visit  Mecca.  Probably  only  3  orl 
4  per  cent,  of  Moslems  ever  see  Mecca;  but  multitudes  of  others  long  forB 
the  opportunity. 

There   are  three  points  essential   to   the   lawful   completeness  of   theB 
pilgrimage :  the  wearing  of  no  garment  but  the  Hiram,  consisting  of  twoB 
seamless  wrappers,  one  girding  the  waist   and   the  other   loosely  thrown  B 
over  the  shoulders;  to  stand  in  Arafat,  the  Mount  of  Recognition,  twelve 
miles  from  Mecca,  where  Eve  is  related  to  have  been  found  by  Adam ;  I 
and  to  make  the  circuit  round  the  Kaaba.     There  are  five  other  observ- 
ances which  are  obligatory,  but  their  omission  does  not  constitute  absolute 
infidelity,  although  it  is  a  sin.     These  are,  to  stay  in  Al  Muzdalifa.  half- 
way between   Mina   and   Arafat ;  to   run  between   the   hills  of  Safa  and 
Marwah  :  to  perform  the  ceremony  of  casting  the  pebbles  at  Mina ;  to  make 
an  extra  circuit  of  the  Kaaba,  if  not  Meccans ;  and  to  shave  the  head  at  the 
end  of  the  pilgrimage. 

When  the  pilgrim  arrives  at  the  last  stage,  near  Mecca,  the  ceremonies 
begin  by  his  bathing,  saying  two  rakeh  prayers,  then  putting  on  the  pilgrim's 
garb,  after  which  he  neither  anoints  his  head,  pares  his  nails,  nor  shaves 
until  the  whole  of  the  ceremonies  are  over.  Facing  Mecca,  he  saj's  aloud 
what  is  termed  the  intention  :  ,:  O  God,  I  purpose  to  make  the  hajj  ;  make 
this  service  easy  to  me  and  accept  it  from  me."  He  then  goes  to  the  city. 
reciting  or  singing  the  pilgrims'  song  (p.  523),  enters  the  sacred  mosque, 
kisses  the  black  stone,  and  makes  the  circuit  of  the  Kaaba  seven  times,  three 
times  at  a  run,  four  times  slowly,  each  time  kissing  the  black  stone  and 
touching  the  other  sacred  stone.  He  then  says  two  prayers  at  the  station  of 
Abraham,  returns  and  once  more  kisses  the  black  stone.  He  next  goes  to 
the  so-called  hill  of  Safa,  76  paces  from  the  mosque,  and  three  times  recites 
the  Moslem  creed,  adding,  "  He  hath  performed  His  promise,  and  hath  aided 
His  servant,  and  hath  put  to  flight  the  hosts  of  infidels  by  Himself  alone." 
He  then  runs  from  this  hill  to  that  of  Marwah  seven  times  and  back, 
repeating  the  same  sentences  each  time  on  each  hill.  This  is  usually  done 
on  the  sixth  day,  and  on  the  seventh  the  khutbah  or  sermon  at  the 
mosque  is  listened  to.  On  the  eighth  day  the  journey  is  made  to  Mina ; 
on  the  ninth  the  pilgrim  goes  to  Mount  Arafat,  and  after  saying  prayers 
and  hearing  a  sermon,  stands  on  the  hill  and  shouts  Labbeik,  and  recites 
praj^ers  and  texts  till  sunset.  Early  on  the  next  day  a  second  stand  is 
made  by  torchlight  for  a  short  time  round  the  mosque  of  Muzdalifa  be- 
tween Mina  and  Arafat :  but  the  chief  ceremony  on  this  day  is  at  Mina. 


MODERX  ISLAM. 


561 


is  the  day  of  sacrifice,  on  which  the  pilgrim  throws  seven  s:<:nes  at 
each  of  three  pillars  in  Mina.  saying.  "  In  the  name  1  :  Alnr'ghty, 

I  do  this,  and  in  hatred  of  the  devil  and  his  sham  :lm  has  t<i 

be  slain  at  Mina.  from  a  sheep  to  a  camel,  according  to  the  pilgrim's  means, 


->*1^# 


ENCAMPMENT    OF    HLOKIKS    IN    THE    VALLEY    OF    MINA. 

part  of  the  flesh  being  given  to  the  poor:  and  finally  Mecca  most  be  visited 
again  and  the  black  stone  kissed.  At  this  time  a  great  fair  I  -  :e  at 
Mina.  and  the  sacrifice  may  be  made  on  any  day  of  the  fair.  The  pilgrim 
then  gets  shaved,  takes  off  his  pilgrim's  garb,  and  the  pilgrimage  is  over. 

o  0 


562  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Shiites  allow  performance  of  the  pilgrimage  by  deputy,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered very  meritorious  to  pay  the  expenses  of  one  who  cannot  afford  it. 
But  any  Moslem  who  has  not  made  the  pilgrimage  may  leave  money  to 
some  one  else  to  mate  the  pilgrimage,  and  is  thus  considered  to  have  ful- 
filled his  duty.  The  pilgrim  becomes  known  as  a  hadji,  and  retains  that 
title  ever  afterwards  before  his  proper  name.  Notwithstanding  ablutions, 
the  Meccan  assemblages  are  dangerous  centres  of  infectious  diseases ; 
and  Mecca  is  reported  to  be  a  hotbed  of  vice.1  The  whole  Meccan  pilgrim- 
age strikes  an  outside  observer  as  a  strangely  meaningless  superstition,  cne 
that  does  not  elevate  the  character  of  the  worshippers,  and  only  pro- 
duces an  inordinate  self-satisfaction  on  its  completion.  Its  great  utility  to 
Mohammedanism  is  evident,  in  giving  it  a  centre  and  a  uniting  impulse. 

A  visit  is  very  generally  made  to  Medina  after  the  pilgrimage  is  over, 
except  by  Wahhabis,  who  regard  such  a  visit  as  idolatiy.  The  Prophet's 
The  Prophet's  moscLne  is  a  very  extensive  building,  much  larger  than  the 
mosque  at  original  one  ;  it  is  between  400  and  BOO  feet  long  by  about  300 
in  breadth,  with  an  elaborate  principal  gate  leading  into  a  deep 
portico  with  ten  rows  of  pillars,  along  the  southern  wall.  Near  the  farther 
end  of  this  is  a  walled  enclosure  without  doors,  believed  to  contain  the 
graves  of  Mahomet,  Abubekr  and  Omar,  and  close  to  this  is  a  similar  build- 
ing which  encloses  the  tomb  of  Fatima.  Both  are  enclosed  within  an  iron 
railing  covered  with  brass  wire-work.  Through  some  small  apertures  pil- 
grims address  prayers  for  intercession  to  the  prophet  and  the  other  saints. 
The  idea  of  Mahomet's  coffin  being  suspended  in  the  air  by  magnets  is  an 
European  fable.  There  is  a  great  dome  above  the  prophet's  tomb,  and  there 
are  striking  minarets  ;  but  otherwise  the  mosque  is  not  very  remarkable  in 
construction,  and  is  not  more  than  400  years  old. 

The  Mosque  of  the  Caliph  Omar,  at  Jerusalem,  built  soon  after  his  entry 
into  the  city  in  637,  was  supposed  to  be  built  upon  the  site  of  Solomon's 
The  Mosque  Temple,  and  to  be  the  place  to  which  Mahomet  was  carried  from 
of  Omar.  j\jecca  on  \x[s  celebrated  "night-journey."  The  original  small 
building  still  exists,  though  it  is  uncertain  whether  it  is  a  chamber  east 
of  the  next  mentioned,  or  that  to  the  west,  known  as  the  Mosque  of  the 
Mogrebins.  Abd  el  Malik,  Caliph  of  Damascus,  built  another  mosque  here 
in  691.  It  is  a  square  covered  building  with  seven  aisles,  as  large  as  many 
of  our  cathedrals,  and  it  lacks  the  square  court  usually  found  in  mosques. 
Its  north  porch  was  added  in  the  fourteenth  century ;  the  rest  of  the  building 
is  very  barn-like. 

The  building  called  by  Europeans  "  the  Mosque  of  Omar,"  is  certainly 
not  Omar's,  and  it  is  rightly  termed  "  the  Dome  of  the  Rock,"  according  to 
The  Dome  of  Moslem  nomenclature.  It  is  a  beautiful  octagonal  building  of  160 
the  Rock.  feefc  diameter,  with  a  high  circular  dome,  and  it  is  according  to 
Fergusson  a  nearly  unaltered  Christian  building  of  the  4th  century,  erected 
by  the  Emperor  Constantine.     Its  pillars  are  of  the  most  precious  marble, 

1  For  interesting  speculations  as  to  the  origin  of  all  the  ceremonies  at  Mecca,  see   W. 
Robertson  Smith,  art,  "  Mecca,"  Eneydopcedta  Britannka. 


MODERN  ISLAM.  563 


either  from  Herod's  or  Hadrian's  temple ;  and  exquisite  mosaics  and  magni- 
ficent painted  glass  windows  combine  to  make  it  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
buildings  in  the  world. 

The  great  mosque  at  Damascus,  successively  a  heathen  temple  and  a 
Christian  church,  was,  in  the  first  century  of  Islam,  used  jointly  by  Chris- 
tians and  Moslems.  The  present  splendid  building  was  then  Great  mosque 
erected  by  the  Caliph  Walid.  It  is  508  feet  by  320,  enclosing  a  at  Damascus- 
very  large  court.     The  covered  side  has  three  aisles,  and  is  12(5  feet  wide. 

One  of  the  finest  mosques  of  the  typical  form  was  that  at  Cordova,  in 
Spain,  built  in  786-796,  now  transformed  into  the  cathedral.  The  original 
main  covered  part  has  no  fewer  than  twenty  rows  of  marble  The  Mosque 
columns,  and  they  are  so  arranged  as  to  appear  to  stretch  with-  of  Cordova- 
out  end  in  every  direction,  like  the  Hall  of  pillars  at  Karnak.  Moreover, 
formerly  rows  of  orange  trees  formed  aisles  in  the  open  court  continuing  the 
lines  of  the  columns.  Among  the  notable  mosques  of  this  normal  type  arc 
those  of  Amr,  Old  Cairo,  that  of  El-Azhar  at  Cairo,  the  great  mosque  of  Old 
Delhi,  and  those  of  Fez  and  Kairwan. 

The  mosques  of  most  complex  structure  are  those  of  Cairo,  the  reason 
being  that  subsidiary  buildings,  such  as  schools,  colleges,  courts  of  justice, 
hospitals,  etc.,  have  been  aggregated  around  them.  The  mosque  Mosques  and 
of  the  Sultan  Hasan  (14th  century)  is  cruciform  in  plan,  the  tombs  at 
central  court  open,  the  eastern  arm  forming  the  place  of  prayer 
and  preaching,  and  the  domed  tomb  of  the  sultan  being  east  of  this.  There 
is  a  splendid  entrance  on  the  north-west,  with  a  very  high  arch.  Many  pages 
might  be  devoted  to  these  splendid  mosques  ;  but  we  must  only  notice  the 
tomb-mosques  of  the  Egyptian  sultans,  outside  the  walls  of  Cairo.  They 
have  beautiful  domes  and  minarets;  and  they  owe  much  to  Byzantine, 
Persian,  and  even  Christian  gothic  architecture,  Islam  itself  having  pro- 
duced few  great  original  architects.  There  are  over  four  hundred  mosques 
in  Cairo.  Northern  Africa  has  many  fine  mosques.  Persia  has  but  a  few 
fine  early  mosques  remaining.  At  Ispahan  there  is  the  splendid  Masjid 
Shah,  built  by  Shah  Abbas  I.  (1585-1629),  with  a  very  large  pyriform  dome 
165  feet  high. 

When  the  Turks  took  Constantinople,  in  1453,  they  at  once  appropriated 
seven  or  eight  of  the  chief  Christian  churches  as  mosques,  and  at  the  head 
of  them  St.  Sophia,  which  they  sincerely  admired  and  set  to  work  st  Sophia  at 
to  imitate ;  100  different  mosques  at  Constantinople  testify  to  the  Co^tanti- 
influence  of  this  type.  We  may  briefly  describe  it  here  as  an  ac- 
tual Mohammedan  mosque,  though  constructed  as  a  Christian  church  by  t  he 
Emperor  Justinian,  in  532-537,  the  architect  being  Anthemius.  It  is  almost 
a  square  of  250  feet  added  to  a  nave  of  more  than  200  feet  long.  Externally 
it  has  little  beauty,  and  its  great  beauty  is  internal,  the  great  dome  being 
continued  by  two  half  domes  east  and  west.  The  arches  on  which  the  great 
dome  rests  are  about  100  feet  across  and  120  feet  high.  The  pillars  are  of 
the  most  precious  marbles  or  porphyry,  the  capitals  admirably  carved  ;  all 
the  flat  surfaces  are  covered  with  exquisite  mosaics.     Fergussoii  calls  it  the 


564  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

most  perfect  and  beautiful  Christian  church.  The  mosque  of  Suleiman  the 
Magnificent  adopts  the  combined  dome  form,  has  a  great  fore-court,  and  on 
the  opposite  side  a  large  garden  containing  the  tombs  of  the  founder  and 
members  of  his  family. 

Indian  mosques  and  tombs  are  among  the  most  splendid  and  varied 
buildings  of  that  country,  rich  in  splendid  buildings  as  it  is.  The  Moslems, 
Indian  carrying  the  dome  and  minaret  ideas  with  them,  elaborated  and 
mosques  and  adapted  them  to  the  native  architecture,  and  produced  a  succes- 
sion of  styles,  as  numerous  as  all  European  styles,  and  all  worthy 
of  notice.  "We  can  only  mention  a  few  remarkable  features.  The  mosques 
and  tombs  of  Ahmedabad,  of  Bejapore,  the  tomb  of  Mahmoud,  with  its  ex- 
traordinary dome  larger  than  that  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  externally  198 
feet  high,  and  the  mosques  of  Agra  and  Delhi  compare  even  with  the  exqui- 
site Hindu  temples.  The  great  mosque  ( Jummoo  Musjid)  at  Delhi,  with  its 
The  Jummoo  grand  porch  with  pointed  arch,  its  lofty  minarets  and  three  great 
Musjid,  Delni-pVriform  domes,  its  courtyard  with  open  colonnades,  was,  like  the 
Pearl  Mosque  at  Agra,  built  by  Shah  Jehan.  The  latter  is  entirely  of  white 
marble  from  base  to  summit,  without  any  ornament.  The  Taj  Mehal  at 
The  Taj  Agra  is  the  most  perfect  mausoleum  perhaps  in  the  world,  also 
Mehal.  erected  by  Shah  Jehan  to  contain  the  remains  of  his  favourite 
wife,  Minutaz  Mehal,  who  died  in  1631.  He  meant  to  build  a  more  splendid 
one  for  himself,  but  died  before  accomplishing  his  intention,  and  he  now 
rests  beside  her  in  the  Taj  Mehal.  The  whole  is  enclosed  in  exquisite 
gardens  ;  within  is  a  very  large  court  with  splendid  gateway,  leading  to  a 
platform  18  feet  high  and  313  feet  square,  upon  which  are  two  beautiful 
detached  minarets,  and  the  mausoleum  186  feet  square,  with  the  corners  cut 
off.  The  dome  is  58  feet  in  diameter  and  80  feet  high,  covering  the  show- 
tombs,  a  vault  beneath  containing  the  true  tombs.  Light  is  admitted 
through  marble  trellis-work  of  exquisite  design.  Indeed,  the  whole  build- 
ing is  of  white  marble,  and  visitors  say  that  no  words  can  express  its  beauty. 
All  the  important  parts  are  inlaid  with  precious  stones  in  exquisite  designs. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

ittotimt  Jtelam,    part  H. 

The  Bairam  festival— Ramadan— The  breaking  of  the  fast— The  Kisweh  and  the  Mahmal— Other  fasts 
and  festivals— The  Moharram  fast— The  holy  war.— The  dervishes  or  fakirs— Various  orders— 
Rifayeh— Dancing  dervishes— Performance  in  Tashkend— Various  rites— The  Doseh— Saints— 
Worship  of  deceased  saints— Sufism— Relation  to  pantheism— The  Shiites— Their  chief  distinc- 
tions—Their mollahs  and  colleges— Persian  dervishes— Passion  plays— Babism—Ali  the  Bab— 
Abadites  and  Zeidites— The  Wahhabis— Their  founder— His  teaching  — His  champion  — The 
Wahhabi  kingdom— Mecca  and  Medina  taken— Defeats  by  Mehemet  Ali  and  Ibrahim— Extension 
in  India— Special  doctrines  and  defects— The  Druses— Origin— Hakim— Durazi— Hamza— Recent 
history— Tenets— Seven  great  duties— The  Akals— Meetings— Turkey— Kerbela— Meshed— India 
—China  -  North  Africa— Central  and  Eastern  Africa— Contrast  between  Pagan  and  Moslem  Negro 
—The  Koran  unifies  and  elevates  the  Negro. 

THE  year  of  twelve  lunar  months  is  still  observed  by  Moslems,  and  is 
eleven  days  short  of  the  solar  year ;  thus  it  brings  round  all  the  festi- 
vals in  turn  to  different  seasons.  For  ordinary  purposes  of  life,  however,  the 
solar  year  is  used.  The  festivals  and  fasts  of  the  Mohammedan  year  are  of 
great  importance.  They  have  already  been  incidentally  referred  to,  and  we 
need  only  here  describe  certain  special  points.  The  Feast  of  Sacrifice,  in 
Turkey  and  Egypt  known  as  the  Bairam  festival,  is  the  great  The  Bairam  ■ 
festival  of  the  year.  As  part  of  the  Meccan  pilgrimage  we  have  festival, 
already  described  it,  but  it  is  observed  all  over  Islam  on  the  same  day,  the 
tenth  of  the  last  month  of  the  Mohammedan  year,  as  a  time  of  great  re- 
joicing. A  special  place  outside  the  city  is  chosen  for  the  special  festival 
prayers,  which  are  led  by  the  imam,  and  afterwards  a  sermon  is  delivered, 
emphasising  the  significance  of  the  day,  and  commending  the  offering  of 
sacrifices  as  capable  of  carrying  the  believer  across  the  narrow  bridge  or 
road  to  Paradise.  On  returning  home,  the  head  of  each  family  takes  an 
animal,  a  sheep,  cow,  goat,  or  camel,  according  to  his  means  or  the  number 
of  his  family,  turns  its  head  towards  Mecca,  and  says,  "  In  the  name  of 
the  great  God :  verily  my  prayers,  my  sacrifice,  my  life,  my  death,  belong 
to  God,  the  Lord  of  the  worlds.  He  has  no  partner :  that  is  what  I  am 
bidden  ;  for  I  am  first  of  those  who  are  Moslems  :  "  after  which  lie  kills  the 
animal.  One-third  of  the  flesh  is  kept  for  the  family,  one-third  is  given  to 
relations,  and  one-third  to  the  poor. 

The  fast  of  Ramadan,  the  ninth  month  of  the  Moslem  year,  has  been 
already  explained.     Its  observance  in  the  letter  is  rigorously  necessary  for 
all  good  Moslems,  except  the  sick,  the  infirm,  nursing  and  preg-    Ramadan 
nant  women,  young  children,  and  travellers.     When  the  month 
falls  in  the  hot  season,  the  day-long  fast  is  extremely  trying,  for  not  a 

565 


;66 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


drop  of  water  ma}'  be  drunk  during  the  day  ;  also  twenty  additional  rakelis 
or  forms  of  prayer  must  be  gone  through  after  the  night  prayer.     It  is 


customary  for  good  Moslems  to  stay  for  considerable  periods  in  the  mosques 
during  this  month,  reading  the  Koran,  and  refraining  from  conversation  on 


MODERN  ISLAM.  567 


worldly  affairs.     It  is  imagined  by  many  that  the  Mohammedan  fast  of 
thirty  days  was  derived  from  the  Christian  Lent. 

The  Feast  of  Alms,  or  minor  festival,  is  kept  on  the  day  after  Ramadan 
is  over,  and  is  called  the  Festival  of  Breaking  the  Fast.  After  the  general 
distribution  of  alms,  there  are  special  prayers  outside  the  city , Tne  breaklng 
followed  by  a  sermon,  special  petitions  for  remission  of  sins,  re-  of  the  fast 
covery  of  the  sick,  rain  and  abundance  of  corn,  safety  from  misfortune,  and 
freedom  from  debt.  After  the  service  the  people  salute  and  congratulate 
one  another,  and  then  spend  the  day  in  feasting  and  rejoicing.  In  Egypt 
it  is  a  custom  to  visit  the  tombs  of  relatives  on  this  or  the  following  days, 
the  visitors  often  carrying  palm-branches  to  lay  on  the  tombs,  reciting  the 
creed,  and  more  or  less  of  the  Koran.  This  is  not  the  custom  in  India, 
where  tombs  are  visited  in  the  Mohurram  festival. 

There  is  a  considerable  festival  in  Cairo  a  few  days  after  this,  when  the 

Kisweh,  or  covering  of  the  Kaaba,  is  conveyed  from   the  citadel  to  the 

mosque  of  the  Hasanein,  to  be  sewn  together  and  lined  before 

1  '  .     °  The  Kisweh 

the  pilgrimage.     An  elaborate  procession  which  escorts  it  is  well     and  the 
described  by  Lane.     The  Mahmal,  or  canopy,  is  carried  at  the 
same  time,  but  has  also  a  grand  procession  of  its  own  two  or  three  weeks  later, 
before  the  departure  of  the  great  caravan  of  pilgrims.     The  Mahmal  is  a 
covered  litter  or  canopy  borne  on  a  camel,  as  an  emblem  of  royalty  origi- 
nally sent  to  represent  a  sultana  of  Egypt  in  her  absence. 

A  festival  largely  observed  in  India,  is  the  fifteenth  day  of  Shaban,  the 
eighth  month,  when  it  is  said  that  God  registers  all  the  actions  of  mankind, 
and  all  births  and  deaths  for  the  coming  year.  Originally  in-  otner  faata 
tended  to  be  observed  as  a  fast,  it  has  become  a  festival,  and  is  aand  festivals, 
great  occasion  for  letting  off  fireworks.  New  Year's  Day  is  a  great  festival 
of  the  Persians.  The  last  "Wednesday  of  Safar,  the  second  month,  is 
observed  in  some  parts  of  Islam  as  a  feast,  commemorating  a  mitigation  of 
Mahomet's  last  illness  and  his  last  bath.  The  birthday  of  Mahomet  on  the 
twelfth  of  the  third  month,  is  kept  in  Turkey,  Egypt,  and  some  parts  of  India, 
alms  being  distributed  and  additional  religious  exercises  being  performed. 

The  first  ten  days  of  the  first  month,  Moharram,  are  kept  in  memory  of 
the  martyrdom  of  Hasan  and  Hosein,  as  days  of  lamentation,  by  Tae  Mohar- 
Shiites  only;    but  the  tenth  day  is  kept  as  a  fast  by  Sunnites    ram  fast- 
generally,  as  being  the  day  on  which  heaven  and  hell,  life  and  death,  Adam 
and  Eve,  were  created. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  propagation  of  Islam  by  the  Jihad,  or 
holy  war,  has  been  one  of  the  most  potent  means  of  securing  its  success. 
It  is  enjoined  in  the  Koran  as  a  religious  duty.  But  there  isThe  holy  war 
nothing  which  forbids  the  spread  of  Islam  by  peaceful  persuasion 
and  example,  and  at  the  present  day  this  is  largely  the  method  by  which 
the  Moslem  faith  is  being  diffused  in  Africa.  It  is  enjoined,  however,  that 
when  an  infidel  country  is  conquered,  the  people  shall  be  offered  the  option  of 
becoming  Moslems,  of  paying  a  poll-tax  for  protection  (except  in  the  case  of 


568  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Arabian  idolaters  and  apostates),  or  death  by  the  sword.  It  is  held  by  the 
Hanifites  that  the  injunction  is  sufficiently  obeyed  when  any  one  tribe  of 
Moslems  is  engaged  in  spreading  the  religion  by  the  sword.  It  is  not  held 
right  to  attack  any  infidels  without  previously  calling  upon  them  to  accept 
the  faith.  There  are  many  detailed  regulations  for  the  conduct  of  a  sacred 
war  in  the  books  of  Mohammedan  law. 

The  fakirs  or  dervishes  are  very  prominent  characters  in  Islam,  answer- 
ing in  some  ways  to  the  Christian  monks  in  the  middle  ages.  The  word 
The  dervishes  dervish — more  accurately  dariceexh — is  a  Persian  word,  signifying 
or  fakirs,  those  who  beg  from  door  to  door  ;  the  Arabic  fakir  means  "  poor  " 
before  God,  not  necessarily  poor  in  a  worldly  sense.  Both  terms  are  in 
general  use  for  those  who  lead  a  religious  life,  with  special  practices  or 
exercises.  There  are  many  fakirs  or  dervishes  who,  while  professing  to 
be  Mahometans,  do  not  follow  the  Koran ;  those  who  obey  the  Moham- 
medan law  are  of  very  varied  types  or  orders,  all  having  special  rules,  many 
of  which  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain,  being  known  only  to  the  votaries  them- 
selves, and  kept  strictly  secret.  It  is  claimed,  but  without  foundation,  that 
they  deduce  their  origin  from  the  brotherhood  which  was  formed  in  the 
first  year  of  the  flight  between  the  emigrants  from  Mecca  and  the  citizens 
of  Medina,  establishing  a  community  of  property  and  common  religious 
rites  of  penitence  and  of  mortification.  These  men  took  the  name  of  Sufis 
i  the  meaning  of  which  word  is  uncertain),  and  it  now  designates  any 
Moslem  devoted  to  religious  contemplation,  exercises,  and  painful  rites. 
They  practically  include  the  fakirs.  A  long  history  might  be  given  of  the 
various  orders  of  dervishes,  their  founders  and  their  history ;  and  their 
existence  is  a  standing  contradiction  of  Mahomet's  command,  "  Let  there 
be  no  monasticism  in  Islam."  Tradition  says  that  Mahomet  declared,  "  The 
retirement  which  becomes  my  people  is  to  sit  in  a  corner  of  a  mosque  and 
wait  for  the  time  of  prayer."  We  can  only  give  a  few  details  out  of  many. 
One  order,  the  Baktashiyeh,  which  was  founded  by  a  native  of  Bokhara, 
and  which  gave  rise  to  the  Janissaries,  is  marked  hy  the  mystic  girdle, 
various  which  the  members  put  off  and  on  seven  times :  sa}ang  at  the 
orders,  successive  times,  "  I  tie  up  greediness,  and  unbind  generosity  ;  " 
"I  tie  up  anger,  and  unbind  meekness  ; "  ':  I  tie  up  avarice,  and  unbind 
piety ; "  "I  tie  up  ignorance,  and  unbind  the  fear  of  God  ; "  "I  tie  up 
passion,  and  unbind  the  love  of  God  :  "  "I  tie  up  hunger,  and  unbind 
(spiritual)  contentment ;"  "I  tie  up  Satanism,  and  unbind  Divineness." 

The  Rifayeh  dervishes,  very  numerous  in  Egypt,  include  a  sect  who 
pretend  to  thrust  iron  spikes  into  their  eyes  and  bodies  without  injuring 
themselves,  to  pass  swords  through  their  bodies  and  thick  needles 
through  their  cheeks  without  wound  or  pain.  Another  of  their 
sects  handle  serpents  with  impunity  (but  have  first  extracted  their  fangs) ; 
it  is  this  sect  wl.ose  head  or  sheikh  performs  the  ceremony  of  the  doseh  (see 
p.  570). 

The  Danc'ng  or  "Whirling  Derv-'sLes  are  the  most  popular  order  in  the 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


5^9 


Turkish  empire.     Their  usual  services  take  place  every  Wednesday  and 
Sunday  at  two  o'clock.    Their  special  exercise  consists  in  spinning    Dancing 
round,  dancing,  and  turning  with  extraordinary  speed,  their  bell-  dervl8hes- 
shaped  petticoats  thus  acquiring  a  whirling  umbrella  shape. 

Mr.  Eugene  Schuyler,  in  his  book  on  Turkestan,  lias  graphically  de- 
scribed the  exercises  which  he  saw  in  the  mosque  at  Tashkend.  A  consider- 
able number  of  men  were  on  their  knees  in  front  of  the  kiblah,  performance 
reciting  prayers  with  loud  cries  and  violent  movements  of  the  *" Ta8lll£en(L 
body,  the  prayers  being  as  follows  : 


¥  My  defence  is  in  Allah !  May 
Allah  ba  magnified !  My  light, 
Mohammed  —  God  bless  him  ! 
There  is  no  God  but  God!" 
These  words  were  chanted  hun- 
dreds of  times  over  in  a  low 
voice,  the  devotees'  heads  being 
violently  thrown  to  the  left  over 
the  shoulder,  then  back,  then  over 
the  right  shoulder,  then  down. 
The  movements,  at  first  slow,  con- 
tinually increased  in  speed,  till 
the  performers  were  exhausted. 
f  When  their  voices  became  en- 
tirely hoarse  with  one  cry,  another 
was  begun,  and  finally  the  cry 
was  struck  up  of  '  Hai,  Hai !  Allah 
Hai!  '  (Live,  Allah,  the  immortal), 
at  first  slowfy,  with  an  inclination 
of  the  body  to  the  ground  ;  then 
the  rhythm  grew  faster  and  in 
cadence,  the  body  became  more 
and  more  vertical,  until  at  once 
they  all  stood  up  ;  the  measure 
still  increased  in  rapidity,  and 
each  one  placing  his  hand  on  the 
shoulder  of  his  neighbour,  and 
thus  forming  several  concentric 
rings,  they  moved  in  a  mass  from 
side  to  side  of  the  mosque,  leaping  about,  and  alwa3*s  crying,  '  Hai,  Allah 
Hai ! '  "  and  this  was  only  a  small  part  of  one  performance. 

Some  of  the  rites  of  the  dervishes  are  observed  only  by  particular 
orders,  some  by  many  orders.      Some  observe  a  forty  days'  fast  occasionally 
(that  is,  from  daybreak  to  sunset  each  day),  others  confine  them- 
selves  in  a  cell  in  a  sepulchre-mosque  north  of  Cairo,  remaining 
there  three  days  and  nights,  scarcely  eating  during  that  perio:l,   on  the 
occasion  of  the  festival  of  the  saint  of  the  mosque.     During  this  time  they 


THE   MAHMAL   (p.  507). 


5  7Q  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

continually  repeat  certain  special  forms  of  prayer,  coming  out  of  their  cells 
into  the  mosque  to  join  in  the  five  daily  prayers,  and  making  no  answer  to 
any  one  who  speaks  to  them  but  "  There  is  no  God  but  God." 

Almost  all  the  dervishes  in  Egypt,  says  La.ne,  are  tradesmen,  artisans,. 
or  agriculturists,  and  only  occasionally  join  in  the  ceremonies  of  their  orders. 
Some  do  nothing  but  perform  their  special  religious  exercises  at  the  festivals 
of  saints  and  at  private  entertainments,  and  chant  in  funeral  processions. 
Some  are  water-carriers,  a  few  wander  about  and  subsist  on  alms,  wearing 
fantastic  or  characteristic  dresses.  Many  Turkish  and  Persian  wandering 
dervishes  in  Egypt  are  among  the  most  importunate  for  alms. 

A  volume  might  be  filled  with  accounts  of  the  dervishes,  but  we  can 

only  give  in  any  detail  a  notice  of  the  ceremony  of  the  D6seh,ov  "treading" 

on  prostrate  dervishes  bv  the  horse  of  the  sheikh  or  chief  of  the 
The  doseh..  . 

Saadiyeh  dervishes,  preacher   of   the    mosque   of  the   Hasanein. 

After  noon  prayers  on  a  certain  Friday,  when  the  Prophet's  miraculous  ascent 
to  heaven  is  celebrated,  the  sheikh,  seated  on  a  horse  of  moderate  size,  goes 
to  visit  the  sheikh  El  Bikree,  who  is  the  head  of  all  the  dervishes  of  Egypt. 
Before  he  reaches  his  destination,  a  considerable  number  of  dervishes  lie 
down  upon  the  ground,  side  by  side,  as  close  as  possible,  with  backs  up- 
ward, legs  extended,  and  arms  placed  together  beneath  their  foreheads,  and 
constantly  murmuring  "  Allah  !  "  Twelve  or  more  dervishes  then  run  along- 
over  their  backs,  some  beating  little  drums  and  exclaiming  "  Allah  !  "  Then 
the  sheikh  approaches  on  his  horse,  and  with  some  little  difficulty  the 
animal  is  urged  over  the  prostrate  bodies,  being  led  by  two  men  who  them- 
selves also  run  over  the  bodies.  Apparently  no  one  is  hurt,  and  all  jump  up 
and  follow  the  sheikh  immediately.  Each  receives  two  treads  from  the  horse, 
and  their  escaping  injury  is  considered  to  be  a  miracle  granted  specially  to 
the  sheikh  of  this  order.  Another  remarkable  performance  of  a  dervish 
order  is  the  chewing  of  a  mouthful  of  red-hot  charcoal  without  showing  any 
sign  of  pain.     Epileptic  fits  often  occur  during  some  dervish  performances. 

Nearly  akin  to  the  regard  paid  to  dervishes  is  the  worship  of  reputed 
saints,  both  living  and  dead.  Many  of  the  reputed  saints  of  Egypt  and 
other  Mahometan  countries  are  harmless  lunatics  or  idiots  whose 
mind  is  imagined  to  be  in  heaven.  Some  even  go  about  naked, 
others  in  the  strangest  or  mcst  absurd  garbs.  The  term  wali,  properly  ap- 
plicable only  to  a  very  eminent  saint,  has  consequently  become  degraded  to 
mean  also  "  fool "  or  simpleton.  Any  privilege  and  reverence  is  readily 
accorded  to  such ;  and  it  is  believed  that  there  exists  a  certain  most  holy 
wali,  who  is  not  known  as  such,  and  who  may  perhaps  be  seen  anywhere. 
He  is  reported  to  be  almost  constantly  seated  at  Mecca  on  the  roof  of  the 
Kaaba,  and  at  the  gate  of  Cairo  called  Bab  Zuweyleh.  Many  persons  when 
they  pass  this  gate  recite  the  Moslem  prayer,  and  give  alms  to  a  beggar 
seated  there.  Persons  having  headaches  drive  a  nail  into  the  door  to  charm 
away  the  pain  ;  sufferers  from  toothache  extract  a  tooth  and  insert  it  in  a 
crevice  of  the  door.  The  holiest  wali  is  believed  to  be  able  to  transport 
himself  in  an  instant  from   Mecca  to  Cairo,   and  also  to  wander  at   will 


MODERN  ISLAM.  57. 


through  the  world,  distributing,  through  other  walis,  blessings  and  evils. 
Many  walis,  who  often  live  in  desert  places,  are  regularly  supplied  with 
food  by  the  faithful.  In  numerous  cases  they  are  believed  to  have  the  power 
of  working  miracles. 

Deceased  saints  are  venerated  and  even  worshipped  more  than  living- 
ones.      Large  mosques  are  erected  over  the  tombs  of  the  more  celebrated  : 
and  even  minor  saints  in  Egypt  are  honoured  with  small  square  Worship  of 
white-washed  buildings  crowned  with  a  cupola.     Over  the  saint's    deceased 

saint  > 

vault  is  an  oblong  monument,  usually  covered  by  silk  or  linen, 
with  some  words  from  the  Koran  worked  upon  it.  The  most  notable 
memorial  of  a  saint  in  Eg}^pt  is  the  great  mosque  of  the  Hasanen,  in  which 
the  head  of  Hosain,  the  son  of  Ali  and  grandson  of  Mahomet,  is  said  to  be 
buried.  The  people  regard  the  deceased  saints  as  interceding  for  them  with 
God,  and  consequently  make  offerings  and  pay  visits  of  veneration  to  them, 
reciting  the  Moslem  prayer  before  the  door  of  the  monument  and  on  each  of 
its  four  sides,  also  saying,  "  0  God,  I  have  transferred  the  merit  of  what  I 
have  recited  from  the  excellent  Koran  to  the  person  to  whom  this  place  is 
dedicated,"  and  prayers  are  said  in  which  the  saint's  help  as  intercessor  is 
besought.  Almost  every  village  in  Egypt  has  some  patron  saint,  whose 
tomb  is  visited  by  the  people  on  a  particular  day  of  the  week,  making 
various  offerings  or  vows ;  and  all  the  chief  saints  have  anniversary  festivals 
or  molids,  when  varied  special  observances  are  gone  through,  when  many 
persons  visit  the  tombs  to  obtain  special  blessings,  and  dervishes  perforin 
their  exercises  or  portions  of  the  Koran. 

Sufism  as  a  form  of  mysticism  is  far  from  being  exhausted  by  an  ac- 
count of  the  dervishes  or  of  reverence  for  saints.  They  all  agree  in  giving 
a  mystic  spiritual  meaning  to  the  Koran,  and  consider  that  their 
system  has  existed  since  the  foundation  of  the  world.  In  fact,  it 
is  a  Moslem  adaptation  of  the  Vedanta  Hindu  philosophy,  and  the  allied 
philosophy  of  Buddhism,  together  with  some  influence  from  the  early 
Christian  anchorites.  They  all  profess  implicit  obedience  to  a  spiritual 
guide,  and  that  they  are  either  inspired  by  God  Himself,  or  are  in  union  with 
God.  The  leading  doctrines  of  Sufism  may  be  thus  expressed  :  God  alone 
exists,  and  is  in  all  things,  and  all  things  are  in  Him.  All  beings  are  an 
emanation  from  Him,  and  are  not  really  distinct  from  Him.  There  is  no  real 
difference  between  good  and  evil,  all  being  from  and  in  God,  who  fixes  man's 
actions.  The  soul  existed  before  the  body,  in  which  it  is  constrained,  and 
longs  to  be  set  free  by  death  to  return  to  the  Divinity.  The  main  occupa- 
tion of  the  Sufi  is  to  meditate  on  the  unity  of  God,  to  perforin  the  exercises 
of  his  special  order,  and  to  progress  rightly  in  the  journey  of  life.  This 
journejr  is  described  in  different  stages,  the  lowest  of  which  is  the  obser- 
vance of  the  law.  Later,  in  answer  to  his  prayers,  he  reaches  the  true  love 
of  God,  followed  by  the  desire  for  seclusion,  which  by  contemplation  leads  to 
knowledge.  Often  this  produces  ecstasy,  during  which  direct  revelation  of 
truth  from  God  may  be  received,  through  which  union  with  God  may  be 
reached  even  in  the  present  life.     It  is  this  union  which  the  eccentric  exer- 


572  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

cises  of  the  dervislies  are  designed  to  promote.  There  is  a  considerable 
literature  describing  Sufi  thought,  for  which  subject  Hughes's  "  Dictionary 
of  Islam,"  and  Palmer's  "Oriental  Mysticism,"  may  be  consulted. 

Poetry  is  a  very  prominent  feature  in  Sufism ;  and  indeed  the  poetry  of 
Saadi  and  the  odes  of  Hafiz  are  as  a  sort  of  Scripture  to  the  Persian  Sufis. 
The  author  of  the  "  Masnawi "  (a.d.  1302)  thus  expresses  some  Sufi 
doctrines  : — 

"  Are  we  fools  ?    "We  are  God's  captivity. 
Are  we  wise  ?    We  are  His  promenade. 
Are  we  sleeping  ?    We  are  drunk  with  C4od. 
Are  we  waking?     Then  we  are  His  heralds. 
Are  we  weeping  ?     Then  His  clouds  of  wrath. 
Are  we  laughing  ?    Flashes  of  His  love." 

Mahmoud  writes : — 

"  All  sects  but  multiply  the  I  and  thou  ; 
This  I  and  thou  belong  to  partial  being. 
When  I  and  thou  and  several  being  vanish, 
Then  mosque  and  church  shall  find  thee  nevermore.1' 

A  poem  of  another  author  has  the  following  lines  : — 

"  Joy !  joy  !  "  I  triumph  now ;  no  more  I  know 
Myself  as  simply  me.     I  burn  with  love. 
The  centre  is  within  me,  and  its  wonder 
Lies  as  a  circle  everywhere  about  me." 

Thus  we  see  that  Sufism  is  really  a  form  of  pantheism,  and,  strangely 
like  the  Buddhist,  the  votary  seeks  to  lose  his  own  identity.  Sufism  is  not 
Relation  to  true  Mohammedanism,  but  rather  an  erection  starting  from  it,  of 
pantheism.  a  mystic  creed  in  which  the  inner  light  or  some  spiritual  teacher 
becomes  paramount,  and  which  can  dispense  with  moral  law.  Consequently 
one  Sufi  sect  openly  neglects  morality,  and  professes  community  of  property 
and  women.  Such  people  regard  any  sin  they  are  inclined  to  as  imposed 
by  fate ;  and  do  not  consider  themselves  guilty  whatever  they  maj7"  do. 

We  pass  by  a  natural  transition  to  the  Shiites,  who  abound  in  Persia, 
the  stronghold  of  mysticism.  The  word  Shiah  literally  means  "  followers," 
that  is  of  Ali,  the  husband  of  Fatima.  They  maintain,  as  we  have 
'  already  said,  that  Ali  was  the  first  true  imam  or  caliph,  and  that 
true  religion  consists  in  the  knowledge  of  the  rightful  imams.  Of  these 
the  leading  sect,  or  Twelveans,  recognise  twelve  ;  the  last,  Mohammed  Abu 
l'Kasim,  being  supposed  to  be  still  alive,  and  to  be  about  to  appear  as  a 
precursor  of  the  Day  of  Judgment.  This  is  why  pretenders  to  this  title 
appear  at  various  times,  and,  if  favoured  by  circumstances,  gain  such  a  large 
following.  But  the  apparently  simple  faith  of  the  Shiites  has  admitted  of 
much  controversy  and  schism,  and  there  are  nearly  as  many  sects  of  them 
as  of  Sunnites. 

The  principal  differences  between  Shiites  and  Sunnites,  says  Prof.  A. 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


573 


Midler  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  depend  on  their  legitimist  ie 
opinions  (i.e.  tlieir  opinion  as  to  the  rightful  imams  or  caliphs),  <  r  Their  chief 
are  accommodations  of  the  rites  of  Islam  to  the  Persian  nationality,  distinctions, 
or  else  are  petty  matters  affecting  ceremonial.  Thus  they  reject  all  the 
"  Traditions  "  of  the  Sunnites  as  being  compiled  under  illegitimate  caliphs, 
and  they  have  their  own  body  of  tradition,  alleged  to  be  compiled  under  Ali. 
but  not  genuine.  They 
add  to  the  ordinary  Moslem 
creed;  "  and  Ali  is  the  "Wali 
(vicegerent  or  confidant)  of 
God."  Some  of  tlieir  sects 
regard  Ali  as  Divine,  and 
many  of  them  recognise  him 
as  partaking  of  the  Divine 
nature.  Those  who  have 
deeply  studied  Persian  Mo- 
hammedanism, like  Sir 
Lewis Pelly,  have  discovered 
that  the  Shiite  schism  is 
really  an  expression  of  the 
race  antagonism  between 
the  Iranian  Aryans  of  Per- 
sia and  the  Semites. 

The  Shiites  reject   the 
conclusions  of  the  four  great 

schools     of    Sun-  Their  mollahs 

nite  law  founded  and  colleges, 
on  the  Traditions,  and  de- 
rive all  their  laAV  from  the 
Koran ;  but  they  depend 
upon  their  mollahs  or  re- 
ligious teachers  to  declare 
its  correct  interpretation. 
The  mollahs  are  trained  in 
madrasas,  or  colleges  at- 
tached to  the  mosques  ;  but 
their  training  is  inferior  to 
that  of  Cairo  and  Bokhara. 
The  most  noted  Shiite  ma- 
clrasa    is    at     Kerbela,     50 


miles  south-west  of  Bagdad,  in  the  Turkish  dominions,  said  to  be  the  scene  ot 
the  martyrdom  of  Hosain  the  son  of  Ali.  The  students,  when  passed  out  of 
the  colleges,  become  local  mollahs,  and  later  may  join  the  college  in  a  larger 
town,  each  of  which  has  a  chief  mollah  known  as  the  Sheikh  ul  Islam.  Certain 
presidents  of  the  chief  mosques  are  known  as  mujtahids  or  "  enlightened 
doctors,"  and  their  opinion  is  taken  as  final  in  all  matters  of  Mos'emlaw  and 


574  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


doctrine.  In  Persia  the  cadi  is  an  inferior  judge  who  acts  instead  of  the 
Sheikh  ul  Islam  in  special  cases  ;  a  mufti,  or  solicitor  for  the  court,  prepares 
cases  to  come  before  the  cadi.  There  was  for  long  a  sort  of  war  between 
the  Government  of  Persia  and  the  Mohammedan  doctors ;  and  the  Govern- 
ment has  good  ground  of  offence  in  the  corruption  of  the  courts,  while  the 
rights  of  spiritual  asylum  and  protection  by  the  clergy  are  most  valuable  to 
the  common  people. 

The  Persian  dervishes  belonging  to  the  Shiites  are,  it  is  said,  more  im- 
moral and  unworthy  of  respect  than  any  others.  "  At  the  great  feasts 
Persian  especially  they  quarter  themselves  impudently  in  wealthy  houses, 
dervishes.  an(|  deafen  the  indwellers  with  their  unceasing  cry  of  Yd  hakM 
('  0  truth  !  '  the  mystical  equivalent  of  '  0  God  !  ').  The  wise  and  modest 
dervish  who  in  Saadi's  poems  tells  the  greatest  Sultan  the  truth  as  to  the 
hollowness  of  his  royal  state  has  degenerated  into  the  half-mad  and  insolent 
hanger-on  who  thrusts  himself  into  audience-chambers  and  claims  the  seat 
of  honour  beside  the  grandees.  The  multitude  of  these  motley  vagabonds, 
some  harmless,  others  dangerous,  is  explained  by  the  love  of  idleness, 
buffoonery,  and  story- telling,  which  is  even  more  marked  in  Persia  than  in 
other  parts  of  the  East."     (M.) 

Undoubtedly  Islam  as  practised  in  Persia  is  a  very  degenerate  cult.  The 
great  majority  of  those  who  profess  it  belie  it  by  their  lives.  They  attach 
much  more  importance  to  their  distinctions  from  Sunnites  and  Jews  than 
to  the  teaching  of  the  Koran.  The  Persian  "  natural  turn  for  lying  and 
hypocrisy"  comes  out  very  evidently  in  their  religion.  Private  drunkenness 
and  mere  temporary  "  marriages  "  are  very  common  among  them,  and  the 
mollahs  even  countenance  them. 

The  Persians  set  great  store  by  religious  festivals  and  shows.  While 
they  celebrate  the  great  sacrificial  feast  or  Bairam  festival,  they  attach 
Passion  the  greatest  importance  to  the  Moharram  (see  p.  567),  which  is 
plays,  celebrated  by  passion-plays,  consisting  of  several  parts,  one  of 
which  is  enacted  on  each  successive  clay  of  the  mourning.  In  these  are 
most  pathetically  and  vividly  set  forth  the  events  of  the  life  of  Hosain  and 
the  tragedy  of  his  death ;  and  the  spectators  become  fanatically  excited  as 
they  witness  the  successive  scenes.  "  I  have  seen  some  of  the  most  violent 
of  them,"  says  Morier,  "  as  they  vociferated,  '  0  Hosain !  '  walk  about  the 
streets  almost  naked,  with  only  their  loins  covered,  and  their  bodies  stream- 
ing with  blood,  by  the  voluntary  cuts  which  they  have  given  to  themselves, 
either  as  acts  of  love,  anguish,  or  mortification."  The  Shiites,  who  are  very 
numerous  in  Oude  and  in  other  parts  of  India,  also  celebrate  the  martyrdom 
of  Hasan  and  Hosain  at  the  Moharram  festival  by  miracle  plays,  which  are 
fully  described  by  Sir  Lewis  Pelly  in  his  "  Miracle  Play."  We  illustrate  the 
Moharram  festival  at  Bombay  by  a  representation  of  a  procession. 

Yet  there  is  some  vitality  remaining  in  Persian  Mohammedanism,  as 

evidenced  by  the  growth  of  sects  which  aim  at  purifying  or  improving 

Babism.     *^ie  P°Pu^ar  religion.     Some  hold  Ali  to  be  a  divine  incarnation, 

others  explain  away  the  resurrection.     The  most  remarkable  of 


MODERN  ISLAM.  575 


the  modern  sects,  however,  is  that  founded  by  Ali,  a  young  man  of  Shiraz, 
in  18-43.  He  taught  a  sort  of  communism  and  pantheism,  the  unity  of  God, 
and  the  re-absorption  of  all  things  in  Him  ;  that  God  reveals  J  lis  ah, 
will  by  a  series  of  messengers  who  are  divine  as  well  as  human,  "The  Bab." 
each  being  the  revealer  of  some  new  truth.  Of  these  Moses,  Jesus,  Ma- 
homet, and  himself  were  the  chief,  while  he  looked  for  a  greater  to  come 
after  him,  the  great  Revealer.  A  fanciful  theory  of  numbers,  especially 
connected  with  the  number  19,  was  one  of  his  specialities.  He  chose  18 
chief  disciples,  who  with  himself  made  up  19.  The  great  work  of  reve- 
lation was  to  contain  19  chapters,  of  which  he  wrote  eleven,  leaving  the  rest 
to  be  written  by  his  successor,  etc.  His  person  was  most  attractive,  his 
life  pious  and  regular,  and  his  doctrine  gained  such  sway  that  the  State 
became  alarmed.  He  took  the  title  of  "the  Bab,"  that  is  "the  Door,''  the 
only  one  through  which  men  can  reach  God.  He  discountenanced  pol}r- 
gamy,  forbade  divorce,  and  abolished  the  veiling  of  women.  He  also 
sternly  exposed  the  vices  of  the  mollahs  :  and  consequently  they  were  his 
bitter  enemies.  This  fact  secured  him  toleration  by  the  Government  for 
some  time,  and  his  converts  spread  his  cult  widely  in  Persia.  One  of  his 
chief  followers,  Hosain,  formed  a  camp  of  Babis,  as  the  new  religionists  were 
called,  at  Castle  Tebersy,  which  in  18-48  was  stormed  and  Hosain  killed.  In 
various  provinces  the  Government  attacked  the  Babis,  imprisoned  and 
martyred  men,  women,  and  children,  and  killed  the  Bab  himself  under 
circumstances  of  great  cruelty  and  contumely  on  18th  July,  1S49.  A  new 
Bab,  indicated  by  supposed  divine  signs,  was  chosen  by  his  followers,  named 
Yahya.  A  further  massacre  of  the  Babis  took  place  in  1852,  since  which 
time  the  sect  has  not  dared  to  show  itself  openly,  though  zealously  propa- 
gated in  secret.  It  is  unknown  whether  the  new  Bab  is  still  living,  and  how 
many  Babis  there  are  is  doubtful.  A  recent  traveller  puts  them  at  100,000 
(see  Contemporary  Review,  Dec,  1885).  They  write  many  books,  which  are 
secretty  circulated,  and  their  teachings  are  said  to  have  taken  the  greatest 
hold  of  the  most  intelligent  classes  in  Persia. 

We  must  briefly  mention  two  heretical  sects,  possibly  descended  from 
the  Khawarij,  who  revolted  from  Ali  after  the  battle  of  Siffin,  being 
offended  because  he  submitted  his  right  to  the  Caliphate  to  human  decision, 
when  according  to  them  it  ought  to  be  left  to  Divine  arbitrament.  The}' 
also  believed  that  any  man  might  be  made  Caliph,  of  whatever  Abadites  and 
tribe  or  nation,  provided  he  were  a  just  person,  and  also  that  a  Zeidltes- 
Caliph  who  was  a  wrong-doer  might  be  put  to  death  or  deposed.  The  Aba- 
diyeh  of  Oman  and  Zanzibar  hold  this  doctrine  at  the  present  day,  and  are 
said  to  number  four  millions.  They  reject  a  vast  quantity  of  Sunnite 
traditions,  and  have  no  communion  with  Sunnites.  The  Zeidites  of  Yemen 
are  probably  akin  to  them  in  belief,  rejecting  the  traditional  Caliphate,  but 
passing  themselves  off  as  Sunnites  when  on  pilgrimage.  They  do  not 
number  more  than  two  millions. 

The  Wahhabi  movement,  now  nearly  two  centuries  old,  has  been  one 
of  the  most  potent  that  has  ever  arisen  in  Islam,  and  is  by  no  means  ex- 


576  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


tinct,  though  shorn  of  much  of  its  former  influence.    It  arose  by  the  preach- 
The        in&  °f  Mohammed  Abd  el  Wahhab,  the  son  of  Wahhab,  whose 
wahhabis.   liame  }ias  been  given  to  the  movement,  since  his  own  proper  name 
would  have  confused  it  with  that  of  the  Prophet.     He  was  born  in  the 
Their       centre  of  Nejd,  the  great  desert  tract  in  Arabia,  in  1691,  was- 
founder,     educated  as  a  Hanbalite,  visited   and  studied  at  Mecca,  Basra 
(Bassorah),  Bagdad,  and  Medina,  and  returning  home  started  his  mission  as. 
a  religious  teacher.     Fired  with  zeal  for  primitive  Islam  and  hatred  for  the 
extravagances,  excrescences,  and   evils   he    had   noted  in  various  Moslem 
countries,  he  taught  the  pure  unity  of  God,  rejected  all  the  tra- 
ditions  except  those  derived  from  the  Companions  of  the  Prophet, 
and  claimed  the  right  of  private  judgment  as  to  the  Koran  and  the  Tradi- 
tions.    He  abolished  the  invocation  and  worship  of  saints  and  the  dead,  and! 
forbade  the  use  of  intoxicants  and  tobacco,  the  wearing  of  silver  and  gold, 
and  every  practice  forbidden  by  the  Koran.     Thus  his  movement  partook 
both  of  Puritanism  and  Protestantism. 

The  new  teacher  began  to  preach  at  about  forty  years  old,  and  soon 
drew   down   upon   himself  great   opposition.     He   had   to   take  refuge   at 
His        Deraieh,  with  Mohammed    ibn  Saood,   who   espoused   his  cause 
champion,  eagerly,  and  sought  to  establish  his  own  conquests  on  the  basis 
or  pretext  of  the  new  doctrines.     He  began  a  career  of  conquest  which  ex- 
tended the  Wahhabi  principles  and  the  rule  of  his  own  dynasty  over  the 
greater  part  of  Arabia.     On  Ibn  Saood's  death  in  1765,  Nejd  was  a  strong 
kingdom,  and  his  son's  successor,  Abd-ul-Aziz,  assumed  the  titles  of  imam 
and  sultan.     The  founder  of  the  Wahhabis  lived  on  till  1787.     Abd-ul-Aziz 
TheWahhahi  continued   his  conquests   till  1803,    when  he  was  murdered  by 
kingdom.    a  persian  fanatic.     His  son  Saood  took  Kerbela,  containing  the 
tombs  of  the  Shiite  caliphs,    and  destroyed  everything  that  savoured  of 
idolatry,  from  the  golden  dome  of  Hosain's  tomb  to  the  smallest  tobacco 
,  pipe.     In  1803  he  took  Mecca  and  performed  similar  destruction, 
Medina     though  without  any  personal  outrage  on  the   people.     Medina 
was  taken  in  1801,  and  the  dome  over  the  Prophet's  tomb  was 
destroyed.     The  usual  pilgrimages  were  now  suspended,  none  but  those  who 
conformed  to  Wahhabi  views  being  allowed  to  approach  the  holy  places. 

The  Sultan  of  Turkey  was  at  last  roused  to  vigorous  action,  and  in  a 

succession   of  campaigns  under  Mehemet  Ali  and  Ibrahim  Pasha,  lasting 

Defeat  by    from  1811  to  1818,  the  Wahhabi  dominion  was  practically  crushed, 

Mehemet  Ali  and  Deraieh,  its  capital,  destroyed.     In  a  short  time,  however,  the 
and  Ibrahim.  , 

'  Wahhabis  showed  signs  of  revival,  and  PJad  in  Nejd  became  its 

stronghold,  and  the  capital  of  a  kingdom  which  gradually  extended  over 

the  greater  part  of  the  central  desert  land  of  Arabia,  although  it  never 

regained  its  supremacy  in  Oman,  Bahrein,  and  Yemen. 

When  it  appeared  destined  to  extinction,  the  Wahhabi  faith  was  still 

taught  by  some  teachers  at  Mecca ;    and  Seyyid  Ahmed,  a  freebooter  of 

Extension  inBareilly,  but  a  descendant  of  the  Prophet,  learning  the  truth  from 

India"       them,  returned  from  Mecca  in  1822  resolved  to  reclaim  Northern 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


577 


■India  to  the   true  belief  of  Islam.     He  was  hailed  as  the  true  caliph  or 
mahdi,  propagated  the  Wahhabi  doctrines  widely,  started  a  religious  war 


<  to 


Z     Eh 

S3 

y. 

w 


in  1826  against  the  Sikhs,  but  failed  after  some  years'  time.  But  in  more 
recent  years  Wahhabism  has  been  still  more  widely  spread  in  India  by 
books,  and  is  now  exercising  a  powerful  influence  there. 

p  p 


578  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS, 


Some  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Wahhabis,  beyond  those  already  men- 
tioned, are :  that  at  the  last  day  Mahomet  "will  obtain  permission  of  God  to 
special  intercede  for  His  people  ;  that  no  prostration  or  perambulation  of  ] 
doctrines,  ggjj^s  js  lawful,  not  even  of  Mahomet's  at  Medina;  that  women 
should  not  visit  graves,  because  of  their  excessive  weeping ;  that  only  four 
festivals  should  be  observed — those  of  the  Sacrifice,  of  the  Breaking  of  the 
Fast  (after  Ramadan),  the  10th  Moharram,  and  the  Night  of  Power. 

No  doubt  Wahhabism  has  some  strong  features  ;  but  it  is  too  com- 
pletely reactionary  and  puritanical.  Its  end,  if  it  were  successful,  would 
be  to  spread  a  Moslem  propagandism  over  the  world  ;  and  it 
its  defects.  wouj(j  refllse  to  recognise  anything  not  known  during  the  early 
years  of  Islam.  "What  injured  it  more  than  anything,  was  its  capture  and 
exclusive  possession  of  Mecca  and  Medina,  and  the  destruction  of  venerated 
objects  and  relics  there. 

The  Druses  may  be  most  conveniently  mentioned  here.     They  inhabit 
the  mountains  of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  and  the  Hauran  to  the  east  of 

the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  extend  as  far  north  as  Beyrout,  and  east 
The  Druses  . 

'  to  Damascus.     Altogether  they  number  about  70,000,  having  over 

100  towns  and  villages  of  their  own,  and  occupy  more  than  twice  as  many 

in  common  with    Christians.      They  appear  to  have   originated 

from   mixed  Arab,  Kurd,  and  other — even  Indian — tribes,  who 

aggregated  there  in  a  spirit  of  lawlessness  and  self-defence,  beginning  as 

far  back  as  pre-Moslem  times. 

The  sixth  Fatimite  caliph  in  Egypt,  Hakim  Biamrillah,  who  began  to 

reign  at  Cairo  in  a.d.  1019,  a  tyrannical  and  half-insane  ruler,  believed  that 

he  had  direct  communication  with  the  Deitv,  and  indeed  was  an 

Htikim 

incarnation  of  the  Divine.     In  1029  these  claims  were  publicly 

asserted  in  Cairo,  and  supported  by  his  confessor  Darazi.     The  latter  had  to 

fly,  owing  to  the  popular  indignation.    He  took  refuge  in  Western 

Hermon,  and  propagated  his  belief  considerably.     A  little  later, 

however,  Hakim's  vizier,  Hamza,  a  Persian  mystic,  was  more  successful  in 

elaborating  the  new  doctrine  with  various  additions  of  his  own, 
Hamza. 

and  succeeded  in  getting  it  widely  accepted.     Hakim  was  at  last 

assassinated,  in  1032  ;  but  it  was  given  out  by  Hamza  that  he  was  only 

gone  for  a  time,  and  that  his  followers  were  to  expect  his  coming  again  with 

confidence.     Darazi  was  termed  a  heretic  by  Hamza,  and  is  still  hated  by  the 

Druses,  who  probably  derive  their  name  from  him,  while  Hamza  is  revered  as 

the  founder  of  their  faith.     We  cannot  detail  their  subsequent  history,  which 

is  told  in  Churchill's    "  Druses  and  Maronites,"  1862.     They  have  nearly 

always  been  at  war  among  themselves,  with  the  Christians,  or  with  the 

Recent      Turks.     In  modern  times  they  became  bitterly  hostile  to  their 

history,     neighbours  the  (Christian)  Maronites,  and  the  most  cruel  warfare 

was  carried  on  for  many  years  between  them  (1841-1861).     It  was  at  last 

composed  on  the  appointment  of  a  Christian  governor  independent  of  the 

district  (1864),  since  Avhich  time  disturbances  have  practically  ceased. 

The    Druses    are  extremely   conservative,  and  do   not  seek   to   make 


MODERN  ISLAM.  579 

converts.  Their  doctrines  include,  together  with  much  of  the  Koran  and 
Sufism,  a  considerable  infusion  from  the  Pentateuch  and  the 
Gospels.  They  believe  in  one  God,  without  seeking  to  define  His 
nature  or  attributes,  and  call  themselves  Unitarians.  God  has,  according 
to  them,  been  at  different  epochs  manifested  to  mankind  in  a  human  form, 
without  weaknesses  or  imperfections,  All  and  Hakim  being  among  these 
The  latter  was  the  last  and  final  incarnation.  Finally,  when  the  troubles  of 
the  faithful  have  reached  their  fulness,  Hakim  will  come  again  and  over- 
come the  world,  so  that  the  true  religion  may  reign  supreme.  The  first  of 
God's  creatures  they  name  Universal  Intelligence  ;  he  is  always  manifested 
together  with  the  Divine  Incarnation,  and  Hamza  was  the  last  of  such 
manifestations.  He  alone  has  direct  communication  with  God,  and  imparls 
his  knowledge  and  gifts  to  all  subordinate  ministers.  He  will  be  the 
medium  of  Hakim's  conquests,  and  will  distribute  rewards  and  punishments. 
The  Universal  Intelligence  is  also  held  to  be  the  creator  of  every  soul.  At 
death  souls  pass  into  other  bodies,  and  rise  to  a  superior  degree  if  truly 
attached  to  truth,  or  descend  if  they  have  neglected  religious  meditation. 

The  seven  great  duties  of  the  Druses  are  :  (1)  Truth  in  speech  (towards 
one  another  only),  (2)  mutual  protection,  (3)  rejection  of  all  other  religions, 
(4)  separation  from  all  who  are  in  error,  (5)  belief  in  the  unity  seven  great 
of  God,  (6)  resignation  to  His  will,  (7)  and  obedience  to  His  duties, 
commands.  Prayer  is  considered  to  be  an  impertinent  attempt  to  interfere 
with  God's  designs  ;  but  the  freewill  of  man  is  clearly  held.  The  faithful 
are  commanded  to  keep  their  doctrines  secret  from  unbelievers,  and  to  this 
end  they  are  permitted  to  make  outward  profession  of  any  religion  which 
prevails  around  them. 

There  is  a  special  class  of  Druses  who  alone  are  admitted  into  the  deeper 
knowledge  of  the  religion,  known  as  the  Akals.    This    class,  constituting 
15  per  cent,  of  the  whole  people,  is  open  to  any  one   after   a  ^  Akal& 
year's  probation  and  proof  that  he  will  strictly  keep  the  laws  of 
the  religion.     All  these  abstain  from  tobacco  and  wine,  and  wear  no  gold  or 
silver  or  gorgeous  clothing.    They  are  often  ascetics,  wear  a  distinctive  white 
turban,  and   show  great   devotion   and  purity.     Friday  being  their  day  of 
rest,   as   among  the    Mahometans,   on    Thursday   evenings    the 
Akals  assemble  in  their   plain  meeting-houses   in  retired   spots 
and    read   their   religious  books.      These    meeting-houses   have    revenues 
belonging  to  them,  devoted  to  the  poor  and  to  showing  hospitality.     Their 
sacred  books,  which  are  numerous  (in  manuscript),  are  marked  by  a  high 
tone  of  morality ;    and   there  is  no  proof  of  the  allegations  of  nefarious 
practices   which   the  Maronites  have   brought  against   them.     For  hospi- 
tality,  charity,   and  fidelity   to   guests    they    stand    high.      Polygamy   is 
forbidden  ;  near  relations  often  marry.     Divorce  is  freely  allowed.     Those 
who   die  in  righteousness   are    buried  in   their   own   houses.      Numerous 
manuscripts  of  the  Druses  are  to  be  found  in  European  libraries. 

A  brief  review  of  the   distribution  of  Islam  must  suffice.     The  Sultan 
of  Turkey  is  reputed  the  only  true  successor  to  the  caliphs,  and  bears  the 


58o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


title  "  Successor  of  the  Prophet.''  But  he  is  very  much  under  the  control  of 
the  ulemas,  headed  by  the  sheikh-ul-Islam  (or  grand  mufti),  whom, 
r  ey'  however,  he  nominates  as  his  deputy  in  the  imamate.  But  he 
must  choose  him  from  among  the  mollahs  or  superior  ulemas ;  and  from  his 
judgment  on  matters  of  law  and  religion  there  is  no  appeal.  The  con- 
servative and  dilatory  spirit  of  the  ulemas  of  Constantinople  is  one  of  the 
great  obstacles  to  Turkish  reform.  The  Turkish  official  and  ruling  classes 
are  very  largely  hypocrites,  unbelievers,  or  formalists  ;  such  reality  as  is 
found  in  Turkish  Islam  is  chiefly  to  be  met  with  in  the  lower  classes.  The 
ordinary  Turk  of  Roumelia  or  Asia  Minor  to  a  large  extent  really  believes 
and  practises  his  religion.  The  very  general  profession  of  Islam  in  Arabia, 
Persia,  and  Syria  will  have  been  gathered  from  .what  has  gone  before. 
Kurdistan,    Turkestan,    and  Tartary     are    mainly    Mohammedan,,  as    are 

Afghanistan  and  Beluchistan.      Kerbela,  not  far  from  Bagdad, 
Kerbela  . . 

is  the  most  holy  place  of  the  Shiites,  having  the  tomb  of 
Hosain,  the  son  of  Ali.  They  believe  that  whoever  lives  or  dies  there  will 
have  nothing  to  fear  in  the  world  to  come  ;  and  many  Shiites  leave  in- 
structions in  their  wills  that  they  shall  be  buried  there.  Besides  the 
numerous  caravans  bringing  dead  bodies  for  burial,  Kerbela  is  visited  by 
many  pilgrims. 

Next  to  Kerbela  the  Shiites  revere  Meshed,  the  capital  of  Khorasan,  the 

burial  place  of  the  Imam  Ali  or  Riza,  the  eighth  imam.     His  shrine  is 

annually  visited  by  100,000  pilgrims,  and  he  is  dealt  with  as  if. 

actually  living.     Kum,  between  Teheran  and  Ispahan,  is  almost 

equally  famous,  as  the  shrine  of  Fatima,  his  sister. 

The  Mohammedans  of  India  are  largely  found  in  Bengal,  the  North-west 
Provinces,  and  the  Punjab,  and  approach  50  millions  in  number.  They  have 
a  vast  influence,  and  are  among  the  most  zealous  adherents  of 
their  faith.  They  have  many  magnificent  mosques  and  mauso- 
leums, as  the  Jummoo  Musjid  at  Delhi  (p.  581),  the  Taj  Mehal  at  Agra 
(p.  583),  etc.,  which  we  figure.  Even  in  Benares,  the  great  centre  of 
Hinduism,  there  are  330  mosques. 

Even  in  China  Mohammedans  exist  in  large  numbers,  though  it  is 
very  difficult  to  estimate  them  exactly.  In  some  parts  of  North  China, 
however,  they  form  a  third  of  the  population ;  but  they  are 
largel}'-  of  foreign  extraction,  Turkish  or  Persian,  and  their  settle- 
ment in  China  took  place  chiefly  after  a.d.  1000.  They  keep  up  the 
exclusiveness  of  their  religion,  sometimes  marking  their  houses  or  signs 
with  the  words  Hwei-hwei  (Mahometan) ;  but  they  are  not  unfrequently  to 
be  found  in  the  Government  service,  and  in  office  conform  outwardly  to 
the  State  religion.  They  read  the  Koran  in  Arabic,  which  is  taught  in  the 
schools  attached  to  the  mosques ;  but  the  tenets  of  their  religion  are  also 
learned  from  Chinese  works.  For  their  mosques  they  adopt  the  Chinese 
style,  with  some  Western  features ;  and  they  are  ornamented  with  Arabic 
and  Chinese  inscriptions  painted  on  monumental  boards.  The  people  are 
certainly  not  so  attentive  to  daily  prayer  as  in  other  countries,  and  they 


MODERN  JSL.-LU. 


5»i 


do  not  now  make  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.     Several  million   Malaya  are 
Mohammed;ms,"mostly  under  Dutch  rule. 


In  North  Africa,  Islam  shows  some  of  its   least  inviting   aspects,  es- 
pecially in  Morocco.     Here  exclusiveness  and  antagonism  to  Christians  are 


5 82  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


most   markedly  displayed.      The  Slierifs,   or  so-called  descendants  of  the 

Prophet,   hold  sway  and  insult  others  with  impunity;  and  the 

nCa"  Marabuts  or  Saints  claim  and  gain  great  reverence.     In  Tunis, 

the  holy  city  of  Kairwan  is  a  noted  almost  exclusive  domain  of  Islam,  and 

has  one  of  the  finest  mosques  in  Northern  Africa. 

In  many  countries  Mohammedanism  seems  to  be  decaying,  and  to  have 

lost  all  power  to  elevate  the  people ;  in  Central  Africa  it  is  seen  in  most 

vigorous  life,  and  it  has  succeeded  where  Christianity,  as  hitherto 

C6ntr3.1  3.11(1 

western  presented, — together  with  small-pox  and  the  gin  bottle,- — has 
Africa.  fajje(3  No  unprejudiced  person  who  has  compared  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  Mohammedan  countries  of  the  Soudan  and  Western  Africa 
with  that  of  pagan  negroes,  can  fail  to  admit  that  the  former  include  the 
most  active,  intelligent,  progressive  of  the  Negro  races.  This  may  be  par- 
tially due  to  admixture  of  Semitic,  Abyssinian,  or  other  non-negro  blood  ; 
but  this  admixture  is  often  slight,  and  many  of  the  most  zealous  African 
Moslems  are  pure  negroes.  Who  can  deny  that  the  fetishism  of  the  Fantis 
and  Ashantis  is  far  lower  than  the  belief  in  one  God,  the  simple,  regular 
Moslem  prayers,  the  devoutness  of  mosque  worship  ?  or  that  the  abstinence 
from  intoxicants  which  Islam  preaches  is  preferable  in  tropical  climates  to 
the  indulgence  of  the  European,  to  which  he  tempts  his  African  brethren  ? 
The  simplicity  of  the  creed  makes  it  easy  of  comprehension  by  the 
untutored  African.  In  Islam  "everything,"  as  Mr.  Joseph  Thomson  says 
{Contemporary  Review,  vol.  50,  p.  883),  "  is  within  the  range  of  the  negro's 
comprehension — a  very  terrible  One  God,  who  sits  in  judgment,  and  a 
very  real  heaven  and  hell." 

From  the  tenth  century  onwards  Mahometanism  has  been  advancing 
continuously  in  Africa,  from  Egypt  and  Abyssinia,  spreading  westward 
contrast  be- and  southward,  until  now  nearly  all  the  large  States  stretching 
^dMosSm  across  the  Soudan  to  the  West  Coast  are  under  its  sway.  Many 
negro.  Christian  observers  testify  to  the  contrast  between  a  Mahometan 
and  a  heathen  negro  State.  "  The  love  of  noisy  terpsichorean  performances, 
so  noticeable  in  pagan  communities,"  says  Dr.  Blyden,  himself  a  negro 
Christian  of  high  character  and  abilities,  "  disappears  as  the  people  come 
under  the  influence  of  Mohammedanism.  It  is  not  a  fact  that  '  When  the 
sun  goes  down,  all  Africa  dances  '  ;  but  it  might  be  a  fact,  if  it  were  not 
for  the  influence  of  Islam.  Those  who  would  once  have  sought  pleasure  in 
the  excitement  of  the  tom-tom,  now  repair  five  times  a  day  to  the  mosque, 
where  they  spend  a  quarter  of  an  hour  on  each  occasion  in  devotional 
exercises.  After  the  labours  of  the  day  they  assemble  in  groups  near  the 
mosque  to  hear  the  Koran  recited,  or  the  Traditions  or  some  other  book 
read."  In  every  State  schools  have  been  established,  in  which  the  usual 
Moslem  education  is  given  ;  and  few  villages  are  now  without  several  men 
who  can  read  or  write  Arabic.  In  some  cases  the}'  even  go  for  further 
education  to  Cairo.  The  polygamy  which  Islam  sanctions  is  not  attended 
with  the  seclusion  or  veiling  of  women  imposed  in  other  countries,  and  there 
are  several  other  respects  in  which  Islam  in  the  Soudan  is  more  tolerant 


MODERN  ISLAM. 


58: 


than  elsewhere.  Still  there  have  been  many  religious  wars  in  the  Soudan  : 
and  in  Bornu  the  position  of  non-converts  has  been  aggravated  by  their 
being  always  liable  to  be  carried  away  into  slavery.  Even  in  Lagos 
Mahometan  schools  are  to  be  found,  as  well  as  followers  of  the  Prophet  who 
have  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 

The  influence  of  the  Koran   as  an  educator  has  been  very  marked   in 
Africa,  especially  in  unifying,  supplying  common  ground  for  study  and 
worship,    and   inspiring   a   common    antagonism    to    paganism.  The  Koran 
V  Even  where  the  ideas  are  not  fully  understood,"  says  Dr.  Blyden,  "elites* 
"  the  words    seem  to   possess  for  them  a  nameless  beauty  and      negro, 
music,  a  subtle  and  indefinable  charm,  incomprehensible  to  those  acquainted 
only  with  European  languages."     No  translations  could  replace  it,  and  thus 
Arabic  is  now  spreading  far  and  wide.     Moreover,  just  as  Islam  in  former 


Uflljjjlill 


/  1  :  ii  IB'.,  1 


*^  7.        TBH,/    .1.'  \,   b*^  \/NFrrTr  j,'JJ2i&&-.^  -'■■!'- 


AF. 


fX. 


THE    TAJ    MEUAL,    AGRA. 


times  produced  many  a  hero-prophet,  so  in  modern  times  has  it  been  in 
Moslem  Africa,  although  Europe  has  known  nothing  of  it.  Among  those 
in  the  middle  of  this  century  may  be  mentioned  the  Sheikh  Omaru  Al-Hajj, 
a  native  of  Futah  Toro,  between  Timbuctoo  and  the  West  Coast.  He  was 
a  great  proselytiser  and  religious  leader,  banished  paganism  from  Sego,  and 
elevated  and  purified  the  Mahometanism  of  several  Fulah  nations.  He 
wrote  many  Arabic  works  in  prose  and  poetry  ;  and  his  poems  are  recited 
and  sung  in  many  Moslem  towns  and  villages  from  Sierra  Leone  as  far  in- 
land as  Kano.  And  the  feeling  he  had  is  shared  in  a  degree  by  all  negro 
Moslems.  To  propagate  Islam  is  the  one  object  worthy  of  enthusiasm, 
whatever  sufferings  they  or  their  opponents  may  have  to  endure.  While 
Christian  missions  in  Africa  are  an  expensive  exotic,  only  to  a  slight  extent 
permanently  impressing  the  negro  nature,  the  natives  of  the  Soudan  keep 


584  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

up  mosques,  services,  schools,  etc.,  and  contribute  to  support  the  missionaries 
who  come  to  them  from  Arabia  or  elsewhere  ;  and  this  even  in  Sierra  Leone. 
Good  observers  attribute  this  partly  to  the  fact  that  Mohammedans  do 
really  place  the  negro  convert  on  a  moral  level  with  themselves,  give  him 
a  career  that  inspires  him  with  ambition,  and  practically  make  him  re- 
spect himself.  Moreover  Islam  has  done  in  Africa  what  it  has  scarcely  done 
anywhere  else  except  in  China,  it  has  adapted  many  of  its  customs  to  suit 
the  negro.  The  Arab  type  has  been  grafted  on  the  negro,  and  has  not 
wrecked  it.  Since  the  influence  of  Timbuctoo,  which  was  a  replica  of 
Morocco,  has  given  way  to  that  of  Kuka  and  Kano,  the  negro  amalgama- 
tion has  gone  on  rapidly,  and  much  stability  as  well  as  power  of  spreading 
has  been  imparted  to  African  Islam.  Perhaps,  above  all,  the  Arab  consti- 
tution has  suited  the  climate  of  Africa ;  the  Arab  has  found  his  way  every- 
where. His  skin  has  not  repelled  the  negro  nor  contrasted  too  greatly  with 
his.  The  two  races  have  understood  one  another  far  better  than  the  higher 
European. 

Thus  on  the  whole  we  may  anticipate  a  great  future  for  Islam  in  Africa 
and  in  India.  Even  in  other  regions,  where  religion  seems  sunk  in  evil, 
we  may  yet  witness  an  uprising  of  moral  and  spiritual  reform  which  may 
revivify  the  popular  religion.  Christians  may  and  should  acknowledge 
freely  the  important  elements  of  truth  which  they  hold  in  common  with 
Mohammedans  ;  yet  they  cannot  shut  their  eyes  to  the  evils  of  slavery  and 
fatalism,  of  polygamy  and  the  subjection  of  women,  which  largely  prevail 
throughout  Islam,  though  not  so  extensively  as  many  imagine. 

[Encyclopedia  Britannica  :  "  Sunnites  and  Shiites,"  Prof.  A.  Miiller  (M.)  ;  Palmer,  "Oriental 
Mysticism";  Lane's  "  Modern  Egyptians  ;  "  W.  S.  Blunt,  "  The  Future  of  Islam;"  J.  P.  Brown] 
"  The  Dervishes  ;  "  Lady  Anne  Blunt,  "  A  Pilgrimage  to  Nejd  ;  "  Eugene  Schuyler's  "  Turkestan  ;  " 
Edkin's  "Pieligion  in  China,"  chap.  xv. ;  Morier,  "  Second  Journey  through  Persia  ;  "  "  Christianity, 
Islam  and  the  Negro  Race,"  E.  W.  Blyden,  LL.D.] 


MOUNT    HOREB,    OR    SINAI. 

BOOK   VI. 

THE   JEWISH   RELIGION. 


CHAPTER   I. 

(Early  ggfgftorp— JWosfesf* 


Old  Testament  the  chief  authority— Its  growth  and  editing— Elohist  and  Jehovist  narratives— 
The  cosmogony  of  Genesis— Dean  Perowne's  view— The  Jehovist  narrative  of  creation— The  fall 
variously  interpreted— History  of  Adam's  descendants— Longevity  of  man— The  deluge— The 
covenant  with  Noah— The  confusion  of  tongues— The  history  of  Israel  begins— Abraham's  mi- 
gration—His worship  of  God— Abraham  and  Melchizadek— Divine  appearances— Abraham's 
character— Sacrifice  of  Isaac— Jacob  and  special  providence  — Sacred  stones  and  household 
images— Jacob's  great  struggle— Patriarchal  moral  character— Jacob's  dying  blessings— Israel 
in  Egypt -Egyptian  influences— Education  of  Moses— His  long  residence  in  Midian^The 
Divine  commission— The  plagues  of  Egypt —Passage  of  the  Red  Sea— The  decalogue- 
Character   of  Moses. 

WE  must  preface  our  remarks  upon  the  Jewish  religion  by  saying  that 
it  is  outside  the  scope  of  this  work  to  offer  any  discussion  on  the 
question  of  the  inspiration  of  the  Bible,  respecting  which  so  many  different 
views  are  current,  even  amongst  divines.  It  is  simply  sought  to  give  an 
account  of  Jewish  religion  and  its  growth  in  the  same  manner  as  has  been 
done  with  some  other  religions,  noting  the  principal  features  of  Old 
Testament  teaching,  and  their  historical  development,  and  especially  those 
points  in  which  a  comparison  can  be  made  with  other  religions.     For  this 


5S6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


purpose  it  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  examine  the  historical  records  of  the 

Old  Testament  in  a    manner  as    unprejudiced  as  possible   by   theories   of 

inspiration,  which  on  any  theory  acted  through  human  instruments. 

It  is  somewhat  singular  that  the  Old  Testament  is    almost  the   only 

authority  for  much  ot  the  history  of  the  Jews,  owing  to  the  absence  of 
om  Testa-  contemporary  records  in  stone,  and  of  relics  of  buildings,  etc., 
mcMe?ie  which  in  other  countries  have  thrown  light  on  religion  ;  and  it 
authority.    js   [n  the    religious  history  of  Chaldsea,  Assyria,  Philistia,    and 

Egypt  that  the  most  interesting  facts  have  come  to  light  which  illustrate 

the  development  of  religion  among  the  Jews. 

Taking  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Historical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament 

as  a  whole,  it  is  pretty  generally  agreed  that,  whatever  be  the  date  of  their 

arrangement  and  promulgation  in  the  form  in  which  we  have 
Its  srrowtn  ^ 

and        them  (and  this  is  variously  placed  in  the  period  between  Hilkiah's 

editing,  discovery  0f  the  Law  in  Josiah's  reign,  in  the  seventh  century 
B.C.,  and  its  recitation  by  Ezra  about  b.c.  445),  the  compilers  or  authors 
had  before  them  previous  records,  some  of  which  may  be  distinguished 
from  one  another  by  their  language,  while  of  others  we  have  only  the 
names,  such  as  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah.  There  are  many  indica- 
tions in  the  Pentateuch  that  it  was  at  least  extensively  revised  long  after 
the  date  of  Moses  ;  and,  indeed,  there  is  nowhere  in  the  Pentateuch  any 
assertion  that  Moses  wrote  the  books  which  have  generally  been  attributed 
to  him,  and  which  speak  of  him  in  the  third  person.  Discussion  as  to  how 
much  Moses  has  contributed  to  the  Pentateuch  would  be  out  of  place  here. 
It  is  stated  in  numerous  passages  that  Moses  wrote  records  of  events,  and  of 
the  commands  of  Jehovah  ;  and  in  several  passages  of  the  Old  Testament 
this  is  definitely  attributed  to  him.  Great  knowledge  of  Egypt  and  Egyp- 
tian customs  is  shown  by  the  writer,  thus  according  with  the  opportu- 
nities Moses  had  of  gaining  such  knowledge.  The  value  of  the  historical 
works  of  the  Old  Testament  as  sources  of  history  is  extreme ;  and  many 
facts  therein  recorded  have  been  remarkably  confirmed  by  archaeological 
and  geographical  investigations,  especially  by  those  of  the  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Fund. 

A  most  conspicuous  result  of  modern  criticism  of  the  Pentateuch,  is  the 
discernment  of    at  least  two    authors  or    documents,    one  describing   the 

,  supreme  God  as  Elohim,  "  the  Mighty,"  a  plural  title  which  was 
Elohist  and       ■»•  '  -,  -,•  i  itt 

Jenovist  well  understood  by  the  peoples  surrounding  the  early  Israelites, 
narratives.  anj  among  whom  the  briefer  El  was  a  common  designation 
for  their  own  chief  deity  ;  the  other  using  the  term  Jehovah,  or  Jahveh, 
translated  "the  Lord."  A  third  variation  is  found  when  the  names  are 
coupled  together.  The  passage  in  Exodus  vi.  3,  where  Jehovah  says  to 
Moses,  "  I  appeared  unto  Abraham,  unto  Isaac,  and  unto  Jacob,  as  God 
Almighty  (El  Shaddai),  but  by  My  name  Jehovah  I  was  not  known  to 
them,"  appears  to  fix  all  narratives  in  which  the  name  Jehovah  is  used  as 
later  than  that  revelation  to  Moses  ;  but  this  is  by  no  means  agreed  upon  by 
critics.     We  may,  however,  study  the  religious  development  of  the  Jews  in 


EARL  Y  JE  WISH  IIISTOR  Y  58; 


two  periods — that  in  which  the  name  of  the  Deity  was  some  form  of  El  or 
Elohim,  and  that  in  which  it  was  Jehovah. 

The  first  hook  of  the  Pentateuch,  commonly  termed  Genesis,  in  the 
first  place  gives  a  cosmogony  (i.  to  ii.  3)  in  which  the  Creator  is  spoken  of 
as  Elohim.  It  is  undoubtedly  superior  to  any  other  ancient  cos- 
mogoiry.  It  describes  every  act  of  creation  as  directly  the  work  mogony  of 
of  Elohim,  and  this  is  the  predominant  note  of  the  narrative. 
An  orderly  procession  of  events  is  traced,  and  identified  with  days  which 
may  be  referred  to  immense  periods  of  time,  though  there  is  no  evidence 
that  the  narrative  was  originally  understood  in  any  sense  but  that  of  days 
consisting  of  evening  and  morning,  or  twenty-four  hours.  The  narrative 
appears  to  imply,  though  it  does  not  expressly  assert,  the  creation  of  the 
world  out  of  nothing,  and  it  represents  the  Creator  as  in  express  re- 
lation to  His  work,  regarding  it  as  "good,"  and  "very  good."  Many 
attempts  have  been  made  in  modern  times  to  bring  the  statements  as  to 
the  "  days  "  of  creation  into  connection  with  distinct  or  marked  geological 
periods ;  but  all  these  appear  to  fail.  In  the  one  case  we  have  a  graphic 
representation  of  the  order  of  creation,  drawn  out  on  broad  lines  appre- 
ciable by  mankind  in  an  early  stage  of  literary  development,  and  by 
children  and  the  unlearned  of  all  ages  ;  on  the  other  we  have  an  attempt  at 
inductive  and  detailed  histoiy.  The  present  writer  regards  the  attempt  to 
draw  out  a  detailed  correspondence  between  the  two  as  futile.  Nor  does  it 
appear  necessary  that  even  those  who  regard  the  narrative  of  creation  in 
Genesis  as  an  inspired  and  infallible  document  should  read  into  it  all  the  . 
discoveries  of  modern  science  in  order  to  establish  or  confirm  its  value  and 
interest.  In  any  case,  we  have  a  grand  series  of  pictures,  ending  with  the 
creation  of  man,  or  "  Adam,"  male  and  female,  on  the  sixth  day,  and  a  con- 
clusion which  gives  a  foundation  and  sanction  for  the  Sabbath  as  observ  ■<  I 
by  the  Jews,  by  attributing  to  the  Creator  "  rest  "  on  the  seventh  day, 
and  the  sanctification  of  the  day.  Bishop  Harvey  Goodwin  {Contemporary 
Review,  vol.  50,  p.  524)  argues  that  the  week  did  not  take  its  rise  from  the 
sacred  history,  but  that  the  form  in  which  the  histoiy  was  cast  depended  on 
the  writer's  knowledge  of  the  division  of  time  by  weeks,  and  of  the  Sabbath 
as  an  institution  already  existing  long  before  the  time  of  Moses.  Bishop 
Goodwin  regards  the  story  of  creation  as  either  a  speculation,  or  a  poetical 
picture,  or  the  record  of  a  vision  accorded  to  some  gifted  seer.  The  narrator, 
requiring  some  framework  for  his  vision,  and  knowing  the  division  of  time 
by  weeks,  naturally  used  it  as  the  most  appropriate.1 

In  this  connection  we  may  quote  Dean  Perowne's  words  in   Smith's 
"  Dictionary  of  the  Bible"  (article  Genesis).    "It  is  certain  that  the  author  of 

1  Bishop  Goodwin  further  observes  that  "  when  we  speak  of  the  '  literal  interpretation' 
of  this  portion  of  Holy  Scripture,  we  are  using  language  which,  when  examined,  has  no 
definite  meaning.  The  whole  history  of  creation  is  necessarily  supra-literal.  '  The  Spit-it 
of  God  moved  upon  the  face  of  the  waters.'  What  literal  meaning  is  there  here? 
'  God  said,  Let  ixs  make  man  in  our  image,  after  our  likeness.'  How  can  we  assign  to 
such  transcendental  language  any  sense  which  can  properly  be  called  literal  t  And  so 
on  throughout  the  whole  creative  history." 


588  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  whether  Moses  or  some  one  else,  knew  nothing 
Dean  °*  Se°i°S'y  or  astronomy.  It  is  certain  that  he  made  use  of 
Perowne's  phraseology  concerning  physical  facts  in  accordance  with  the 
limited  range  of  information  which  he  possessed.  It  is  also  cer- 
tain that  the  Bible  was  never  intended  to  reveal  to  ns  knowledge  of  which 
our  own  faculties  rightly  used  could  put  us  in  possession.  And  we  have 
no  business,  therefore,  to  expect  anything  but  popular  language  in  the 
description  of  physical  phonomena.  Tims,  for  instance,  when  it  is  said  that 
by  means  of  the  firmament  God  divided  the  waters  which  were  above  from 
those  which  were  beneath,  we  admit  the  fact  without  admitting  the  implied 
explanation.  The  Hebrew  supposed  that  there  existed  vast  reservoirs  above 
him  corresponding  to  the  '  waters  under  the  earth.'  We  know  that  by 
certain  natural  processes  the  rain  descends  from  the  clouds.  But  the  fact 
remains  the  same,  that  there  are  waters  above  as  well  as  below."  It  must, 
however,  be  admitted  that  the  extent  to  which  modern  science  is  consistent 
with  the  broad  outlines  of  the  picture  in  Genesis  is  remarkable. 

The  section  Genesis  ii.  4  to  iii.  24  is  admitted  to  be  very  distinguishable 
from  the  preceding,  especially  in  its  using  the  form  "  Jehovah  or  Jahveh 
The  Jenovist  Elohim  "  for  the  Deity  twenty  times.  This  combination  is  only 
narrative  found  elsewhere  in  the  Pentateuch  in  Exodus  ix.  38.  The  name 
'  Elohim  is  also  used  three  times  by  itself.  The  narrative  begins 
by  a  very  different  and  condensed  account  of  the  creation  of  the  world  and 
of  living  things,  with  a  particularisation  of  man  as  "  formed  of  the  dust  of 
Adamah,  or  the  ground,"  whereas  he  is  previously  described  as  "  created  in 
His  own  image,"  and  "  male  and  female."  The  second  account  goes  on  to 
describe  the  primitive  dwelling  of  man,  the  separate  command  to  Adam  or 
the  Adam  to  refrain  from  eating  of  a  particular  tree,  on  pain  of  death,  the 
naming  of  all  cattle  and  fowl  by  Adam,  the  framing  of  a  woman  as  his  help- 
meet out  of  his  side,  this  being  made  the  basis  for  the  recognition  of 
husband  and  wife  as  "  one  flesh." 

It  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  here  the  story  of  the  Fall,  which  has  been 
so  differently  interpreted  by  thinkers  of  all  ages  since  criticism  began. 
The  fan  Many  interpret  it  allegorically,  as  signifying  a  deep  spiritual 
variously  truth,  of  which,  however,  various  accounts  may  be  given.  Apart 
from  questions  of  theology,  it  is  of  great  interest  as  showing  the 
early  Hebrew  mode  of  accounting  for  the  presence  of  sin  in  the  world. 
The  description  of  the  garden  in  Eden  may  be  referred  to  some  tract  of 
Mesopotamia,  from  which  region  the  ancestors  of  the  Israelites  migrated  ; 
but  it  is  impossible  to  identify  with  any  certainty  the  limited  tract  that  is 
meant.  The  narrative  appears  to  describe  the  creation  of  animals  after  that 
of  man,  but  it  is  evident  that  it  does  not  attempt  to  give  a  chronological 
account.  Altogether,  the  description  is  one  showing  many  marks  of 
antiquity,  whether  or  not  we  suppose  the  name  "  Jahveh  "  to  have  been 
inserted  at  a  later  date.  The  conception  of  the  Deity  "  walking  in  the 
garden  in  the  cool  of  the  day,"  and  taking  part  in  a  series  of  dialogues,  is 
an  anthropomorphism  which  of  itsslf  indicates  a  state  of  mind  which    is 


EARL  Y  JE  WISH  JIISTOR  Y. 


589 


paralleled  in  many  primitive  races,  whose  inward  impressions  are  heard  as 
outward  voices,  and  attributed  to  spirits  or  gods.  The  connection  of  the 
first  wearing  of  clothing  with  the  first  consciousness  of  sin,  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  loss  of  a  primeval  state  of  bliss  and  ease,  the  exclusion 
from  the  garden  by  cherubims  and  the  flaming  sword,  the  idea  of  a 
possible  seizure  of  immortality  by  man, — all  these  denote  an  early  stage  of 
self-conscious  reasoning  upon  the  phenomena  of  life,  which  has  been 
presented  to  us  in  such  simplicity  and  charm  by  no  other  religious  book. 
We  may  note  that  the  serpent  had  in  the  East  a  reputation  for  sagacity 
which  has  not  stood  the  test  of  later  investigation. 


NOAH  S    SACRIFICE. 


Genesis  iv.  contains  the  story  of  Adam's  family  through  Cain   down 
to   Lameeh,   with   the   murder   of  Abel   by  Cain,  and   narrates   the  early 
occupations   of    mankind,    pastoral    and    agricultural,    the    de-  Historyof 
velopment  of  the  use  of  metal  for  cutting  implements,  and  the     Adam's 
invention  of  musical  instruments.     The  two  main  varieties  of 
early  offerings  to  God  are  here  already  established,  namely  "the  fruitfof  the 
ground/'  and  "  the  firstlings  of  the  flock,  and  of  the  fat  thereof,"  and  the 
superiority  of  the  latter  is  implied  in  their  acceptance.     The  punishment  of 
murder  on  earth  by  a  severer  sentence  than  death  is  indicated,  and    the 
power  of  conscience  is  strongly  asserted.    In  this  narrative  the  name  Jahveh 


59o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

is  used,  and  at  the  close,  after  describing  the  birth  of  Seth  as  the  progenitor 

of  the  chosen  people,  we  are  told  that  "  then  men  began  to  call  upon  the 

name  of    the  Lord."     Chapter  v.    is    essentially    a    genealogical    chapter, 

beginning  with  a  third  brief   account  of  the  creation  of  man,  "  male  and 

female,"  and  termed  collectively  "  Adam."     Here  the  name  "  Elohim  "  is 

used,  except  in  ver.  29.     We  have  in  this  chapter  mainly  that 
LousrGvity 

of        record    of    longevity    which    Owen   and   many    other'  eminent 

man"  zoologists  and  physiologists  declare  to  be  incompatible  with  the 
present  physical  structure  of  man,  especially  of  the  teeth,  while  no  traces  of 
men  with  any  structure  admitting  of  such  length  of  days  can  be  found.  Of 
course,  if  the  early  calendar  was  reckoned  on  some  other  basis  than  ours,  this 
difficulty  disappears  ;  but,  humanly  speaking,  it  is  useless  to  look  for  modern 
scientific  accuracy  in  a  record  dating  from  very  early  times  ;  in  fact,  the  power 
of  using  considerable  numbers  is  a  comparatively  advanced  achievement. 
These  records  are  best  looked  at  as  representing  the  ancient  genealogy  of 
the  Jews  preserved  in  the  most  authentic  form  they  knew  about ;  and  to 
attempt  to  reconcile  them  with  modern  views  on  the  antiquity  of  man  is  a 
fruitless  endeavour.  We  know  that  names  were  left  out  and  genealogies 
drawn  up  in  round  numbers  of  generations  by  the  Jews,  of  which  there  are 
numerous  examples  in  the  Bible.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  account  of 
Enoch's  translation  represents  an  interesting  stage  of  the  mode  by  which 
heroes  become  deified  in  many  countries. 

In  the  history  of  Noah  we  come  into  closer  contact  with  the  traditions 
of  other  nations,  and  especially  with  the  Chaldaean  deluge  story,  already 
referred  to  (p.  494).  Moral  evil  had  risen  to  a  great  height, 
Tee  uge.  ow-n^  ag  ^}ie  ear}v  Hebrews  believed,  to  an  intermixture  of  the 
daughters  of  the  Adam  with  a  powerful  race,  the  sons  of  Elohim,  or  the 
mighty  ones,  giving  rise  to  "  giants."  Jahveh  is" represented  as  "  repenting  " 
of  having  made  man,  and  as  threatening  his  extinction.  Noah,  a  righteous 
man,  was  selected  to  be  preserved  during  the  impending  destruction,  and 
was  instructed  to  make  a  great  "ark"  in  which  he  could  save  his  family, 
and  two  of  "  every  living  thing,"  an  expression  which  must  be  taken  with 
obvious  limitations.  We  need  not  follow  the  details  of  the  Flood,  but  note 
that  it  is  obviously  impossible  that  this  can  have  been  a  universal  Deluge  in 
the  sense  in  which  that  term  would  now  be  understood.  The  conception  of 
a  plain  only  broken  by  comparatively  low  hills,  covered  by  water  as  far 
as  the  eye  could  see,  suffices  to  adequately  fulfil  the  conditions  really 
demanded.  The  "  mountains  of  Ararat  "  are  rendered  the  "  mountains  of 
Armenia  "  by  many,  and  it  is  nowhere  said  that  the  highest  mountains  were 
meant.  Noah's  offering  of  a  burnt  sacrifice  to  God  consisting  of  "every 
clean  beast  and  every  clean  fowl "  is  of  great  interest  as  showing  religious 
advance,  and  as  indicating  that  a  sort  of  classification  of  animals  into  clean 
and  unclean  had  been  made.  The  narrative,  among  other  anthropomor- 
phisms, represents  the  Deity  as  "  smelling  a  sweet  savour." 

The  great  covenant  which  Noah  now  received  and  promulgated  is  of 
prime  interest  in  whatever  way  it  may  be  regarded,  whether  as  a  direct 


EARLY  JEWISH  HISTORY.  591 

Divine  revelation,  or  as  an  evidence  of  a  stage  in  natural  religions  develop- 
ment. A  very  orthodox  commentator  regards  the  covenant  as  T^e  covenant 
expressing  Noah's  strong  inward  convictions  in  answer  to  his  with  Noah, 
prayers  during  his  sacrifice.  They  express  hopefulness  of  future  good,  not- 
withstanding the  evil  so  prone  to  arise  in  man's  heart,  and  confidence  in 
God's  beneficence.  They  contain  a  sort  of  charter  of  man's  supremacy  on 
the  earth  and  over  animals,  which  in  its  broad  lines  is  unique  at  such  an 
early  period.  The  responsibility  for  human  life  is  laid  down  as  a  funda- 
mental human  obligation,  resting  upon  man's  brotherhood,  and  his  relation- 
ship to  God  as  being  made  "  in  His  image."  Noah,  appalled  by  the  late 
destruction,  was  reassured  that  neither  men  nor  beasts  were  to  be  cut  off  by 
a  flood  in  future.  The  rainbow  was  to  Noah  the  sign  of  this  covenant,  a 
fact  by  no  means  implying,  what  so  many  have  imagined,  that  the  rainbow 
then  first  appeared,  an  idea  incompatible  with  the  laws  of  light.  In  the 
history  of  Noah,  then,  we  trace  the  broad  outline  of  the  conception  so  much 
developed  and  filled  in  later  in  the  Jewish  and  Christian  religions,  of  the 
fatherhood  of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  man. 

The  next  great  cosmological  conception  in  the  Book  of  Genesis  is  in  the 
stoiw  by  which  the  variety  of  languages  was  accounted  for.  It  is  closely 
paralleled  by  some  fragments  of  Babylonian  tablets  in  which  are  t^  confusion 
described  the  anger  of  Bel  at  the  sin  of  the  builders  of  the  walls  of  ton£ues. 
of  Babylon  and  the  mound  of  the  tower  or  palace.  The  builders,  whose 
attempts  were  directed  against  the  gods,  were  confounded  on  the  mound, 
as  well  as  their  speech.  The  winds  are  said  to  have  finally  destroj^ed  the 
impious  works.  This  story  may  very  well  have  had  its  origin  in  the  building 
of  the  great  temple  on  the  mound  of  Birs  Nimroud  or  some  other  notable 
temple  raised  in  successive  stages.  Primitive  peoples  regarded  such  huge 
enterprises  as  impiety  against  the  gods,  much  as  the  originators  of  railwaj's 
were  denominated  impious.  The  divergence  of  language  between  people  a 
few  miles  apart,  which  must  have  been  far  more  marked  then  than  in 
modern  civilised  countries,  was  similarly  considered  an  act  of  vengeance 
directly  due  to  the  gods.  In  Genesis,  to  quote  another  orthodox  divine, 
Dr.  Payne  Smith,  "  Jehovah  is  described  as  a  mighty  king,  who,  hearing 
in  his  upper  and  heavenly  dwelling  of  man's  ambitious  purpose,  determines 
to  go  and  inspect  the  work  in  person,  that  having  seen,  he  may  deal  with 
the  offenders  justly."  And  in  order  to  defeat  men's  unlimited  ambition, 
diversity  of  speech  was  brought  about,  so  that  men  were  not  intelligible  to 
one  another. 

The  history  of  Israel  now  properly  begins  with  the  narrative  of  the 
life  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  the  three  great  ancestral  patriarchs  of  the 
Jewish  people.  Some  scholars,  who  cannot  believe  that  any  The  history  of 
ancient  narrative  at  all  closely  corresponds  with  fact,  have Israel  beglns- 
imagined  these  to  be  mythical  beings,  and  have  given  fanciful  interpreta- 
tions of  their  biographies.  But  the  sober  style  of  the  narrative  lends  little 
countenance  to  such  ideas,  while  much  confirmatory  evidence  from  language, 
antiquities,  geography,  etc.,  gives  support  to  the  belief  that  we  have  here  the 


592  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

most  authentic  early  biographical  records  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
although  it  cannot  be  expected  that  they  have  been  transmitted  with  per- 
fect accuracy  in  all  details.  Leaving  questions  of  general  criticism  aside, 
we  will  trace  the  conception  of  the  Divine  power  and  of  religion  which  the 
Abraham's  narratives  convey.  Abraham's  migration  from  Mesopotamia  is 
migration,  undertaken  by  Divine  command,  and  is  inspired  by  a  great  hope 
of  founding  a  nation  which  shall  become  a  blessing  to  all  the, earth.  At 
Sichem,  in  the  centre  of  Canaan,  it  was  shown  to  him  that  his  seed  would 
possess  the  land ;  and  he  built  an  altar  to  Jehovah,  "  who  appeared  unto 
him."  It  is  impossible  to  settle  in  what  form  the  Divine  manifestations  to 
Abraham  may  have  been  made ;  it  is  equally  impossible  to  doubt  that  the 
narrative  represents  a  genuine  belief  in  their  reality.  Abraham  built  altars 
His  worship  to  God  in  various  places  afterwards  historically  famous  as  places 
of  God.  0f  worsnjp  .  anc[  on  one  occasion  is  represented  as  signalising  a 
covenant  with  God  by  dividing  a  heifer,  a  she-goat,  and  a  ram,  into  halves, 
a  ceremonial  implying  the  most  solemn  ratification.  Abraham  on  this 
occasion  begged  for  a  confirmation  of  his  having  an  heir  born  to  him  in  his 
old  age.  In  a  deep  sleep  following  his  watch  over  the  exposed  animals 
Abraham  saw  a  symbol  of  fire  pass  between  the  divided  halves,  and  received 
a  promisa  of  the  future  greatness  of  his  posterity,  in  connection  with  which 
is  narrated  a  prediction  of  their  servitude  "in  a  land  that  is  not  theirs." 

An  interesting  episode  in  Abraham's  life,  showing  that  he  did  not  feel 
himself  cut  off  from  the  local  worship  of  El  under  different  names,  is  his 
Abraham  and  conduct  after  his  return  from  the  slaughter  of  the  confederates 
Meichizedek.  0£  Chedorlaomer,  king  of  Elam.  Abraham  received  a  blessing 
and  gave  a  proportion  of  his  booty  to  Meichizedek,  whose  title  King  of  Salem 
(Melek-Salem)  is  by  some  understood  to  mean  "King  of  Peace,"  as  his  first 
name  Meichizedek  means  King  of  righteousness.  Jt  is  impossible  to  be  certain 
that  by  Salem  the  site  of  Jerusalem  was  signified.  "Whatever  his  local 
habitation,  Meichizedek  officiated  as  priest  of  El-Elion,  "  God  most  high," 
and  represented  El-Elion  as  having  delivered  Abraham's  enemies  into  his 
hand.  Abraham,  according  to  the  narrative,  identified  the  God  he  worshipped 
with  the  God  of  Meichizedek,  and  here  again  rose  beyond  conceptions  of 
local  or  tribal  gods  towards  that  of  a  Supreme  and  Universal  Deity. 

All  through  the  narrative  of  Abraham  we  have  records  describing 
familiar  intercourse  between  the  Deity  and  Abraham,  whether  by  undefined 
Divine  "  appearances,"  by  the  intervention  of  "  the  angel  of  the  Lord," 
appearances.  or  0f  human  figures.  Thus  we  see  how  deep-seated  was  the 
belief  in  direct  Divine  intervention  and  appearances  in  the  time  from  which 
these  records  date.  In  the  Elohistic  narrative  of  Genesis  xvii.,  which  gives 
the  ancient  authorisation  for  the  circumcision  of  the  Hebrew  males,  we  find 
the  name  El  Shacldai,  El  All-Powerful  or  Almighty,  applied  to  God.  There 
is  evidence  that  circumcision  was  known  and  practised  by  other  nations 
long  before  this ;  but  its  adoption  by  Abraham  was  an  important  epoch  in 
the  development  of  the  Jewish  religion.  The  idea  of  the  Almighty  as 
coming  down  from  His  high  enthronement  above  the  earth  is  still  prominent, 


EARL  Y  JE  WISH  HISTOR J ' 


593 


as  in  the  phrase,  "He  went  up  from  Abraham."     The  birth  of  Isaac  is  pro- 
mised expressly,  as  the  heir  of  the  covenant  made  with  Abraham. 

The  position  of  Abraham  at  the  head  of  the  Jewish  religion  and  in  the 
regard  of  Christians  is  assured.     To  quote  Dean  Stanley  ("  Jewish  Church  " 
i.  1G),  "it  is  true  that  Abraham  hardly  appears  before  us  as  a  Abraham's 
prophet  or  teacher  of  any  new  religion.     As  the  Scripture  repre-   characte-r. 


sents  him,  it  is  rather  as  if  he  was  possessed  of  the  truth  himself,  than  as  if 
he  had  any  call  to  proclaim  it  to  others.  ...  He  was  the  first  distinct 
historical  witness,  at  least  for  his  own  race  and  country,  to  Theism,  to 
Monotheism,  to  the  Unity  of  the  Lord  and  Ruler  of  all,  against  the  primeval 
idolatries,  the  natural  religion  of  the  ancient  world."     No  doubt  he  is  the  first 

Q  Q 


594  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


great  exemplification  of  that  which  henceforth  distinguished  higher  from  lower 
religions,  faith  in  the  Supreme  Being  and  in  ultimate  good,  first  for  himself 
and  his  descendants,  and  secondarily  for  all  mankind.  His  intended  sacri- 
sacrifice  fice  °f  Isaac,— related  probably  to  the  frequent  Canaanitish  immo- 
of  Isaac.  ] at ions  of  the  eldest  son,- -is  explicable  by  his  intense  belief  that 
the  command  came  from  God  ;  and  viewed  in  this  light  it  highly  strained 
his  belief  that  Isaac  was  the  divinely-given  heir  of  the  future  of  his  race. 
One  commentator  puts  it  thus,  in  reference  to  the  Canaanitish  practice: 
"The  question  might  easily  arise  within,  'AVouldst  thou  be  able  to  do  the 
like  to  please  thy  God?'"  The  substitution  of  a  ram  for  Isaac  was  of 
fundamental  importance  in  establishing  the  antiquity  of  the  later  Jewish 
sin-offering,  and  the  sanctity  of  Mount  Moriah,  the  subsequent  site  of  the 
Jewish  temple.  Moral  strength,  mixed  with  some  moral  weakness,  first 
rises  to  distinct  portraiture  in  Abraham,  whose  character,  clearly  related 
to  features  still  familiar  in  Semitic  life,  has  become  almost  equally  precious 
to  Mohammedans  and  Christians.  His  date,  somewhere  before  or  after 
2000  b.c,  we  cannot  attempt  to  settle. 

In  the  history  of  Jacob  we  find  a  development  of  the  personal  aspect  of 
belief.     Special  Providence  watches  over  his  conduct,  appears  to  favour  his 
Jacob  and    designs,  and  by  the  stress  of  events  drives  him  into  a  more  up- 
special     right  path  than  he  had  at  first  sought.     The  belief  in  the  validity 
and  value  of  patriarchal  blessings  is  clearl}7-  evidenced  in  both 
Isaac's  and  Jacob's  dying  blessings.      "We  note,  too,  that  it  comes  upon 
Jacob  as  a  surprise  when  he  becomes  convinced  at  Bethel  that  it  too,  "  far 
from  the  holy  places  of  his  family,  is  a  place  of  Jahveh's  gracious  presence," 
whereupon  he  raises  a  stone,  after  the  manner  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Other 
surrounding  peoples,  as  a  memorial,  and  pours  oil  upon  it,  naming  it  Beth-el. 
the  house  of  God,  long  afterwards  famous  as  a  place  of  sacrifice  and  a  sanc- 
sacred      tuary.     We  note,  also,  the  continued  use  of  household  images, 
household   wlietner   mere   images   of   guardian   spirits   or   of   ancestors,   in 
images.     Laban's  family,  and  believed  to  ensure,  or  be  essential  to,  the 
good  fortune  of  the  household. 

Of  great  significance  in  the  history  of  Jacob  is  the  development  of 
prayer,  in  reliance  upon  what  he  believes  to  be  the  promises  of  God  ;  although 
Jacob's  great  prayer  is  still  mainly,  if  not  entirely,  for  temporal  benefits.  The 
struggle,  memorable  "wrestling"  of  Jacob,  whatever  it  may  mean  physi- 
cally, has  become  the  type  and  model  of  innumerable  spiritual  struggles, 
and  indicates  changes  in  moral  character  as  the  product  of  earnest  resolution. 
In  the  view  of  very  many,  it  stands  as  a  conspicuous  memorial  of  man's 
elevation  by  struggle  and  resolve,  ever  blessed  by  the  Supreme  Power.  To 
Jacob  the  struggle  was  a  Divine  revelation  :  "  I  have  seen  Elohim  face  to 
face,  and  my  life  was  preserved."  The  personal  guidance  of  God  is  again 
brought  into  view  in  the  later  scene  when  Jacob  goes  to  Egypt  by  the  com- 
mand of  God  received  in  the  visions  of  the  night — an  example  of  the  power- 
ful influence  allowed  to  dreams  and  visions  in  those  times. 

In  all  this  patriarchal  period  polygamy  is  nowhere  condemned,  and  is 


JEWISH  HISTORY— MOSES.  595 


frequently  practised  ;  deceit  is  approved  towards  enemies,  and  even  towards 
hosts,  and,  with  various  questionings,  towards  members  of  the  same  house- 
hold ;    morals  had  as  yet  become  comparatively  little  developed 
as  a  corollary  of  religious  belief.     We  have  no  account  of  Divine  PaSoniihal 
worship  except  as  associated  with  special  occasions.     The  outlines   character- 
of  the  patriarchs  are  very  differently  drawn  from  those  of   the  heroes  and 
demigods  of  most  other  religions.     No  perfection  is  attributed   to   them. 
-  They  fall  again  and  again  into  error  and  evil-doing ;  yet  they  rise   by  ex- 
hibiting a  faith  in  the  Divine  superior  to  that  of  their  neighbours,  and  by 
obeying  inward  monitions  more  than  others  did.      They  are  in  no  sense 
raised  beyond  humanity  ;  they  are  distinctly  human  all  through  ;  and  thus 
their  histories,  though  probably  intermixed  with  later  traditions  and  edited 
to  an  uuascertainable  extent,  contain  highly  credible  and  valuable  accounts 
of  primitive  life  and  of  the  rise  of  religious  belief. 

Now  comes  the  important  period  of  the  Israelitish  sojourn  in  Egypt,  which 
must  have  had  considerable  effect  on  the  religious  development  of  the  people. 
Yet  we  hear  little  of  it  till  the  great  uprising  which  led  to  the  Exodus. 

Meanwhile  the  death-bed  of  Jacob  is  the  occasion  for  the  delivery  of 
characteristic  blessings,  often  prophetic  in  their  character.  One  clause 
■'  The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah,  nor  a  lawgiver  from  Jacob's  dying 
'  between  his  feet,  until  Shiloh  come  ;  and  unto  him  shall  the  blessings, 
gathering  of  the  people  be,"  has  especial  significance  in  the  history  of  the 
Christian  Church,  as  indicating  the  person  and  rule  of  Christ.  Some  modern 
critics  translate  one  phrase,  "until  he  come  to  Shiloh,"  in  Ephraim,  where 
the  ark  of  the  covenant  was  at  one  time.  Many  read  "  Sheloh,"  instead  of 
Shiloh,  meaning  "  he  whose  it  is,"  or  "  whose  right  it  is."  The  fact  that 
the  'Jews  themselves  interpret  the  passage  as  a  Messianic  prophecy  is  of 
moment ;  and  whether  the  prophecy  assumed  its  present  form  compara- 
tively later  or  earlier,  it  no  doubt  existed  long  before  the  time  of  Christ. 

The  residence  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  must  be  esteemed  of  the  high- 
est  importance  to    their  religious  development,  both  for  what  it  taught 
them  to  dislike  and  for  what  it  led  them  to  appreciate  and  adopt.     israei  in 
An  enormous    gulf  separates  the  primitive  patriarchal  religion,      ^sypt. 
with  its  open-air  altars,  its  rare  sacrifices,  its  memorial  stones,  and  its  sacred 
trees,  from  the  elaborate  priestly  religion  which  grew  up  on  the  foundation 
of  Moses.     Although  it  is  not  expressly  stated  in  the  Pentateuch,  we  find 
from  Joshua  xxiv.  and  Ezekiel  xx.  that  the  Hebrews  to  a  considerable  extent 
served  the  gods  of  Egypt,  and  lapsed  from  the  purity  of  the    Egyptian 
patriarchal  faith.     Again  and  again,  in  their  wilderness-sojourn   iaflueaces. 
and  in  later  times,  are  Egyptian  lapses,  Egyptian  longings  made  a  subject 
of  reproach  to  them.     Accustomed  to  the  worship  of  the  black  calf  at  the 
Temple  of  the  Sun  in  On  (Heliopolis),  and  to  that  of  other  idols  and  deified 
animals,  not  all  the  sanction  of  the  Second  Commandment  nor  all  the  influ- 
ence of  their  loftiest  leaders  could  keep  them  from  frequent  outbreaks  of 
worship  more  or  less  idolatrous ;  and  the  symbolism  of  the  Ark  of  the  Cove- 
nant, borrowed  very  closely  from  Egyptian  models,  was  required  to  give 


596 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


them  a  centre  for  their  adoration,  to  satisfy  the  cravings  excited  by  their 
Egyptian  experiences.  On  the  other  hand,  the  absolute  power  of  the  king, 
and  the  divine  worship  which  was  paid  to  him,  may  surely  be  credited  with 
some  part  in  that  reaction  which  kept  the  Israelites,  though  numerous  and 
powerful,  so  long  without  a  king.  Having  suffered  the  extremes  of  pain 
and  misery  at  the  hands  of  a  god-king,  they  can  scarcely  brook  for  the  length 
of  a  short  war  the  absolute  rule  of  a  military  leader  ;  and  when  at  length 
they  submitted  to  a  king,  the}'  were  far  from  worshipping  him. 

Again,  the  education  of  Moses,  as  a  priest,  "  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians,"  in  itself  implies  a  mighty  Egyptian  influence  upon  the  Israel- 
Education  ites.  The  foremost  intellectual  man  among  them  found  his  force 
of  Moses,  tenfold  intensified  by  his  culture.  We  can  imagine  him  keenly 
surveying  the  varied  observances  and  criticising  the  lore  of  the  initiated 
priests  of  Egypt,  and  selecting  from  them  those  parts  which  seemed  condu- 
cive to  the  welfare  of  the  people,  and  waiting  his  time  to  adopt  or  enforce 
them  in  legislation.  Their  medical  knowledge  he  absorbed  and  utilised 
largely  in  his  domestic  and  sanitary  regulations.  And  since  he  had  no  king 
in  his  scheme,  his  priestly  class  had  the  more  opportunity  of  enforcing  his 
ordinances  and  of  obtaining  the  means  of  support,  since  there  was  none  of 
that  heavy  levy  of  taxes  and  forced  labour  which  made  life  a  burden  in 
Egypt.  Yet  that  Moses  found  much  to  object  to,  much  to  discard  in  Egyp- 
tian religion,  is  evident  from  the  fewness,  on  the  whole,  of  the  points  of 
agreement  between  it  and  the  Jewish  religion. 

But  it  was  not  only  the  education  of  Moses  in  the  wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians,  but  also  his  long  isolation  and  solitary  thought  in  Miclian,  after 
his  relinquishment  of  all  his  Egyptian  privileges,  that  must  have 
residence  matured  his  intellect  and  developed  his  moral  courage.  It  was  not 
m  Midian.  an  ■tlnprepareci  sonl  that  received  the  heavenly  mission  to  redeem 
his  people,  yet  it  was  one  schooled  to  modest  self-depreciation,  and  capable  of  a 
forcible  estimate  of  the  difficulties  in  his  way.  We  need  only  imagine  these 
latter,  to  realise  how  strong  must  have  been  the  evidence  and  conviction  upon 
which  Moses  took  up  his  mission  ;  and  it  is  only  natural  that  this  should 
The  Divine  De  accompanied  by  a  deeper  insight  into  the  Divine  nature  which 
commission.  could  carry  him  through  countless  dangers  and  human  impossi- 
bilities. The  expression,  "  I  am  that  I  am,"  otherwise  rendered,  "  I  am 
because  I  am,"  "  I  am  Who  am,"  "  I  will  be  that  I  will  be,"  gives  a  view 
of  the  Self-existence,  the  Uncaused  Nature  of  the  Supreme  Being,  which  no 
previous  statement  about  the  Divine  nature  had  done ;  and  whatever  view 
be  taken  of  the  miraculous,  it  is  at  least  certain  that  the  Jews  profoundly 
believed  in  the  miraculous  signs  granted  to  Moses  in  proof  of  his  Divine 
mission,  and  in  the  miraculous  nature  of  the  plagues  which  afterwards  came 
upon  the  Egyptians.  The  narrative  of  Moses's  commission  is  the  type  of 
that  conviction  of  Divine  support  and  authorisation  which  most  great  reli- 
gious reformers  have  felt  intensely. 

We  pass  over  the  actual  Exodus  as  not  directly  concerned  in  our  object, 
merely  noting  that  the  plagues  of  Egypt  need  not  be  deemed  the  less  im- 


MOSES. 


597 


posing  or  effectual  because  they  proceeded  by  means  the  most  natural  and 
the  most  appropriate  in  Egypt.     The  miraculous  of  one  age  may  The  plagues 
appear  the  natural  to  another  age,  which  may  possibly  discern    of  Eswt- 
orderly  causes  for  that  which  formerly  terrified  a  people  or  authenticated 
a  mission.     To  many  who  view  all  events,  all  causes  as  equally  the  work  of 


I'HE    1ASSOVER    IN    EGTPT. 


the  Supreme  Being,  it  is  nowadays  comparatively  unimportant  to  attempt 
to  closely  distinguish  between  miraculous  and  non-miraculous,  supernatural 
and  natural ;  but  that  in  past  times  enormous  effects  were  produced  1  >y 
events  deemed  miraculous,  superhuman,  supernatural,  cannot  in  the  least  be 
doubted  ;  and  that  many  such  events  occurred,  striking  terror  or  producing 


598  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

conviction,  convincing  the  senses  or  the  mind  in  ways  not  to  be  upset,  is 

equally  certain.     Thus,  even  though  the  crossing  of  the  Red  Sea  has  re- 

Passage     centty  been  explained  in  a  most  plausible  manner  as  a  thoroughly 

of  the      natural  occurrence,  its  effect  in  the  great  chain  of  events  cul- 

F  ed  Sea  • 

mmatmg  in  the  destruction  of  the  Egyptian  army,  was  not  the 
less  striking  in  fact,  and  was  handed  down  as  a  miraculous  interposition  of 
Jehovah.  And  without  taking  up  any  dogmatic  position,  we  may  be  per- 
mitted to  say,  that  for  human  beings,  with  all  their  imperfections  of  power 
and  discernment,  to  deny  that  u  miracles  "  have  occurred,  or  the  possibility 
of  miracles,  is  to  take  up  a  position  of  superiority  in  relation  to  natural 
phenomena  and  causation,  and  of  over-confidence  in  present  knowledge, 
which  is  little  warranted  by  past  experience  of  changes  of  thought  and 
knowledge. 

Apart  from  the  customs  or  systems  which  welded  the  Israelites  into  a 

nation,  we  have  to  seek  the  most  important  religious  phenomena  in  the 

history  of  Moses.     The  first  place  undoubtedly  belongs  to  the  Decalogue, 

The        and  its  promulgation  and  enforcement  as  a  direct  Divine  revela- 

Decaiogue.  i[01lt  Moses  gave  the  Israelites  a  series  of  positive  precepts,  the 
"  Ten  Words,"  which  have  kept  their  place  at  the  head  of  legislation,  and 
have  influenced  a  large  part  of  the  world's  population.  They  have  been  re- 
cognised as  right  by  the  higher  conscience  of  the  most  diverse  peoples,  and 
including  as  they  do  the  monotheistic  doctrine  which  had  previously  been 
known,  they  constitute  the  greatest  contribution  to  practical  morality,  apart 
from  Christianity.  Perhaps  in  their  original  form  the  longer  command- 
ments did  not  contain  the  explanatory  clauses,  as  is  indicated  by  divergences 
in  the  versions  we  have  ;  but  we  still  to  a  large  extent  fall  behind  the  theology 
and  the  morality  they  enshrine,  and  thus  we  are  still  living  in  the  period  of 
the  Decalogue.  Till  monotheism  is  universal,  the  first  commandment  has  its 
mission ;  till  images  and  representations  which  may  be  worshipped  cease  to 
be  bowed  down  to  or  worshipped,  the  non-Christian  world  falls  below  the 
Mosaic  standard,  and  such  Christian  Churches  as  permit  this  are  behind  the 
Jews  ;  till  irreverent  or  blasphemous  employment  of  the  Divine  name  is  no 
more  heard,  the  third  commandment  speaks  unavailingly  to  deaf  ears.  The 
fourth  commandment,  like  the  second,  has  been  exchanged  more  or  less  by 
Christian  Churches  for  another,  and  is  but  rarely  observed  as  the  Mosaic 
code  intended.  The  fifth  commandment  might  have  been  given  to  the 
Chinese,  for  they  observed  it  long  before  Moses  gave  it ;  but  its  spirit  is  not 
quite  in  keeping  with  modern  democracy,  which  reads-it  with  qualifications. 
The  precepts  of  social  morality  which  follow  might  be  justly  alleged  as  con- 
demning vast  numbers  of  professing  Christians  and  Christian  States ;  and 
breaches  of  them  have  too  often  been  condoned  by  Jesuits  and  others  who 
consider  that  the  end  justifies  the  means  ;  but  no  man  can  truly  say  that 
the  Decalogue  is  outworn  or  dethroned.  The  progress  of  mankind  since  its 
promulgation  has  been  towards  its  realisation,  especially  as  interpreted  by 
the  simpler  and  wider  commands  of  Jesus.     Simple,  pure  worship  of  one 

God,  family  order,  justice  and  sslf-restraint  between  man  and  man,  with 


MOSES.  599 

a  weekly  rest-day,  are  the  elements  powerfully  set  forth  in  the  Decalogue, 
which,  from  the  human  point  of  view,  forms  a  work  of  genius  of  the  highest 
order.  Because  of  beliefs  in  the  Divine  truth  and  communication  of  the 
precepts,  the  merit  of  Moses,  viewed  as  a  man,  must  not  be  lessened ;  the 
Divine  message  or  inspiration  came  to  him,  and  he  did  not  reject  it,  but 
boldly  promulgated  it  in  the  most  powerful  way  possible  to  him.  His 
genius  as  a  legislator  must  be  based  on  the  Ten  Commandments,  as  well  ;is 
on  his  other  achievements;  if  we  regard  him  as  a  mere  channel  fur  Divine 
communications,  he  becomes  no  more  than  a  medium. 

It  may  be  noted  that  the  Commandments  do  not  in  any  way  favour 
breaches  of  morality  towards  persons  of  other  tribes,  which  were  so  common 
among  early  peoples.  On  the  other  hand,  polygamy  is  not  forbidden.  The 
reason  for  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  is,  in  one  place,  the  Creator's  rest 
on  the  seventh  day,  and  in  another,  "that  thy  manservant  and  thy  maid- 
servant may  rest  as  well  as  thou."  The  deliverance  of  Israel  from  Egyptian 
servitude  is  further  given  as  an  incentive  to  keep  the  Sabbath. 

Without  attempting  a  complete  characterisation  of  Moses,  we  ma}7  assign 
to  him  a  position,  as  a  religious  leader  and  originator,  above  that  of  any  man 
we  have  previously  described.  He  practically  created  a  nation  out  of  an  en- 
slaved people,  and  he  did  it  not  merely  by  adequate  government,  a  task  which 
he  found  difficult  enough  many  times  in  his  career,  but  most  of  all  character 
by  the  elevated  conception  of  the  Divine  nature  which  he  pro-  of  Moses- 
mulgated,  and  his  strong  faith  in  his  Divine  mission  and  in  the  personal 
guidance  and  direction  which  he  received  from  God.  From  him  was  de- 
rived, in  its  essence  at  least,  that  sublime  conception  of  a  people  ruled 
directly  by  God,  which  in  its  developed  form  constitutes  the  grandest  ideal 
of  human  life  ;  for  what  conception  can  be  more  perfect  than  that  of  a  race 
knowing  the  laws  of  its  Creator  and  voluntarily  obeying  them  ? 

As  an  example  of  triumph  over  natural  infirmity — timidity,  unreadi- 
ness, want  of  eloquence,  hesitation — Moses  is  not  less  conspicuous  than  as 
a  man  of  true  self-effacement,  only  brought  to  act  prominently  and  indi- 
vidually by  Divine  impulse  and  command.     With  all  that  has  been  said  as 
to  the  genius  of  Moses,  we  must  couple  the  narratives  of  Divine  His  Divine 
visions  and  communications  to  him,  which  no  one  is  entitled  to     visions, 
summarily  reject  as  fabrications.     Doubt  is  of  course  justifiable  wherever 
narratives  can  be  proved  to  have  been  written  long  after  the  events  de- 
scribed;  and  here  is  the  crucial  point  of  criticism.     It  may  be  pointed  out, 
as  regards  visions  and  other  communications,  that  almost  all  great  teachers 
and  spiritual  reformers  have  had  them,  and  in  circumstances  which  throw 
no  doubt  upon  their  veracity  and  their  belief  in  their  reality.     Of  all  men 
up  to  his  time  Moses  may  be  regarded  as  the  man  who  came  into  closest 
relation  with  the  Divine ;    and  if  this  be  granted,  modes  of  appearance, 
whether  subjective  or  objective,  are  less  important  than  the  truths  Revelations 
revealed.     Who,  for  instance,  that  feels  the  higher  truths  can    to  Moses, 
fail  to  appreciate  the  teaching,  "  Thou  canst  not  see  My  face  ;  for  there  shall 
no  man  see  M}T  face  and  live,"  or  the  inspiration  which  gives  rise  to  the 


600  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

magnificent  declaration  of  Exodus  xxxiv.  6,  7,  respecting  the  Name,  the 
Essential  Essence  of  Jehovah,  ':  merciful  and  gracious,  long-suffering,  abun- 
dant in  goodness  and  truth,  forgiving  iniquity,  transgression,  and  sin,  and 
that  will  by  no  means  clear  the  guilty."  Contemplating  the  descriptions  of 
such  revelations,  we  cannot  wonder  at  the  consensus  of  earnest  theologians 
longing  to  be  "  with  Moses  on  the  mount." 

What,  then,  are  we  to  think  of  the  remarkable  absence  of  direct  teaching 
by  Moses  on  the  subject  of  immortality  and  a  future  state  of  rewards  and 
Absence  of  punishments?  This  has  been  a  subject  of  abundant  discussion 
^future*0  anc^  speculation.  Are  we  to  consider  that  because  the  Egyptians 
state.  held  strongly  the  belief  in  immortality,  and  detailed  the  stages  of 
the  future  state,  therefore  Moses  must  be  understood  as  consenting  to  their 
beliefs,  and  tacitly  assuming  them  ?  Or  are  we  to  regard  him  as  to  some 
extent  a  sceptic  on  that  question  ?  The  inference  has  been  drawn  from  the 
frequent  use  of  the  phrases,  "  went  to  his  fathers,"  "  was  gathered  to  his 
people,"  etc.,  that  they  imply  a  belief  in  the  continued  existence  of  the 
fathers,  and  this  does  not  seem  an  unreasonable  supposition  ;  but  its  precise 
value  cannot  be  ascertained.  It  is  probable  that  the  Israelites,  surrounded 
and  influenced  by  nations  who  believed  in  a  future  state,  did  not  dissent 
from  the  prevailing  view,  or  else  we  should  have  had  it  markedly  expressed. 
But  Moses  was  concerned  especially  to  exalt  the  view  of  Jehovah  as  a  per- 
sonal Guide  and  Ruler  in  this  life ;  and  this  may  be  the  reason  why  the 
future  was  not  dwelt  upon,  though  it  would  be  too  much  to  deny  positively 
that  it  is  implied  in  numerous  phrases. 

As  a  prophet,  Moses's  position  is  assured  by  the  numerous  Divine  reve- 
lations he  was  commissioned  to  make,  by  his  authorship — more  or  less — ot 
sacred  books,  by  his  Law,  and  by  his  addresses,  which,  if  authentic,  often 
Moses  as  refer  to  what  will  come  to  pass  in  a  future  time  in  the  land  of 
a  prophet.  Canaan.  We  may  wonder  that  Moses  was  never  deified  by  his 
countrymen  ;  this  fact  in  itself  proves  that  his  teaching  about  the  one  God, 
and  the  mode  in  which  He  must  be  served,  had  a  powerful  effect,  and  pre- 
vented the  tendencies  that  were  so  strong  in  Egypt  from  having  their 
natural  effect  in  relation  to  him.  If  we  cannot  adopt  Josephus's  statement 
that  "  He  wrote  the  account  of  his  own  death  in  the  sacred  books,  fearing 
lest  he  should  be  deified,"  we  must  at  least  allow  that  he  was  the  most 
remarkable  teacher  who  has  not  been  worshipped  by  his  followers  as  a 
god  or  a  demi-god.  That  Moses  worked  miracles  is  assuredly  claimed  by  the 
narrative  ;  and  those  who  disbelieve  it  have  a  very  heavy  task  in  explaining 
the  whole  of  the  events  in  a  non-miraculous  sense. 

[Among  works  of  importance  on  this  subject  are  Ewald's  "History  and  Antiquities  of  Israel," 
Stanley's  "  Lectures  on  the  Jewish  Church,"  and  the  various  Commentaries  and  Bible  Dictionaries  ; 
Robertson  Smith's  "Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church,"  and  the  articles  "  Pentateuch "  and 
"  Israel  "  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  ninth  edition.] 


ALTARS   IN    HIGH    PLACES. 


CHAPTER   II. 

€l)t  Sfftofef)  Religion:  ^Legislation,  jfesstibate,  iWorals* 

Altars  and  offerings— The  Ark  of  the  Covenant— The  Tabernacle— Development  of  the  Law— Modern 
criticism— Various  offerings— The  trespass  offering— The  Day  of  Atonement— The  scapegoat— 
Meaning  of  Day  of  Atonement— The  Shechinah— The  Sahbath— Origin  of  the  Synagogue— Officials 
of  Synagogue — Order  of  service — The  seventh  month— The  Sabbatic  year— The  year  of  Jubilee— 
The  Passover — Passover  in  later  times— Pentecost— Feast  of  Tabernacles— Feast  of  Trumpets- 
Prayer  and  forms  of  worship — Vows— Fasting— Nazarites  and  Rechabites— Consecration  of  the 
whole  people  to  Jehovah — Clean  and  unclean  animals— Means  of  purification— Burial— Marriage 
limits— Nature  the  property  of  Jehovah— Blood-revenge— Cities  of  refuge— "An  eye  for  an  eye" 
—Usury— Slaves— Treatment  of  strangers— Parents  and  children— Wives  and  concubines- 
General  moral  condition  of  Israel. 

ONE  conspicuous  peculiarity  of  Moses's  earlier  religious  teaching  is,  that 
religion  is  not  made  to  consist  in  so  many  offerings,  in  formal  cere- 
monies, but  in  simple  worship  and  reverence  to  God,  and  obedience  to  moral 
precepts.  Yet,  to  satisfy  the  spirit  of  worship,  altars  of  earth  or  Altars  and 
of  unhewn  stone  were  allowed,  for  burnt  offerings  and  peace  offerin&s- 
offerings.  The  phrase  in  Exodus  xxii.  29,  "  the  firstborn  of  thy  sons  shalt 
thou  give  unto  Me,"  is  understood  by  some  as  indicating  that  human  sacri- 
fices were  still  allowed  to  exist,  while  the  majority  interpret  it  as  meaning 
simply  a  dedication  to  Jehovah,  to  be  redeemed  by  an  offering  ;  in  this  way 
Moses  may  be  considered  as  adopting  current  forms,  and  giving  to  them  a 
pure  character. 

It   is   impossible  here   to  discuss  the   complex  questions  which  arise 

through  all  attempts,  such  as  those  of  Ivuenen,  to  trace  the  Jewish  religion 

cm 


6o2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


as  a  growth  through  centuries,  and  to  assign  to  their  respective  periods 
beliefs  and  observances  which  are  considered  not  to  have  their  origin  from 
Moses.  In  any  case  the  institution  of  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  as  well  as 
the  Tabernacle  must  be  referred  to  Moses,  with  the  foundation  of  the  priestty 
code,  and  of  the  laAvs  of  ceremonial  and  of  practical  conduct. 

The  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  which  had  a  marked  resemblance  to  arks 
carried  in  Eg37ptian  religious  processions,  was  an  oblong  chest  of  acacia- 
The  Ark  of  wood,  nearly  four  feet  long,  by  two  and  a  half  broad  and  deep, 
the  covenant,  j^  was  overlaid  with  gold  both  inside  and  outside,  and  on  its  lid 
was  the  mercy-seat,  or  place  of  Divine  communication  to  Moses,  and  to  the 
high  priest  after  him.  At  each  end  was  a  golden  figure  termed  a  cherub,  a 
compound  creature-form  with  wings  extended  upwards  and  faces  directed 
"  towards  one  another,  and  towards  the  mercy-seat "  ;  and  here  ends  our 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  this  symbol.  Whether  it  had  any  relation  to  any 
one  of  the  numerous  symbolic  animal-figures  of  the  other  Semitic  peoples  and 
the  Egyptians  we  cannot  tell.  The  importance  of  the  ark  lay  in  two  features  : 
one,  that  it  contained  the  two  tables  of  stone  on  which  Moses  had  written 
the  Ten  "Words ;  the  other  was  expressed  in  relation  to  the  region  above 
the  mercy-seat,  that  there  Jehovah  would  meet  with  Moses,  and  commune 
with  him.  The  ark  was  provided  with  rings  at  the  corners,  through  which 
were  passed  staves  of  acacia-wood  overlaid  with  gold,  by  which  certain 
Levites  carried  it  when  it  was  moved  from  place  to  place.  Thus  the 
Israelites  were  furnished  with  a  symbol  of  the  Divine  presence,  satisfying 
that  demand  of  human  nature  which  has  been  exemplified  in  so  many 
nations  and  ages,  yet  never  seen  except  by  the  high  priest. 

This  ark  formed  the  central  or  most  important  object  in  the  Tabernacle, 
which  was  erected  as  the  representative  of  a  temple.  It  was  forty-five  feet 
The  long  by  fifteen  broad,  open  at  the  end  intended  to  be  pitched 
Tabernacle.  eastWard  as  if  towards  the  rising  sun,  and  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  inner  or  Holy  of  Holies  into  which  the  priest  alone  entered  rarely, 
divided  by  pillars  and  curtains  from  the  larger  Holy  Place,  containing  a 
golden  candlestick  with  seven  branches,  a  small  lamp  being  placed  on  the 
end  of  each,  an  altar  for  the  burning  of  incense,  and  a  table  overlaid  with 
gold,  on  which  twelve  newly-baked  loaves  were  placed  every  Sabbath, 
sprinkled  with  incense,  remaining  till  the  following  Sabbath,  when  they  were 
eaten  by  the  priests  in  the  Holy  Place.  Whether  it  was  thus  offered  weekly 
as  a  symbol  of  the  derivation  of  bodily  nourishment  from  God,  or  whether 
it  had  other  meanings,  is  undecided.  The  strict  meaning  of  shewbread  is 
"  bread  of  the  faces,"  and  the  table  is  called  the  "  table  of  the  faces."  Out- 
side the  tabernacle  proper  was  a  great  oblong  court  enclosed  by  screens,  in 
the  western  half  of  which  was  the  tabernacle,  while  in  the  eastern  half  was 
the  altar  of  acacia-wood,  overlaid  with  brass,  for  burnt  offerings,  furnished 
with  pans  and  other  utensils,  and  having  four  projections  or  horns  at  the 
corners ;  and  between  this  and  the  tabernacle  was  a  laver,  a  vessel  in  which 
the  priests  washed  their  hands  and  feet  before  entering  the  tabernacle. 

Those  critics  who  have  separated  the  narratives  in  the  Pentateuch  into 


THE  JEWISH  RELIGION:   LEGISLATION,   ETC. 


60- 


component  portions  regard  the  tabernacle  which  Moses  erected  as  a  much 
simpler  structure  1  Exodus  xxxiii.  7-11)  than  the  elaborate  tabernacle  de- 
scribed, as  they  assert,  by  the  priestly  narrator  after  the  exile  of  the  Jews. 


They  claim  also  that  it  was  devised  as  a  means  of  giving  an  ancient  sanc- 
tion^to'the  elaborate  ritual  of  the  second  temple.  According  to  this  view, 
the  simple  form  of  tabernacle  continued  in  use  during  the  migrations  of  the 
ark  until  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple ;  but  there  is  no  proof  of  this. 


6o4  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Without  attempting  to  determine,  where  the  most  learned  disagree,  the 
precise  steps  by  which  the  Mosaic  code  of  laws  grew  to  its  full  development, 
Development  we  may  yet  note  the  very  general  agreement  or  admission  that  it 
of  the  Law.  c]^  actually  develop,  even  in  the  view  of  the  narrative  as  it 
stands,  and  that  there  is  a  great  difference  between  its  presentation  in  the 
book  of  Deuteronomy  and  in  previous  books.  Again  and  again  we  learn 
how  certain  regulations  originated  from  particular  occasions.  While  there 
are  various  discrepancies  between  Deuteronomy  and  the  earlier  books,  as 
well  as  important  additions  in  the  former — especially  noteworthy  being  the 
command  to  worship  God  and  make  all  offerings  at  one  particular  place — 
there  are  numerous  references  to  Egypt  and  Egyptian  customs  which  Moses 
would  be  the  most  competent  and  likely  to  make,  and  we  have  direct  asser- 
tions that  Moses  wrote  it.  Yet  there  is  no  reference  to  the  Book  of  the  Law 
in  the  books  of  Judges  and  Samuel.  In  the  books  of  the  Kings  it  comes 
into  prominence,  and  is  very  plainly  described  in  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  The 
difference  of  style  between  Deuteronomy  and  other  parts  of  the  Pentateuch 
is  a  difficulty  for  those  who  regard  all  as  the  work  of  Moses  ;  but  it  is  not 
insuperable  if  a  thorough  revision  and  incorporation  of  other  traditions  by  a 
writer  in  the  times  of  the  Kings  or  of  Ezra  be  allowed. 

From  the  time  of  Ezra,  undoubtedly,  the  Jews  possessed  the  complete 
Pentateuch  very  much  as  we  have  it,  and  they  believed  that  it  had  existed 
Modem  from  the  first  in  that  form.  But  it  is  held  by  many  modern 
criticism.  writers  that  various  records  in  the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings,  as  well  as  in  the  Pentateuch  itself,  are  incompatible 
with  the  complete  early  promulgation  of  the  contents  of  the  Pentateuch. 
The  Israelites  either  disobeyed  the  extended  law,  or  did  not  know  of  it. 
Especially  was  this  the  case  in  regard  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah  at  local 
sanctuaries  and  high  places,  instead  of  at  the  one  central  place,  the  existence 
of  images  in  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  and  the  admission  of  other  gods  as  at 
least  worthy  of  toleration,  though  secondary.  That  which  defenders  of  the 
traditional  view  regard  as  simply  the  measure  of  the  defection  and  degene- 
ration of  the  Israelites  from  the  truth,  modern  critics  regard  as  proving  that 
the  fully  detailed  law  of  the  Pentateuch  had  not  yet  been  promulgated, 
that  not  taking  place  till  the  times  of  Josiah  and  of  Ezra.  They  in  fact  say 
that  the  Levitical  Law  continued  the  work  of  the  earlier  prophets,  and  was 
in  large  part  unknown  to  the  prophets.  No  doubt,  they  say,  when  made 
known  to  Ezra,  it  professed  to  be  the  Law  of  Moses ;  but  this  is  explained 
as  referring  to  its  embodying  the  kernel  of  Mosaic  legislation,  with  old 
priestly  decisions  handed  clown  in  their  families,  having  been  given  cr 
arrived  at  as  necessity  arose.1 

1  It  will  be  convenient  to  give  here  sepcarately  Prof.  Eobertson  Smith's  grouping 
of  the  laws  in  the  Pentateuch,  in  his  "  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church."  There  is 
(1)  Exod.  xxi.  to  xxiii.,  directly  connected  with  the  revelation  of  the  Ten  Commandments, 
"  containing  a  very  simple  system  of  civil  and  religious  polity,  adequate  to  the  wants  of 
a  primitive  agricultural  people  :  "  the  title  being,  "  These  are  the  judgments  which  thou 
shalt  set  before  them."  (2)  Deuteronomy  :  the  laws  proper,  beginning  at  chap.  xii.  1, 
"  These  are  the  statutes  and  judgments  which  ye  shall  observe  to  do,"  ending  at  xxvi.  19  ; 


COJ 


606  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Coming  now  to  the  main  features  of  tlio  law  as  affecting  religion  and 
morals,  burnt-offerings  formed  a  prominent  feature  of  the  worship.    Morning- 
various     and  evening  a  lamb  was  offered,  with  wine,  oil,  and  flour  ;  and  in 
offerings,    addition  males  of  the  herds  and  flocks,  or  turtle  doves  or  pigeons, 
were  offered  voluntarily  as  general  atonements.     The  whole  of  these  offer- 

this  is  described  as  an  independent  reproduction  of  the  substance  of  (1),  with  extensions 
and  modifications.  (3)  Tbe  Levitical  legislation,  or  priestly  code,  scattered  through 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers,  but  capable  of  removal  without  making  the  rest 
unintelligible.  This  includes  the  fully  developed  ritual  for  sanctuary,  priesthood,  sac- 
rifices, etc.  "  The  form  is  historical,  but  the  essential  object  is  legal.  The  law  takes  the 
form  of  recorded  precedent "  in  great  part.  This  view  assigns  the  first  to  Moses,  with 
additions  by  priestly  decisions  ;  the  second  (it  is  said)  was  first  made  known  as  the 
starting-point  of  Josiah's  reformation,  abolishing  all  local  sanctuaries  ;  and  this  refor- 
mation and  the  authority  gained  by  Deuteronomy  were  based  on  the  teaching  of  Isaiah 
and  other  prophets  who  had  so  loudly  called  for  religious  reform  and  amendment. 

Prof.  Robertson  Smith  and  others  see  in  Ezekiel's  scheme  of  worship  (ch.  xl.-xlviii.)  the 
basis  on  which  the  Levitical  law  was  fully  developed ;  and  this  is  alleged  to  be  confirmed 
by  Jeremiah,  who  knew  no  law  of  sacrifices.  In  Ezekiel's  scheme  the  Levites,  who  had 
lent  themselves  to  idolatrous  practices,  are  lowered  in  functions.  Regular  sacrifices  are 
provided  for  by  the  prince  out  of  the  fixed  tribute  received  by  him.  The  sin-offering  and 
ritual  of  atonement  are  made  prominent,  the  altar  requiring  to  be  purged  with  sin-offer- 
ings for  seven  consecutive  days  before  burnt-offerings  can  be  properly  offered  on  it. 
Ezekiel  also  appoints  two  great  atoning  services  yearly,  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  and 
the  seventh  months,  to  purge  the  temple  ;  and  this  is  alleged  to  be  the  first  appearance, 
outside  the  Levitical  code,  of  anything  corresponding  to  the  great  Day  of  Atonement,  and 
Ezekiel's  service  falls  short  of  its  solemnities.  This  is  regarded  as  a  first  sketch  of  the 
priestly  Torah  or  law,  resting  on  old  priestly  usage,  and  reshaped  so  as  to  bring  it  into 
conformity  with  the  ideas  of  the  holiness  of  Jehovah  expressed  by  the  earlier  prophets 
and  by  Deuteronomy. 

"In  proportion  as  the  whole  theory  of  worship  is  remodelled  and  reduced  to  rule  on 
the  scheme  of  an  exclusive  sanctity,  which  presents,  so  to  speak,  an  armed  front  to  every 
abomination  of  impure  heathenism,  the  ritual  becomes  abstract,  and  the  services  remote 
from  ordinary  life.  In  the  old  worship  all  was  spontaneous.  To  worship  God  was  a 
holiday,  an  occasion  of  feasting.  Religion,  in  its  sacrificial  form,  was  a  part  of  common 
life,  which  no  one  deemed  it  necessary  to  reduce  to  rule.  Even  in  Deuteronomy  this  view 
predominates.  The  sacrificial  feasts  are  still  the  consecration  of  natural  occasions  of  joy  : 
men  eat,  drink,  and  make  merry  before  God.  The  sense  of  God's  favour,  not  the  sense  of 
sin,  is  what  rules  at  the  sanctuary.  But  the  unification  of  the  sanctuary  already  tended 
to  break  up  this  old  type  of  religion.  Worship  ceased  to  be  an  everyday  thing,  and  so 
it  ceased  to  be  the  expression  of  everyday  religion.  In  Ezekiel  this  change  has  produced 
its  natural  result  in  a  change  of  the  whole  standpoint  from  which  he  views  the  service 
of  the  Temple.  .  .  .  The  individual  Israelite,  who,  in  the  old  law,  stood  at  the  altar 
himself,  and  brought  his  own  victim,  is  now  separated  from  it,  not  only  by  the  double 
cordon  of  priests  and  Levites,  but  by  the  fact  that  his  personal  offering  is  thrown  into 
the  background  by  the  stated  national  sacrifice.  ...  In  Ezekiel,  and  still  more  in  the 
Levitical  legislation,  the  element  of  atonement  takes  a  foremost  place.  The  sense  of  sin 
had  grown  deeper  under  the  teaching  of  the  prophets ;  and  amidst  the  proofs  of  Jehovah's 
anger  that  darkened  the  last  days  of  the  Jewish  State,  sin  and  forgiveness  were  the  main 
themes  of  prophetic  discourse.  .  .  .  Now,  more  than  in  any  former  time,  the  first 
point  in  acceptance  was  felt  to  be  the  forgiveness  of  sin ;  and  the  weightiest  element  in 
the  ritual  was  that  which  symbolised  the  atonement,  or  '  wiping  out,'  of  iniquity.  The 
details  of  this  symbolism  cannot  occupy  us  here.  It  is  enough  to  indicate  in  one  word 
that  the  ritual  of  atoning  sacrifice  was  so  shaped  by  Divine  wisdom  that  it  supplied  to 
the  New  Testament  a  basis  intelligible  to  the  Hebrew  believers  for  the  explanation  of  the 
atoning  work  of  Christ.  Not,  indeed,  that  the  blood  of  bulls  and  goats  ever  took  away 
sin.  The  true  basis  of  forgiveness,  in  the  Old  Testament  as  in  the  New,  lies,  not  in  man's 
offering,  but  in  a  work  of  sovereign  love.  It  is  Jehovah,  for  His  own  Name's  sake,  who 
blots  out  Israel's  transgressions,  and  will  not  remember  his  sin.  But  the  atoning  ritual 
ever  held  befoi-e  the  people's  eyes  the  mysterious  connection  of  forgiving  love  with 
awful  justice,  and  pointed  by  its  very  inadequacy  to  the  need  for  a  better  atonement  of 
Jehovah's  own  providing."—  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish,  Church,  pp.  079-382. 


THE  JEWISH  RELIGION:   LEGISLATION,   ETC.  607 

ings  was  burnt,  and  the  fire  on  the  altar  was  n<  ver  to  go  out.  Next  in 
order  among  usual  offerings  was  the  meat-offering,  meat  referring  here  to 
natural  produce  of  the  earth,  such  as  unleavened  flour,  or  cakes,  oil  and 
frankincense,  of  which  only  part  was  burnt,  the  rest  being  given  to  the 
priests.  The  next  and  less  frequent  offering  was  termed  a  peace-offerin</. 
being  either  given  as  a  thanksgiving,  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  or  as  a  volun- 
tary offering.  It  consisted  of  the  fat  of  one  of  the  herd  or  the  flocks  the 
remainder  (excluding  the  blood)  being  eaten  by  the  offerer. 

The  sin  or  trespass-offering  had  a  more  special  importance,  but  was 
made  at  any  period,  for  sins  of  ignorance,  vows  unwittingly  broken  or  for 
ceremonial  impurity,  or  for  wilful  sins,  such  as  concealment  of  The  trespass, 
truth,  lying,  false  swearing,  etc.  In  this  case  confession  had  to  be  offering, 
made,  and  various  offerings,  including  money,  might  be  accepted,  according 
to  the  ability  of  the  penitent ;  part  was  burnt,  and  the  remainder  belonged 
to  the  priests. 

There  were  other  special  sacrifices,  but  that  on  the  great  Day  of  Atone- 
ment, once  a  year,  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month,  was  the  most 
important,  constituting  as  it  did  an  annual  atonement  for  all  the  Tne  Day  of 
sins  of  the  people,  made  on  a  special  day  of  fasting  and  affliction  Atonement, 
of  soul.  On  this  day  only  the  high-priest,  purified  and  dressed  in  white 
garments,  might  enter  the  inner  sanctum,  the  Holy  of  Holies.  Besides 
making  offerings  on  his  own  and  his  family's  account,  he  bought  two  goats 
on  account  of  the  people,  and  presented  them  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle. 
He  then  cast  lots  upon  them,  one  for  Jehovah,  the  other  for  Azazel,  or  as 
it  is  usually  translated,  the  scapegoat.  The  meaning  of  the  latter  The 
name  cannot  be  settled,  many  imagining  it  to  represent  some  scapegoat, 
spirit  antagonistic  to  Jehovah.  The  goat  on  which  Jehovah's  lot  fell  was 
offered  as  a  sin-offering  ;  the  other  was  "  presented  alive  before  the  Lord,  to 
make  an  atonement  with  him,  and  to  let  him  go  for  a  scapegoat  (Azazel) 
into  the  wilderness."  The  bullock  offered  for  himself  and  his  family  having 
been  sacrificed,  the  high-priest  took  some  of  its  blood,  with  a  censer  of 
burning  embers  and  a  handful  of  incense,  and  went  into  the  Holy  of  Holies. 
Then,  casting  the  incense  upon  the  embers,  he  raised  a  cloud  before  the 
mercy-seat,  and  dipping  his  finger  into  the  blood,  sprinkled  it  seven  times 
before  the  mercy-seat.  A  similar  ceremony  afterwards  took  place  with  the 
blood  of  the  slain  goat.  A  further  sprinkling  of  blood  took  place  in  the 
outer  sanctum,  or  Holy  Place,  some  of  the  blood  of  both  victims  beihc 
sprinkled  on  the  altar  of  incense.  Similarly  the  outer  altar  in  the  enclosure 
was  sprinkled,  especially  the  horns  of  the  altar.  The  whole  tabernacle 
being  thus  purified,  the  live  goat  was  brought,  and  the  high-priest  laid  both 
his  hands  on  its  head  and  confessed  over  it  "all  the  iniquities  of  the  children 
of  Israel,  putting  them  upon  the  head  of  the  goat";  and  finally  the  goat 
was  sent  away,  in  charge  of  a  suitable  man,  into  the  wilderness,  that  he 
might  carry  away  all  their  sins  ';  into  a  land  not  inhabited."  After  bath- 
ing, the  high-priest  offered  the  two  rams,  one  for  himself  and  one  for  the 
people,  as  burnt-offerings.     The  fat  of  the  sin-offerings  was  also  burnt,  and 


60S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

their  flesh  was  carried  away  and  burned  outside  the  camp.     The  traditional 

form  of  the  prayer  offered  by  the  high-priest  over  the  head  of  the  goat  is 

thus  given  in  the  later  treatise  of  the  Mishna,  entitled  Yoma :  "  0  Lord, 

the  house  of  Israel,  Thy  people,  have  trespassed,  rebelled,  and  sinned  before 

Thee.     I  beseech  Thee,  0  Lord,  forgive  now  their  trespasses,  rebellions,  and 

sins,  which  Thy  people  have  committed,  as  it  is  written  in  the  Law  of 

Moses  Thy  servant,  saying  that  in  that  day  there  shall  be  '  an  atonement 

for  you  to  cleanse  you,  that  ye  may  be  clean  from  all  your  sins  before  the 

Lord.'" 

The  remarkable  significance  of  this  Day  of  Atonement  is  evident.     In 

addition  to  continual  expiations  of  known  sins  by  individuals,  together  with 

„      .       .  various  voluntary  offerings,  the  whole  nation  is  considered  to  need 
Meaning  of,.  „     .  •  />        •         i     i-  xi 

Day  of  confession  of  sin,  atonement,  and  purification  before  J  ehovah ; 
and  the  high-priest,  as  representing  the  nation,  makes  atonement, 
and  purifies  the  sanctuary  and  the  people.  The  offering  of  goats  and  other 
animal  offerings  is  probably  connected  historically,  though  perhaps  uncon- 
sciously, with  the  offering  of  human  sacrifices  by  nations  around,  and  with 
Abraham's  offering  of  Isaac,  and  with  the  idea  of  substitution  of  animals 
for  human  victims.  In  any  case,  such  is  the  natural  interpretation  of  the 
laying  of  the  hands  on  the  head  of  the  victim  while  making  confession. 
But  we  cannot  yet,  with  certainty,  explain  why  there  were  two  goats,  and 
the  sending  forth  of  one  into  the  wilderness  ;  for  it,  like  the  other,  formed 
part  of  the  sin-offering  to  Jehovah.  Many  consider  that  it  was  sent  into 
the  wilderness  to  signify  the  carrying  of  the  sins  of  the  people  out  of  the 
presence  of  Jehovah.  In  any  case,  we  may  find  in  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Day  of  Atonement  the  most  impressive  of  the  many  solemnities  we  have 
hitherto  surveyed. 

Here  we  may  fittingly  refer  to  those  visible  manifestations  in  which 
Jehovah  is  recorded  to  have  appeared  to  His  people  or  His  priests,  often 
The  referred  to  by  the  name  Shechinah  (majesty  or  presence  of  God), 
snechinah.  wbicb  word,  however,  is  not  found  in  Scripture,  and  is  first  found 
in  the  Targums,  or  Jewish  Commentaries.  It  expresses  the  visible  presence 
of  God  as  dwelling  among  His  people,  said  to  be  lacking  in  Zerubbabel's 
temple,  while  pertaining  to  that  of  Solomon,  and  to  the  tabernacle.  The 
appearance  was  described  as  a  brilliant  light  enveloped  in  a  cloud,  which 
alone  was  for  the  most  part  visible.  The  "  glory  of  the  Lord"  is  stated  to 
have  rested  upon  Mount  Sinai,  and  the  cloud  covered  it  six  clays ;  and  on 
the  seventh  day,  "  the  sight  of  the  glory  of  the  Lord  was  like  devouring 
fire  on  the  top  of  the  mount  in  the  eyes  of  the  children  of  Israel."  When 
the  tabernacle  was  finished,  a  cloud  covered  it,  and  the  glory  of  the  Lord 
filled  the  tabernacle,  so  that  Moses  was  not  able  to  enter  it.  On  occasions 
when  he  did  enter  it,  the  cloud  descended  to  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  and 
"  the  Lord  spake  unto  Moses  face  to  face,  as  a  man  speaketh  to  his  friend." 
In  Numbers  vii.  89  we  read  that  "  when  Moses  went  into  the  tent  of  meet- 
ing to  speak  with  Him,  then  he  heard  the  Voice  speaking  to  him  from  above 
the  mercy-seat." 


THE  JEWISH  RELIGION:   FESTIVALS,   ETC. 


609 


After  the  Day  of  Atonement,  the  two  most  peculiar  observances  of  the 
Israelites  were  the  weekly  Sabbath  and  the  annual  Passover.    The       The 
Sabbath  was  no  doubt  related  to  a  very  general  Oriental  practice,    Sabbath- 
as  old  as  Vedism  and  Zoroastrianism,  and  very  early  in  use  among  the 


Semites,  of  arranging  their  religious  festivals  or  meetings  in  accordance 
with  the  four  quarters  of  the  moon.  Abstinence  from  work  was  its  chief 
characteristic  among  the  early  Israelites.  This  became  a  grievous  burden  ; 
no  fire  might  be  lighted  on  the  Sabbath,  and  it  is  related  that  a  man  was 

R    R 


610  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

once  stoned  to  death  for  gathering  sticks  on  that  day.  Although,  in  the 
writings  of  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Nehemiah,  we  read  of  various  infractions 
of  the  Sabbath  having  become  frequent,  the  general  practice  of  the  Jews 
was  to  obey  the  law  strictly;  and  in  the  time  of  Mattathias  (b.c.  168),  even 
fighting  in  self-defence  was  abstained  from,  with  disastrous  results,  until  he 
asserted  its  lawfulness.  The  minuteness  with  which  the  Pharisees  and  the 
Rabbinical  schools  regulated  Sabbath  observances  in  the  time  of  Christ  is 
well  known,  as  well  as  the  resistance  which  lie  offered  to  this.  Conse- 
quently, it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  no  regulations  for  its  observance 
were  given  in  the  writings  of  the  apostles,  and  that  Sabbath-breaking  is 
never  denounced  by  them.  The  orthodox  Jews  still  maintain  the  Sabbath 
of  the  seventh  day,  beginning  on  Friday  at  sunset  and  ending  with  the  next 
sunset. 

Regular  Sabbath  services,  such  as  those  of  the  synagogue,  did  not  arise 
in  Mosaic  times,  nor  indeed  till  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon. 
The  morning  and  evening  sacrifices  by  the  priests  were  doubled  on  the 
Sabbath,  and  there  are  grounds  for  believing  that  the  well-to-do  feasted  on 
sacrificial  meat  on  that  day.  In  Isaiah  lviii.  13,  14,  it  is  indicated  that  the 
Sabbath  should  be  called  a  delight,  and  should  be  honoured  by  "  not  doing 
thine  own  ways,  nor  finding  thine  own  pleasure,  nor  speaking  thine  own 
words."  The  synagogue  services  may  well  have  arisen  as  an  elevating  influ- 
ence, in  reaction  from  the  debased  character  of  the  meetings  and  local  ob- , 
servances  at  a  distance  from  the  great  religious  centre,  of  which  the  magnifi- 
cent ephod  made  by  Gideon,  the  graven  and  the  molten  images  and  the 
teraphim  of  Micah,  were  some  of  the  apparatus,  while  groves  and  high- 
places  were  some  of  the  scenes.  Although  the  prophets  and  prophetical 
Origin  of  the  schools  appear  to  have  met  for  sacrifice  and  praise  on  fixed  days, 
synagogue,  ^  js  probable  that  the  Babylonish  captivity,  with  its  isolation 
emphasising  the  need  of  frequent  meetings  for  mutual  comfort  and  worship, 
witnessed  the  true  origin  of  synagogue  worship,  which  after  the  return 
played  an  important  part  in  preserving  the  Jews  as  a  peculiar  people.  After 
the  Maccabsean  uprising,  the  establishment  of  local  synagogues  spread, 
until  almost  every  town  had  one  or  more  synagogues.  Inasmuch  as  it  was 
apart  from  the  temple  service,  and  did  not  essentially  depend  on  the  priests, 
the  synagogue  tended  to  establish  a  freer  atmosphere  of  study  and  criticism, 
and  it  is  significant  that  the  first  teaching  of  Jesus  took  place  in  country 
synagogues,  where  He  met  with  far  less  opposition  than  He  immediately 
received  when  He  taught  in  the  Temple  precincts. 

The  synagogue,  of  varying  size,  stood  if  possible  on  the  highest  ground 
in  or  near  the  town,  and  was  so  arranged  that  worshippers  on  entering,  and 
in  prayer,  faced  towards  Jerusalem.  At  its  Jerusalem  end  was  placed  an 
ark  or  chest  containing  the  roll  of  the  Law  of  Moses,  and  near  this  were  the 
chief  seats,  for  which  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  competed.  A  lamp  per- 
petually burned  near  it,  while  other  lamps  were  brought  by  worshippers  for 
the  Sabbath ;  the  special  seven-branched  candlestick  was  only  lighted  up 
on  the  great  festivals.     Near  the  middle  of  the  building  was  a  platform,  on 


THE  JEWISH  RELIGION:   FESTIVALS,   ETC.  6n 

the  middle  of  which  stood  a  pulpit.     The  mass  of  the  people  sat,  according 
to  sexes,  on  either  side  of  a  low  partition. 

The  officials  of  the  synagogues  were  an  elder,  or  rabbi,  or  a  chapter  of 
rabbis  (rulers  of  the  synagogue),  presided  over  by  a  chief  rabbi ;  these  could 
excommunicate,  or  "  put  out  of  the  synagogue,"  any  who  were  officials  of 
held  to  have  broken  the  law,  and  not  purged  their  offences.  ByQaeogue. 
There  was  usually  a  chief  reader  of  prayers  and  of  the  law,  who  was  not 
engaged  in  business,  and  was  chosen  by  the  congregation,  and  set  apart  by 
the  imposition  of  hands.  Each  synagogue  also  had  a  body  of  ten  men, 
making  up  a  legal  congregation,  and  attending  all  the  services. 

The  Law  of  Moses  was  read  in  the  synagogues  on  every  Sabbath  morn- 
ing in  regular  order,  so  as  to  be  gone  through  once  a  year  ;  the  Prophetical 
books  were  read  as  a  second  lesson  in  like  manner.  Afterwards  order  of 
came  an  exposition,  or  sermon,  drawn  from  one  of  the  lessons,  service- 
delivered  by  one  of  the  rulers,  or  a  person  appointed  or  allowed  by  them. 
Prayer  preceded  and  benediction  concluded  the  service.  This  was  the 
principal  service.  On  the  Sabbath  afternoon,  and  also  on  Mondays  and 
Thursdays,  there  was  a  reading  of  the  Law,  and  services  were  of  course  held 
on  festivals. 

The  Jewish  Sabbath  was  the  basis  of  a  series  of  observances  in  which 
the  number  seven  was  predominant.     Every  seventh  month,  the  seventh 
year,  and  the  forty-ninth  or  fiftieth  (the  jubilee  year),  were  speci-  The  seventh 
ally   sacred.      The   seventh   month   opened   with   the   Feast   of     month- 
Trumpets,  when  offerings  were  doubled,  and  trumpets  were  blown  through- 
out the  day,  instead  of  merely  at  the  time  of  sacrifice.     This  month  was 
further  notable  for  containing  the  Day  of  Atonement,  and  the  joyful  Feast 
of  Tabernacles.    In  the  seventh,  or  Sabbatic  year,  the  land  was  to  lie  fallow, 
"  that  the  poor  of  thy  people  may  eat ;  and  what  they  leave  the  The  sabbatic 
beasts  of  the  field  shall  eat."     The  spontaneous  produce  of  the       year# 
fields  was  to  be  for  the  poor,  strangers,  and  cattle.     In  Deuteronomy  xv. 
the  Sabbatic  year  is  also  a  year  for  the  release  of  debts  ;  but  it  is  not  certain 
that   they   were    abolished,   and   they  may   have    been  merely  postponed. 
Many  think  the  Sabbatic  year  was  only  enjoined  to  be  observed  the  seventh 
year  after  the  settlement  of  Canaan,  and  that  it  was  rarely  observed  until 
after  the  Captivity.     We  may  regard  this  law  as  intended  to  signify  an 
acknowledgment  of  the  Divine  ownership  of  the  land. 

The  year  of  jubilee  was  an  extra  Sabbatical  year,  announced  on  the 
Day  of  Atonement  by  the  blowing  of  trumpets  throughout  the  land.  The 
word  "  jubilee  "  either  means  the  trumpet  itself,  or  the  sound  it  The  year  of 
produced.  Every  Israelite  was  to  recover  the  land  originally  JubUee- 
assigned  to  his  family,  however  it  might  have  been  alienated.  The  soil  was 
to  lie  fallow  during  the  year,  and  only  the  natural  growth  was  to  be 
gathered.  The  law  of  freedom  extended  also  to  servitude ;  all  Israelites 
who  had  become  bondmen  recovered  their  freedom.  Houses  in  the  open 
country  followed  the  law  about  land,  while  those  in  walled  cities  were  not 
affected  by  it.     Undoubtedly  this  legislation  had  a  strong  tendency  to  pre- 


6i2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

vent  the  accumulation  of  great  wealth  in  the  hands  of  a  few,  and  was  an 
additional  feature  distinguishing  the  Israelites  from  surrounding  nations. 
"We  have  no  knowledge  as  to  how  far  the  Sabbatic  and  Jubilee  years  were 
observed. 

Next  to  the  Sabbath  the  most  enduring  Jewish  observance  is  the 
Passover,  and  the  Easter  festival  in  which  it  is  represented  by  Christians. 
The  Thus  the  Exodus  from  Egypt  is  linked  with  an  annual  world- 
Passover.  ^[fte  festival  of  Christianity.  It  combined  the  significations  of  a 
harvest  thanksgiving  and  an  anniversary  of  the  escape  from  Egypt ;  and 
some  critics  think  the  latter  association  was  later  than  the  other.  To  detail 
all  particulars  connected  with  it  would  be  too  lengthy  ;  but  the  narrative 
of  the  Exodus  lays  stress  on  the  eating  of  unleavened  bread,  because  of 
the  hurry  of  departure  from  Egypt  not  allowing  time  for  the  slow-working 
leaven  to  be  used,  on  the  killing  of  a  lamb  or  kid  without  blemish,  the 
sprinkling  of  the  side-posts  and  the  lintel  of  the  house  door  with  the 
animal's  blood,  its  being  roasted  whole,  and  on  keeping  the  bones  unbroken. 
The  haste  of  the  meal,  the  preparations  for  a  journey,  the  staff  in  the  hand, 
are  all  graphically  described ;  and  in  memory  of  this,  and  the  death  of  the 
firstborn  of  Egypt,  all  male  firstborn  were  consecrated  to  God,  the  animals 
to  be  sacrificed,  the  sons  to  be  redeemed. 

In  later  directions  for  the  observation  of  this  festival  we  find  that  the 
offering  of  the  Omer,  or  first  sheaf  of  wheat  harvest,  a  seven  days'  eating 
of  unleavened  bread,  and  a  series  of  expensive  sacrifices  of  bullocks, 
rams,  lambs,  etc.,  were  ordained.  Also  the  sacrifice  of  the  Passover  was 
to  be  made  only  at  the  national  sanctuary.  This  latter  regulation  is 
regarded  by  those  who  argue  for  the  late  origin  of  Deuteronomy  and  of 
the  priestly  code  as  having  only  arisen  when  Israel  was  united  under  the 
kings,  and  when  a  centralisation  took  place  of  all  great  acts  of  worship  at 
Jerusalem. 

The  later  Israelitish  observation  of  the  Passover  began  on  the  14th  of 
Nisan  (part  of  March  and  April),  when  all  leaven  was  put  away  from  dwell- 
Passoverin  ings,  and  every  male  Israelite  repaired  to  Jerusalem,  taking  an 
later  times,  offering  of  money  in  proportion  to  his  means.  As  the  sun  set, 
the  lambs  offered  were  slain,  and  the  fat  and  blood  given  to  the  priests  ;  the 
animals  were  then  roasted  and  eaten  whole,  with  unleavened  bread  and 
bitter  herbs  (endive,  chicory,  wild  lettuce,  or  nettles),  no  portion  being  left 
till  the  morning.  On  the  15th  was  a  holy  assembly,  and  no  work  might  be 
done.  On  this  and  the  following  days  additional  animals  were  sacrificed, 
but  it  is  probable  that  these  were  omitted  in  later  times.  On  the  16th 
the  first  sheaf  was  waved  by  the  priest  before  Jehovah,  and  the  festival 
ended  with  a  solemn  assembly  on  the  21st.  We  do  not  know  when  the 
drinking  of  wine  at  the  Passover  meal  was  introduced ;  but  it  became  the 
custom  to  provide  at  least  four  cups  of  wine,  mostly  red,  to  be  drunk  with 
water,  the  cups  being  passed  round  at  certain  intervals.  Another  addition 
to  the  early  forms  was  the  singing  of  a  series  of  psalms  of  praise,  known  as 
the  Hallel  (a  shortened  form  of  Hallelujah) ;  Psalms  cxiii.  and  cxiv.  were 


THE  JEWISH  RELIGION:  FESTIVALS,   ETC.  613 


sung  early  in  the  meal,  and  Psalms  cxv.  to  cxviii.  after  the  fourth  cup  had 
been  passed  round. 

The  next  great  festival,  following  the  Passover  after  an  interval  of  seven 
weeks  from  the  second  day,  was  that  generally  known  as  Pentecost,  but  also 
as  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  or  of  the  First  Fruits.    This  period  of  seven 

Psntpcosfc 

weeks  included  the  whole  of  harvest  time,  from  the  beginning  of 
barley-harvest  to  the  complete  ingathering  of  the  wheat.  At  this  feast,  in 
addition  to  the  regular  sacrifices,  two  loaves  of  leavened  bread  made  from 
the  new  wheat  were  to  be  waved  before  Jehovah  by  the  priests,  who  after- 
wards ate  them.  At  the  same  time  seven  lambs,  a  bullock,  and  two  rams, 
and  other  offerings  were  to  be  sacrificed.  This  was  a  more  joyful  celebration 
than  the  Passover,  and  special  directions  were  given  that  the  Levite,  the 
stranger,  the  fatherless,  and  the  widow  should  share  in  it. 

The  principal  autumn  festival  was  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  or  of  In- 
gathering, when  the  whole  of  the  crops  of  the  year  had  been  gathered  in.  It 
lasted  seven  days,  followed  by  a  special  day  of  assembly  and  Feast  of 
sacrifice,  sometimes  called  an  eighth  day.  During  the  seven  da}rs  Tabernacles, 
the  people  were  commanded  to  live  temporarily  in  booths,  which  were  made 
of  the  branches  of  olive,  palm,  pine,  and  other  trees-  with  thick  foliage.  In 
Jerusalem  these  booths  were  built  on  the  flat  roofs  of  the  houses,  in  their 
courts,  in  the  court  of  the  Temple,  and  in  the  principal  streets.  Specially- 
numerous  animal  sacrifices  were  offered  throughout  the  week,  including 
seventy  bullocks,  in  addition  to  private  offerings,  so  that  more  animals  were 
slain  at  this  period  than  at  any  other.  On  the  eighth  morning  the  booths 
were  dismantled,  and  the  people  returned  to  their  houses.  The  booths  may 
be  regarded  as  a  standing  memorial  of  the  Israelites'  former  nomadic  life. 

We  must  not  omit  to  mention  that  the  spring  festival  or  Passover, 
Pentecost,  and  Feast  of  Tabernacles  were  the  three  great  national  festivals 
at  which  every  male  Israelite  in  later  times-  was  bound  to  go  up  to  Jeru- 
salem, in  earlier  times  to  the  place  where  the  tabernacle  was  pitched.  This 
regular  resort  to  a  common  centre  must  have  had  a  powerful  influence  in 
uniting  the  people.  Thus  we  see  the  rise  of  one  of  the  great  systems  of 
religious  pilgrimage  still  so  powerful  among  the  Hindus,  Mahometans,  and 
Roman  Catholics. 

It  remains  to  mention  the  Feast  of  Trumpets,  which  took  place  on  the 
day  of  the  new  moon  which  preceded  by  ten  days  the  Day  of  Atonement. 
It  was  one  of  the  seven  days  of  special  holy  assembly  and  sacri-  Feast  of 
fice  ;  on  it  trumpets  were  blown  all  day.  Possibly  it  was  in-  TrumPets- 
tended  to  prepare  the  people  for  the  solemnities  of  the  Day  of  Atonement ; 
but  it  was  clearly  a  sort  of  New  Year's  Day,  introducing  the  seventh  or 
Sabbatical  month  of  the  Jewish  calendar. 

To  complete  here  the  account  of  forms  of  worship,  no  form  of  prayer 
was  enjoined  by  the  Mosaic  code,   and  it  is  from  later    history  Prayer  and 
that   we   derive  the   most  emphatic  testimony  to  the    habit  of    forms  of 
prayer  among   the  Israelites  ;    and  it  is  extremely  improbable, 
seeing  the  abundance  of  prayers  in  the  Egyptian  and  Semitic  religions,  that 


6 14  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

there  was  any  lack  of  them  in  early  Mosaic  times.  The  beautiful  bene- 
diction of  Numbers  vi.  24-26 — "  Jehovah  bless  thee  and  keep  thee  ; 
Jehovah  make  His  face  shine  upon  thee,  and  be  gracious  to  thee  ;  Jehovah 
lift  up  His  countenance  upon  thee,  and  give  thee  peace  " — is  a  very  early 
example  of  the  form  of  liturgy  which  arose  to  such  high  development 
in  the  Book  of  Psalms,  in  which  are  included  prayers,  praise,  confessions, 
triumphal  songs,  and  formal  recitals,  traversing  the  whole  field  of  human 
experience,  often  in  the  loftiest  strain  of  poetry.  But  in  their  great  days  the 
Jewish  people  were  not  given  to  the  vain  repetitions  of  prayers  and  sacred 
phrases  which  afterwards  became  baneful.  A  form  for  use  when  offering 
first  fruits  is  given  in  Deuteronomy  xxvi.  5-10,  13-15.  Probably  prayer 
was  offered  after  every  sacrifice.  In  later  Jewish  times  individuals  appear 
to  have  gone  up  regularly  to  the  Temple  to  pray,  and  when  away  from  Jeru- 
salem they  prayed  with  their  windows  open  towards  Jerusalem.  Numerous 
remarkable  and  well-known  prayers,  both  on  public  and  private  occasions, 
are  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament,  among  which  we  may  note  the  prayer 
of  Solomon  at  the  Dedication  of  the  Temple,  and  that  of  the  priests,  in  the 
second  Temple,  in  Nehemiah's  time. 

Apart  from  the  regular  offerings,  the  consecration  of  persons  and 
things  to  Jehovah,  and  the  making  and  fulfilment  of  vows,  entered  largely 
into  the  Jewish  religion.  Ewald  ("  Antiquities  of  Israel  ")  thus 
describes  the  making  of  vows :  "  In  order  to  obtain  from  God 
some  good  thing,  the  want  of  which  he  felt  with  painful  keenness,  a  man 
desired  to  give  up  on  his  part  something  dear  to  himself ;  but  because  his 
own  weakness  made  him  despair  of  being  able  to  make  this  sacrifice,  or 
at  least  because  it  could  not  be  made  immediately,  he  bound  himself 
through  an  oath  to  God,  spoken  out  clearly  and  with  the  utmost  seriousness, 
that  he  would  fulfil  it.  This  naturally  inspired  him  with  a  strength  which 
had  previously  failed  him,  and  which,  perhaps,  without  this  spasmodic 
flight,  he  would  never  have  possessed."  The  occurrence  of  extraordinary 
emergencies  sometimes,  as  in  other  religions,  inspired  the  most  tremendous 
vows — such  as  the  sacrifice  of  Jephthah's  daughter — which  were  fulfilled  ; 
but  the  Law  allowed  of  the  annulling  of  some  vows,  such  as  those  of  a 
wife  or  unmarried  daughter  by  the  head  of  the  family,  and  the  redemption 
of  others  by  a  valuable  offering,  according  to  a  scale  carefully  drawn  up. 
The  last  degeneration  of  such  a  practice  was  seen  in  the  corban  custom 
at  the  time  of  Christ,  when  a  man  might  prevent  himself  from  giving  to 
another,  or  even  to  his  parent's  utmost  need,,  by  vowing  his  property  to 
God,  even  without  actually  resigning  its  possession  and  enjoyment. 

In  prohibiting  all  mutilations  or  tortures  of  the  human  body,  excepting 
that  which  constituted  the  rite  of  circumcision  so  largely  in  vogue  in  South- 
western Asia  and  Egypt,  the  Jewish  religion  was  left  with 
mS'  fasting,  as  an  important  means  of  self-discipline  in  addition  to 
vows  and  offerings.  Fasting,  individual  and  national,  figured  considerably 
in  their  system.  The  annual  fast  on  the  Day  of  Atonement  showed  the 
recognition  granted  to  it,  and  it  was  often  resorted  to  in  times  of  national 


THE  JEWISH  RELIGION:  LEGISLATION,    ETC.  615 

d auger  or  misfortune.     Another  form  of  self-discipline  was  found  in  the 
offering  of  the  hair  and  abstinence  from  wine  ;  and  the  period  of  thirty 
days'  abstinence,  during  attendance   at   the   sanctuary,  became   specially 
commendable.      Groups   of  persons  who  took   certain    religious    Nazaritea 
vows  were  formed  from  time  to  time,  such  as  the  Rechabites        and 
and  the  Nazarites  (more  correctly  Nazirites),  the  latter  of  whom  Rechabltes- 
consecrated  their   bodies  and  all   their  powers  to  Jehovah  for  a  limited 
time   or  for  life.      "Wine  and  even   grapes    were  forbidden  to  them  ;  no 
change  in  their  body  was  allowable,  even  the  hair  might  not  be  cut ;  dead 
bodies  must  not  be  approached.     At  the  end  of  the  period  of  the  vow, 
special  offerings  were  made  in  the   Temple.     Samson,  Samuel,  and  John 
the  Baptist  appear  to  have  all  been  Nazarites  for  life. 

How  far  the  Jewish  religion  was  from  the  other  religions  we  have 
described  can  partially  be  judged  by  comparing  them  in  detail,  though 
our  brief  survey  leaves  many  topics  unnoticed.  The  deification  of  heroes 
or  priests,  the  worship  of  relics,  monasticism,  the  worship  of  ancestors, 
wizardry,  and  magic,  found  no  home  in  the  Jewish  system.  And  consecration 
perhaps  that  which  prevented  these  from  arising,  and  which  °peopi!^ole 
elevated  the  nation  most  in  the  religious  scale,  was  the  declaration  Jehovah, 
and  the  constant  inward  sense  that  the  nation  and  its  individuals  were 
holy,  consecrated  to  Jehovah,  and  must  therefore  be  kept  pure  from  all 
inward  and  outward  defilement,  and  when  defiled  in  any  way  must  be 
purified  by  appropriate  submission,  repentance,  and  offerings.  The  people 
are  declared  in  Deuteronomy  to  be  the  children  of  Jehovah ;  and  the 
dedication  of  the  first-born  children  and  the  offerings  of  firstlings  and 
first-fruits  kept  in  memory  and  expressed  gratitude  for  the  deliverances 
which  Jehovah  had  wrought  for  them.  Special  kinds  of  food,  special  laws 
of  purification,  and  other  peculiar  personal  regulations  were  devised  to 
strengthen  the  feeling  of  separation  from  other  nations,  and  of  exceptional 
elevation  as  the  children  of  Jehovah.  The  Jewish  religion  had  as  its 
birthright  the  revelation,  in  a  degree  far  above  that  which  others  had 
attained,  "  Holy  shall  ye  be,  for  holy  am  I."  Not  a  human  ideal,  but  a 
Divine  example  was  the  standard  set  before  the  nation.  Thus  the  nation 
became  a  household  united  by  one  thought,  one  worship,  and  thus  it  at- 
tained a  strength  which  long  protected  its  feebleness.  Rejecting  an  earthly 
sovereign,  the  ideal  of  Jehovah  as  Sovereign  was  raised  above  the  nation ; 
and  laws  had  so  much  the  more  the  sanction  of  public  opinion,  as  they 
were  believed  to  come  direct  from  God,  and  to  be  enforced  by  temporal 
punishments  and  calamities,  apart  from  the  decreed  penalties  by  which 
alone  pardon  and  restoration  could  be  obtained  by  offenders.  And,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  laws  were  the  more  readily  enforced,  as  it  will  be  seen 
on  close  study  that  the  majority  of  them  had  the  soundest  basis  in  natural 
laws,  and  others  were  at  least  in  accordance  with  the  best  wisdom  of  the 
time,  or  represented  substantial  improvement  on  practices  of  the  surround- 
ing nations. 

It   may   be   astonishing   at   first  sight  to   find  that  the  Jewish   law 


6i6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

regarded  a  large  number  of  animals  and  natural  conditions  or  &  objects  as 
Clean  and   unclean  which  we  do  not ;    but   in  this   it   only   fallowed  the 

unclean     instinct    of   many   peoples    and    religions,    whl^n    find    certain 
animals.  1  •  •    i  •• 

repulsions  inherent,  and  which  create  others  s  m  virtue  of  some 

accidental    conditions.      Ruminant    animals,    finny    fjmd    scaly   fish,    and 

locusts  were  allowed  to  be  eaten  ;  but  the  camel,  ha?re,  coney,  and  swine, 

and  all  the  smaller  land  animals  were  forbidden.     The  mode  of  death,  too, 

was  important ;  any  mode  which  did  not  allow  the  t  blood  to  be  thoroughly 

drained  from  the  flesh  was  forbidden,  for  the  eating  of  blood,  in  which 

animal  life  was  supposed  especially  to  reside,  w^as  strictly  tabooed.     All 

dead  animal  matter  made  him  who  touched  it*  impure.     The  elaboration 

of  the  regulations  about  impurity  and  purification  is  too  great  for  us  to 

Means  of  deal  with  here  ;  but  they  had  the  object  not  only  of  making  and 
purification,  keeping  the  body  of  the  servant  ^  Jehovah  clean  and  pure,  but 
of  guarding  carefully  the  purity  of  tbie  spirit,  though,  as  we  know,  this 
object,  to  a  very  considerable  extents  was  n°t  attained.  We  may  note 
among  the  means  of  purification,  especially  purified  water,  cedar-wood, 
threads  of  scarlet  cloth,  the  leav<^s  an(^  stalk  of  the  hyssop,  and  a  red 
heifer.  One  striking  particular,  *n  which  a  difference  from  Egyptian 
practice  was  shown,  was  in  the  di^contmiiance  of  embalming  the  dead. 

Burial  was  performed  at  a  dis^ance  from  human  dwellings,  and,  as 
far  as  possible,  in  caves,  natural  o^  artificial.  The  impurity  attaching 
Burial  ^°  enemies'  possessions,  fls  usually  polluted  in  some  way  by 
alien  religions,  was  shown  by  the  frequency  with  which  they 
were  entirely  destroyed,  instead  °f  being  utilised  as  legitimate  booty. 
Conversely,  the  touching  of  sacred  objects  after  they  were  consecrated 
was  an  offence  of  the  deepest  dye,  oft^u  punished  by  death.  It  is  worthy 
of  remark  that  many  of  the  Israelitish  regulations  showed  a  knowledge, 
or  at  least  instinct,  about  the  laws  of  health,  which.  "wOUld-h^ve  done  credit 
to  many  a  nation  presumedly  much  more  advanced  in  civilisation. 

The  relationships    within  which  marriage  was   allowed  were  strictly 
limited ;    and    a   man   was   forbidden  to    marry   two    sisters  at  the  same . 

Marriage  time,  although  a  sentiment  about  the  hereditary  descent  of 
limits,  property  made  it  a  duty  for  a  man's  brothers  in  succession 
to  marry  his  widow  if  he  died  childless.  All  unnatural  lusts  were  most 
strictly  forbidden  and  heavily  punished  ;  and  even  the  mixture  of  different 
seeds  in  sowing,  and  the  union  of  wool  and  linen  in  the  same  garment, 
were  unlawful. 

Through  all   the   Jewish   ideas   of  their  relation  to  Nature  we  find 
ruling  a  belief  that  it  belongs  to  God.     Young  fruit  trees  were  not  to  be 

Nature  the  croPPed  till  three  years  had  passed  ;  in  the  fourth  year  the  fruit 

property  of  was  offered  to  Jehovah,  and  only  afterwards  did  it  come  into 

JgIioVcLIi 

use  by  man.  The  ox  treading  out  the  corn  was  not  to  be 
muzzled  ;  eggs  or  young  birds  were  not  to  be  taken  from  the  nest  while  the 
mother  was  there  ;  domestic  animals  were  to  share  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath  ; 
and  all  this  that  it  might  be  well  with  the  people  who  belonged  to  the 


THE  JEWISH  RELIGION:  LEGISLATION,   ETC.  617 


same  God  whose  were  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  kingdoms.  Thus 
we  may  understand  the  depth  of  the  feeling  which  inspired  in  the  50th 
Psalm  the  lines  (Perowne's  translation) : — 

"  Mine  is  every  beast  of  the  forest, 
The  cattle  upon  the  mountains  by  thousands. 
I  know  every  bird  of  the  mountains, 
And  that  which  moveth  in  the  field  is  with  Me." 

The  strength  of  that  feeling  in  favour  of  the  protection  of  human  life 
which  in  so   many  nations  and  religions  makes   revenge  of  murder   an 
absolute   duty,  was  shown  by  the  permission  given  to  the  heirs      Biood- 
of  a  murdered  man,  and  especially  the  next  heir,  the  redeemer,    revenge, 
to  execute  punishment  upon  him,  though  his  guilt  was  first  to  be  deter- 
mined by  a  regular  investigation,  two  witnesses  at  least  being  required. 
Blood-money  was  not  allowed  to  be  accepted.     When  the  murderer  was 
unknown,   a  special  mode  of  expiation  was  provided,  so  that  the  people 
of  the  neighbourhood  might  be  cleared  from  Divine  vengeance,     cities  of 
Unwitting    manslaughter    was    only   purged    by   fleeing    to   a     refuee- 
sacred  city  of  refuge,  which  he  could  not  leave,  or  the  avenger  might  slay 
him.     So  strongly  was  the  right  of  blood-revenge  maintained,  that  even 
King   David  could   not   prevent   Joab  from  putting  it  in  force  without 
the  sanction    of  any  court.      There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
Jewish  people  were  unstained  by  the  practices  of  infanticide,  which  were 
so  glaring  an  evil  in  many  Oriental  nations. 

Minor  injuries  were  to  be  punished  in  kind — "  eye  for  eye,  tooth  for 
tooth,  hand  for  hand,  foot  for  foot,  burning  for  burning,"  etc.  ;  although 
later,  when  the  offended  person  consented,  they  could  be  « An  eye  for 
expiated  by  money  payments.  Injuries  received  in  a  mutual  an  eye*" 
quarrel  were  satisfied  by  payment  for  loss  of  time.  But  the  Jewish  law 
took  cognisance  of  offences  which  were  followed  by  no  physical  injury. 
Slander,  hatred,  false  witness,  unequal  honour  to  the  rich,  are  unsparingly 
condemned ;  and  many  positive  precepts  show  the  rise  of  kindly  feelings, 
of  compassion,  of  tolerance  and  kindliness  towards  strangers,  as  well  as  of 
true  justice  in  word  and  deed,  in  generous  fulness,  among  the  Israelites. 
The  precept,  "  Thou  shalt  rise  up  before  the  hoary  head,  and  honour  the 
face  of  the  old  man/'  might  have  been  written  in  China. 

The  references  to  the  year  of  jubilee  will  already  have  explained  one 
feature  of  the  law  of  property,  which  aimed  at  keeping  the  land  in  the 
hands  of  the  same  families  permanently.  The  tendency  of  the 
Israelites  to  lend  money  for  interest  is  strongly  marked  by  the 
stringent  prohibitions  of  usury  which  are  found  in  the  Law,  and  the  Deuter- 
onomic  acknowledgment  that  interest  might  be  taken  from  strangers,  though 
not  from  fellow-Israelites.  Already  in  Exodus  the  practice  of  taking  pledges 
for  loans  was  in  existence,  and  it  became  necessary  to  forbid  keeping  a 
man's  outer  garment  (used  as  a  bed-covering)  beyond  sunset.  A  widow's 
garment  might  not  be  taken,  nor  a  handmill,  and  the  creditor  might  not 


6i8  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

enter  the  debtor's  house  to  seize  his  goods.  The  service  of  the  debtor  who 
was  unable  to  pay  might  be  demanded,  or  that  of  his  wife  or  child ;  but 
such  Hebrew  bondslaves  were  to  be  released  in  the  seventh  year.  Yet  the 
slave  could  voluntarily  renounce  his  freedom,  at  the  cost  of  having  his  ear 
bored  through  with  an  awl  against  the  door  or  door-post  of  the 
sanctuary.  Slaves,  while  placed  in  a  position  much  better  than 
in  other  surrounding  nations,  in  fact  being  treated  much  as  hired  servants, 
were  yet  somewhat  strictly  kept  in  servitude,  and  their  emancipation  only 
appears  to  have  been  customary  in  the  year  of  jubilee.  Female  slaves 
also  were  treated  as  chattels  with  regard  to  marriage  or  concubinage.  After 
the  Babylonish  captivity  slavery  went  out  of  use  among  the  Jews. 

The  elevation  of  the  Jewish  religion  above  most  others  is  shown  in 
another  particular — the  treatment  of  strangers,  other  than  fellow-country- 
Treatment  of  men.  Strictly  fair  treatment  of  them  is  enjoined  ;  nay,  in  Levi- 
strangers.  ticus  we  are  told,  "  The  stranger  that  sojourneth  with  you  shall 
be  unto  you  as  the  homeborn  among  you,  and  thou  shalt  love  him  as  thyself; 
for  ye  were  strangers  in  the  land  of  Egypt."  The  widow  and  orphan,  the 
poor  and  friendless,  were  to  be  kindly  received  and  succoured,  to  whatever 
race  they  belonged,  and  they  were  to  be  made  partakers  in  the  joys  of 
sacrifice  to  Jehovah. 

The  relation  of  children  to  parents  was  originally  one  of  as  great  sub- 
ordination as  that  of  slave  to  master ;  the  duty  of  submission  on  the  part  of 
Parents  and  the  child  was  regarded  as  so  paramount  that  it  received  separate 
cMidren.  mention  in  the  Decalogue  ;  but  this  did  not  exclude,  nay,  it 
implied  a  tender  regard  for  children  which  is  exemplified  in  many  Old 
Testament  narratives.  On  the  other  hand,  the  disobedience  of  a  child  might 
be  punished  with  any  severity.  Death  was  the  punishment  of  a  child  that 
struck  or  cursed  a  parent,  although  in  Deuteronomy  this  punishment  might 
only  be  inflicted  on  a  rebellious  son  after  a  hearing  of  the  case  before  the 
elders  of  a  city.  Again,  a  child  might  be  sold  or  given  in  pledge  for  a  debt ; 
and  in  several  instances  a  whole  family  was  destroyed  for  the  sin  of  the 
head.  In  Deuteronomy,  however,  we  read  that  the  children  are  not  to  be 
put  to  death  for  the  sin  of  the  fathers  ;  and  this  is  interpreted  by  those  who 
regard  Deuteronomy  as  a  late  compilation,  as  indicating  a  gradual  relaxa- 
tion of  the  severity  of  the  early  law. 

The  marriage  laws  of  the  Israelites  are  on  the  whole  so  well  known 
that  no  extended  notice  is  needed  ;  but  with  marriage  the  husband  gained 
wives  and  a  powerful  command  over  the  wife,  and  she  was  often  practically 
concubines,  bought,  and  might  be  divorced  with  comparative  ease.  A 
husband  who  doubted  his  wife's  fidelity  might  take  her  to  the  sanctuary 
and  demand  that  the  priest  should  subject  her  to  an  awe-inspiring  trial  by 
ordeal,  giving  her  a  peculiarly  compounded  drink,  "  the  water  of  jealousy," 
which  was  expected  to  bring  destruction  upon  a  guilty  woman.  That 
women  by  no  means  occupied  the  degraded  position  assigned  to  them  in 
many  Oriental  countries  is  evidenced  by  numerous  instances  of  women  being 
prophetesses,  and  even  military  leaders,  and  being  greatly  honoured  even  by 


619 


62o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

the  most  renowned  prophets.     Marriage  was  viewed  as  an  honourable  estate  ; 

children  were  a  heritage  from  Jehovah.     Violations  of  purity  cannot  have 

been  common  ;  and  a  great  distinction  was  thus  maintained  between  the 

Jews  and  surrounding  nations.     Concubinage  and  double  marriages  were 

allowed ;  but  these   were  very  different  from  the  licentiousness  of  many 

Oriental  States.     The  kings  were  commanded  not  to  multiply  their  wives — 

a   command   which   they  evidently  disregarded.     In    later    Jewish  times 

monogamy  appears  to  have  become  customary,  although  divorce  was  much 

abused.     Hebrew  marriage  was  not  connectel  with  any  religious  rite. 

That  the  moral  condition  of  the  Jews  was  high  compared  with  most 

other  nations  is  evident  from  comparing  their  histories.      That  they  were 

General  moral  ^argely  exempt  from  the  vices  which  found  a  home  with  extreme 

condition  of   wealth  is  undoubted.     That  they  owed  much  to  the  examples 
Israel  . 

of  their  early  leaders  is  equally  true.     But  they  owed  more  to 

the  vivid  conception  and  assimilation  of  the  belief  that  they  were  Jehovah's 
chosen  people,  who  must  therefore  be  holy  and  pure,  and  must  reject  all 
the  practices  which  His  prophets  denounced  as  displeasing  to  Him.  No- 
where else  have  we  found  a  nation  inspired  with  the  ideal  of  a  Divine  King, 
guiding  every  step  and  giving  every  victory.  And  although  this  ideal 
proved  to  be  beyond  their  strength  to  realise  fully,  and  they  were  not 
skilled  enough  in  statecraft  to  frame  a  practicable  republic,  their  ideal  lived 
on  even  when  they  had  set  up  an  earthly  kingdom,  and  bore  especial  fruit 
when  an  odious  foreign  domination  controlled  them.  When  most  held  in 
subjection,  they  turned  their  thoughts  to  a  coming  Deliverer,  Divine  yet 
human,  who  should  release  them  from  bondage  and  place  them  in  triumph 
at  the  head  of  human  affairs. 


<L 


sLL- 


4ik  ■»_  i'iLLL 


SUPPOSED    FOUM    OF   THE    SECOND    TEMPLF. 


CHAPTER  III. 

CI)e  Seimsl)  ^riestfoooti  antt  Cfinples! ;    tf)e  psalms  anti 
gl)ilosop!)trai  S23tsfoom. 

The  priesthood. — Aaron. — The  high  priest's  dress. — Urim  and  Thummim. — Special  functions  of  high 
priest. — The  later  high  priests. — The  hereditary  priests. — The  Levites.— The  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
—Dimensions  and  structure.— The  ark  and  cherubim.— The  temple  services.— Zerubbabel's  temple. 
—Herod's  temple.— Religious  growth  of  Israel.— Samuel.— David.— The  Psalms.— Testimony  of 
Athanasius,  Luther,  and  Edward  Irving.— Interpretation  of  Psalms.— Messianic  Psalms.— Cha- 
racteristics of  the  Psalms.— Future  life.— Growth  of  the  Psalter.— The  five  books  of  Psalms.— The 
Proverbs.— Praise  of  utility.— The  eulogy  of  wisdom.— Ecclesiastes— Variety  of  opinions.— The 
book  of  Job.— Diversity  of  views  about  it. — Its  loftiness  of  thought.— Salient  problems  dealt  with. 
—Job's  patience.— Future  life  and  judgment— Job  and  Elihu.— The  Theophany. 

THE  original  family  priests  of  Israel,  when  the  patriarch  ceased  to  per- 
form all  religious  rites  himself,  were  the  eldest  sons  ;  and  it  was  a  great 
change  from  this  system  when  a  special  tribe  engrossed  priestly  ^  priest- 
duties.  This  is  recorded  as  having  been  the  work  of  the  new  h00d- 
religious  development  which  dated  from  Moses,  which,  including  as  it  did 
loftier  ideas,  more  complex  observances,  and  numerous  new  laws,  tended  to 
become  from  the  first  associated  with  that  family  to  which  the  new  ideas  and 
their  propagation  had  been  committed.  Probably  Aaron  had,  during  Moses' 
absence  in  Midian,  been  already  stirring  up  his  people  to  revolt 
against  the  Egyptians  ;  but  his  character,  much  less  original  and 
steadfast  than  his  brother's,  so  far  yielded  to  opportunism  as  to  become  the 
instrument  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah  under  the  image  of  a  golden  calf, 
which  led  to  a  kind  of  festival  very  repugnant  to  Moses,  and  to  one  of  the 
grandest  manifestations  of  the  great  leader's  self-suppression  and  willingness 
to  give  himself  for  his  people,  feut  Aaron's  sin  having  sprung  from  a  desire 
to  yield  to  popular  sentiment  in  order  that  he  might  turn  it  towards  the  true 
worship,  he  was  not  therefore  incapacitated  for  becoming  the  first  high 
priest  of  Israel ;  but  his  ordination  was  through  Moses.     It  was  celebrated 

621 


Aaron 


622  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

by  a  sin-offering,  a  burnt-offering,  and  a  meat-offering,  the  putting  on  of 
special  robes,  anointing  with  oil,  the  offering  of  a  ram  of  consecration,  and 
the  sprinkling  of  its  blood  upon  Aaron  and  his  sons  as  well  as  upon  the 
altar  and  its  vessels.  Aaron's  special  priesthood  was  distinctly  guarded  by 
the  punishment  of  his  sons  Nadab  and  Abihu  for  "  offering  strange  fire  " 
on  the  altar,  and  of  Korah  and  the  Levites  for  rebelling  against  his  supremacy. 
Aaron's  tendency  to  presumption  and  self-confidence  is  shown  more  than 
once  in  the  Biblical  narrative,  and  it  is  typical  of  the  character  subsequently 
maintained  by  the  priesthood,  which  became  conservative  of  established 
tradition  and  of  sacerdotal  rights  rather  than  possessed  of  a  reforming  and 
elevating  spirit. 

The  high  priest  wore  a  special  dress,  including:  (1)  A  tunic  of  linen, 
called  an  ephod,  in  two  parts,  back  and  front,  clasped  together  at  either 
The  high  shoulder  by  a  large  onyx,  with  the  names  of  six  of  the  tribes  en- 
priest's  dress,  graved  on  it ;  round  the  waist  it  was  bound  by  a  girdle  of  gold, 
blue,  purple,  scarlet,  and  fine  linen.  (2)  A  breastplate,  fastened  to  the  onyx- 
stones  and  the  girdle,  and  having  four  rows  of  three  precious  stones,  each 
having  the  name  of  one  of  Israel's  sons  upon  it.  These  stones  may  them- 
selves have  constituted  the  "Urim  and  Thummim  "  (Light  and  Perfection), 
which  were  the  medium  through  which  Divine  answers  were  obtained  by 
the  high  priest.  Some  think  that  it  was  a  plate  of  gold  on  which  the  name  ot 
Jehovah  was  engraved,  and  that  by  fixing  his  attention  on  it,  the  priest  was 
urim  and  elevated  into  the  prophetic  spirit.  A  more  plausible  theory  is,  that 
Thummim.  the  Urim  was  a  symbol  of  Light,  analogous  to  the  scarabseus  simi- 
larly worn  by  the  Egyptian  priests ;  while  the  Thummim  was  a  symbolic 
image  of  Truth,  such  as  was  worn  by  the  priestly  judges  of  Egypt.  This 
Egyptian  origin  accords  with  their  not  being  described  in  the  Pentateuch, 
as  being  so  well  known  to  the  people.  Dean  Plumptre  (Dictionary  of  Bible, 
Art.  "  Urim  and  Thummim  ")  suggests  that  the  high  priest,  fixing  his 
gaze  on  these  symbols,  concentrated  his  thoughts  on  the  Light  and  Perfec- 
tion they  represented,  and  on  the  holy  name  of  Jehovah.  Thence  he  passed 
into  an  ecstatic  state  in  which  all  lower  human  elements  were  forgotten, 
and  he  received  a  higher  insight  which  was  accepted  as  Divine.  (3)  A  blue 
"  robe  of  the  ephod,"  worn  beneath  it,  trimmed  with  pomegranates,  in  blue, 
red,  and  crimson,  with  a  golden  bell  between  each  alternate  pomegranate. 
(4)  A  mitre,  or  upper  turban,  having  a  gold  plate  fastened  to  it  by  a  ribbon, 
and  bearing  the  inscription  "Holiness  to  Jehovah."  Besides  these,  the 
high  priest  wore,  in  common  with  the  subordinate  priests,  an  embroidered 
coat  or  tunic,  with  girdle  and  drawers.  A  simple  linen  turban  was  worn  by 
the  priests  instead  of  the  high  priest's  mitre. 

The  special  functions  of  the  high  priest  will  already  have  been  partly 
gathered  from  the  account  of  ceremonies.     To  him  alone  was  it  permitted 
s  eciai     to   enter   tne  inner  sanctuary,  or  Holy  of  Holies,   once   a  year 
functions  of  on  the  great  day  of  atonement.     During  the  high  priest's  life- 
high  priest.  time  persong  who  had  fled  t0  a  city  of  reflTge  might  not  quit 

it.      The    high   priest  was   forbidden    to  rend    his    clothes   for   the    dead 


THE  JEWISH  PRIESTHOOD  AND   TEMPLES.  623 

or  to  follow  a  funeral.  In  other  particulars  his  functions  might  vary 
greatly  with  circumstances  ;  but  so  long  as  his  character  commanded  the 
people's  reverence,  he  was  the  interpreter  of  the  will  of  God  to  the  people, 
and  cast  the  sacred  lots  to  determine  important  questions.  But  in  later 
times,  when  the  priesthood  became  more  formal  and  conservative,  these 
functions  passed  largely  into  the  hands  of  the  prophets,  and  at  times  there 
was  antagonism  between  the  priestly  and  prophetical  classes.  It  is  worthy 
of  notice,  that  in  the  account  of  the  dedication  of  Solomon's  Temple,  the 
high  priest  is  not  mentioned  ;  the  new  royal  power  had  eclipsed  him.  In- 
deed, this  was  largely  the  case  during  the  monarchy.  After  the  Babylonian 
captivity  the  high  priest  again  became  prominent.  Jaddua,  high  priest  at 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  met  him  in  procession,  and  The  later 
was  treated  reverentially  by  him.  To  Simon  the  Just  is  ascribed  hl&h  priests, 
the  completion  of  the  Old  Testament  canon.  During  his  brother  Eleazar's 
priesthood  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament  was  made  at  Alex- 
andria for  Ptolenry  Philadelphus.  The  degeneracy  of  Eleazar's  successors 
was  followed  by  the  brilliant  revival  of  the  priesthood  in  the  family  of  the 
Maccabees,  which  lasted  from  B.C.  153  to  35,  when  Aristobulus  was  murdered 
by  order  of  his  brother-in-law,  Herod  the  "  Great."  Henceforward  the 
high  priesthood  was  more  degraded  than  it  had  ever  been.  Herod  and  his 
successors  made  and  unmade  high  priests  at  will,  often  men  of  low  birth ;  and 
in  the  107  years  preceding  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  there  had 
been  twenty-eight  high  priests." 

The  Jewish  priests  (kohen),  as  an  order,  appear  to  have  been  constituted 
especially  out  of  the  family  and  descendants  of  Aaron.     We  only  read  of  the 
consecration  of  his  sons,  and  afterwards  the  office  was  hereditary, 
until  Jeroboam,  in   founding   the  kingdom  of  Israel,  appointed  hereditary 
a  fresh  priesthood.     They  wore  linen  garments  and  caps  when-     pne! 
ever  they  ministered  in  the  Tabernacle  or  Temple,  where  they  always  went 
barefooted.    No  descendant  of  Aaron  with  any  physical  defect  might  act  as 
priest.    They  were  forbidden  to  shave  their  heads,  or  to  imitate  other  priest- 
hoods either  in  asceticism  or  licentiousness.    In  every  way  they  were  trained 
and  designed  to  be  able  to  clearly  distinguish  between  what  was  clean  and 
unclean,  sacred  and  profane.     After  the  Captivity,  great  stress  was  laid  on 
genealogical  proof  of  true  descent  and  on  examination  for  physical  blemishes 
before  the  Sanhedrim  admitted  a  youth  to  take  part  in  the  Temple  services. 

Abundant  work  was  assigned  to  the  priests.  Besides  assisting  the  high 
priests,  they  had  to  keep  the  altar  fire  and  the  golden  lamp  perpetually  burn- 
ing, to  offer  the  regular  morning  and  evening  sacrifices,  and  to  be  in  readi- 
ness to  receive  any  worshipper  and  offer  sacrifice,  or  otherwise  do  the  priest's 
office  for  him.  The  judgment  about  leprosy,  the  ordeal  of  the  waters  of 
jealousy,  and  numerous  other  decisions  were  committed  to  them,  and  they 
were  in  general  charged  with  the  religious  instruction  of  the  people.  In 
return  they  received  a  regular  maintenance  of  one-tenth  of  the  tithes 
assigned  to  the  Levites,  and  large  portions  of  the  sacrificial  offerings.  In 
the  time  of  David  the  priests  were  divided  into  twenty-four  courses  or  sets, 


624  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

each  of  which  took  the  services  for  a  week  at  a  time  ;  but  this  order  did  not 
prevent  others,  out  of  their  turn,  from  taking  a  share  in  the  services,  particu- 
larly at  the  great  festivals.  On  the  return  from  the  Captivity,  only  four  of 
these  courses  remained  ;  but  the  twenty-four  were  constituted  anew  out  of 
the  remnant.  In  later  Jewish  times  they  largely  increased  in  number,  and 
many  of  them  were  poor,  ignorant,  and  despised.  It  is  very  probable  that 
the  "  high  places  "  so  often  referred  to  in  Jewish  history  were  supplied  with 
priests  claiming  descent  from  Aaron  ;  but  they  went  further  than  this,  and 
officiated  as  priests  of  Baal,  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  of  the  "  host  of  heaven," 
as  the  prophets  testify. 

The  priesthood  which  belonged  to  the  Levites  as  distinct  from  the  sons 
of  Aaron  dated  apparently  from  their  rallying  round  Moses  and  Aaron  after 
the  Israelites  had  worshipped  the  golden  calf,  when  they  conse- 
crated themselves  to  defend  the  Tabernacle  and  the  pure  worship 
of  Jehovah.  After  that  they  were  adopted  in  place  of  the  first-born  as 
priests,  and  obtained  a  maintenance  from  the  other  tribes,  and  numerous 
privileges.  During  the  wilderness  wanderings  they  carried  all  the  taber- 
nacle treasures,  all  the  appliances  of  sacrifice.  They  gained  increased 
influence  when  the  Israelites  had  settled  in  Palestine,  became  diffused  in 
forty-eight  cities  and  their  suburbs  throughout  the  land,  and  received  shares 
of  booty  taken  in  war.  In  the  times  of  David  and  Solomon  they  appear  as 
hymn-writers  and  musicians,  taking  a  prominent  part  in  the  services  at 
Jerusalem ;  but  we  have  no  definite  information  as  to  how  they  were  re- 
placed from  the  provincial  cities.  Later,  they  appear  as  scribes,  officers, 
judges,  and  teachers.  In  Deuteronomy  the  offices  of  preserving,  copying, 
and  interpreting  the  Law  are  assigned  to  them,  and  they  were  to  read  it 
aloud  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  every  seventh  year,  and  to  pronounce  the 
curses  from  Mount  Ebal.  After  the  formation  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  they 
left  it  to  a  large  extent,  and  gathered  closely  into  connection  with  Jeru- 
salem and  the  Temple,  showing  themselves  in  Hezekiah's  time  more  zealous 
and  upright  in  heart  than  the  priests ;  thus  they  acquired  greater  influence 
than  ever  in  both  Hezekiah's  and  Josiah's  reigns.  They  were  less  numerous 
after  the  Captivity,  and  did  not  take  any  special  part  in  the  formation  of 
synagogues,  though  they  retained  precedence  in  them,  and  were  a  majority 
in  the  Sanhedrim ;  but  the  Levites  in  general  were  only  the  inferior  officers 
of  the  Temple.  After  its  destruction  they  sank  into  the  general  mass  of 
subdued,  captive,  or  dispersed  Jews. 

THE  TEMPLE  AT  JERUSALEM. 

The  change  from  a  wandering  and  a  conquering  life  to  a  settled  and 
powerful  dominion  was  marked  by  the  construction  of  a  sacred  building 
which,  while  not  rivalling  in  architecture  and  magnificence  the  great 
temples  of  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia,  was  yet  a  splendid  monument  of  royal 
devotion.  The  design  and  planning  of  the  Temple  are  in  large  part  as- 
cribed to  David,  who  collected  much  of  the  treasure  and  engaged  many  of 
the  workmen.     Its  site  was  Mount  Moriah,  north-east  of  Mount  Zion,  the 


THE  JEWISH  PRIESTHOOD  AND    TEMPLES.  625 

altar  being  placed  where  David  offered  sacrifice  on  the  staying  of  the 
pestilence  which  followed  his  census.  This  site  being  uneven  in  its  upper 
portion,  and  not  squared  into  areas  suitable  for  the  temple-courts,  its 
dimensions  were  corrected  by  Solomon,  who  built  gigantic  walls  as  a  sub- 
structure to  support  the  upper  buildings. 

The  idea  of  the  new  Temple  was  plainly  borrowed  from  that  of  the 
Tabernacle,  whose  dimensions  it  doubled.     The   Holy  of  Holies  measured 
twenty  cubits  every  way  ;  the  outer  court  was  forty  cubits  long  by  Dimension3 
twenty  broad,  but  it  was  raised  to  thirty  cubits  in  height  to  sup-        and 
port  three  outer  stories  of  chambers  for  the  priests  and  temple 
servers ;  while  the  east  end  had  a  porch  ten  cubits  in  depth,  and  decorated 
with  two  immense  bronze  pillars  with  magnificent  lily-shaped  capitals.    The 
roof  was  probably  flat,  and  any  openings  for  light  could  only  be  made  in  the 
part  of  the  Temple  wall  that  rose  above  the  side  stories.    Probably  the  Holy 
of  Holies  was  quite  dark.     Outside  the  Temple  proper  was  a  great  court  of 
similar  shape.     The  internal  ornamentation  of  this  Temple  was  magnificent ; 
but  we  must  leave  details  to  be  gathered  from  the  narrative  in  1  Kings. 

Within  the  Holy  of  Holies  was  placed  the  Ark,  as  it  had  been  handed 
down  for  centuries ;  but  to  accord  with  the  greater  magnificence  of  the 
Temple,  two  huge  cherubim  were  set  up  in  it,  whose  wings  Tne  ^^  and 
were  of  such  dimensions  as  jointly  to  stretch  entirely  across  the  Cherubim, 
building.  They  were  placed  at  a  height  of  ten  cubits  above  the  floor,  and 
could  not  be  seen  through  the  door  from  the  Holy  Place.  In  this  latter  was 
a  gilded  altar  and  a  table  for  shew-bread,  and,  according  to  2  Chronicles, 
ten  tables  with  a  golden  candlestick  on  each.  There  were,  besides,  a  huge 
bronze  altar  in  the  fore-court,  and  a  vast  laver  of  bronze,  with  vessels  termed 
bases,  in  which  water  could  be  conveyed  thence  wherever  needed.  The 
consecration  of  this  Temple,  after  seven  years  and  a  half  had  been  occu- 
pied in  its  erection,  was  the  most  magnificent  ceremony  in  Israelitish 
history.  The  sacrifices  were  of  enormous  extent,  and  an  overpowering  im- 
pression of  the  presence  of  Jehovah  awed  the  worshippers. 

We  have  many  evidences  of  the  magnificence  with  which  some  of  the 
kings  kept  up  the  Temple  services,  as  well  as  of  the  riches  which  it  con- 
tained.    The  successive  spoliations  which  it  underwent  from  the  Tne  Temple 
Egyptians,   and   for   tribute   to  other   foreign   powers,   still   left    services- 
sufficient  treasure  in  it  to  furnish  a  great  booty  for  Nebuchadnezzar ;  and 
then  it  was,  as  far  as  fire  could  effect  it,  completely  destroyed. 

The  temple  of  Zerabbabel,  erected  about  520  B.C.,  after  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  Babylon,  is  but  little  known  in  detail.  Apparently  the 
outer  buildings  were  increased  in  width,  and  the  total  length  zerubbabei's 
of  the  courts  was  considerably  increased ;  but  necessarily  the  emp  e- 
magnificence  was  much  diminished,  and,  above  all,  it  did  not  contain  the 
Ark  of  the  Covenant,  which  had  been  lost  or  destroyed,  and  no  copy  of  it 
was  made.  Nor  was  the  high  priest  any  more  equipped  with  the  breast- 
plate, so  essential  in  the  consultation  of  the  sacred  oracle.  Bat  yet,  so  far 
as   the  machinery  of  routine  worship    and   sacrifice  were  concerned,  the 

s  s 


626  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

priests  were  enabled  once  more  to  carry  out  the  essentials  of  Jehovah's 
service,  and  to  lay  an  increased  stress  on  the  public  reading  and  the  observ- 
ance of  the  Law. 

How  far  this  temple  survived  the  lapse  of  time  and  the  injuries  of  such 
tyrants  and  devastators  as  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  cannot  be  ascertained; 
but  there  is  some  probability  that  the  essential  features  of  the  structure 
Herod's  survived  and  were  incorporated  in  the  magnificent  structure 
temple.  raise(j  by  Herod  the  Great  (b.c.  20-12).  This  monarch'  not  only 
enclosed  the  central  portion  in  an  extensive  inner  enclosure,  reserved  for 
Jews  only,  about  180  cubits  by  240,  adorned  with  splendid  porches  and 
gateways,  but  surrounded  the  whole  with  a  much  larger  enclosure,  open 
also  to  Gentiles,  400  cubits  square,  constructed  with  great  engineering  skill 
and  splendour,  vieing  with  that  of  the  greatest  temples  of  other  countries. 
This  was  furnished  with  a  complete  series  of  flat-roofed  cloisters,  supported 
by  double  rows  of  Corinthian  columns :  on  the  outer  side  was  the  closed 
temple  wall,  internally  the  space -was  open  to  the  great  outer  court  of  the 
temple.  On  the  southern  side,  however,  there  was  added  to  this  a  great 
porch,  or  practically  a  nave  and  two  aisles,  the  whole  100  feet  wide,  and 
the  nave  rising  to  a  height  of  100  feet.  In  total  length,  this  "porch" 
was  longer  than  our  largest  English  cathedrals,  extending  to  600  feet,  and 
supported  by  160  Corinthian  columns. 

RELIGIOUS  GROWTH  OF  ISRAEL. 

Going  back  now  to  trace  some  features  in  the  religious  development 
of  Israel,  we  need  only  note  how  thoroughly  the  conquest  of  Canaan  under 
Joshua  and  his  successors  was  inspired  by  the  belief  in  Jehovah's  divine 
commission  to  the  people,  and  in  His  presence  and  aid  in  battle,  the  con- 
nection of  this  belief  with  the  necessity  for  much  slaughter  of  the  peoples 
whom  they  conquered,  and  the  destruction  of  their  idols.     After  Joshua's 
death  the  nation  had  no  continuous  head  but  the  High  Priest,  who  probably 
presided  over  the  Assembly  of  the  Elders  of  the  tribes,  and  declared  the  will 
of  Jehovah  after  consulting  the  oracle.     Shiloh,  north  of  Bethel,  was  for 
many  years  the  most  usual  seat  of  the  Tabernacle  and  residence  of  the  High 
Priest.     The  cessation  of  united  organisation  for  war  gave  place  to  dissolv- 
ing and  weakening  influences ;   the  Canaanites  at  various  times  regained 
power,  and  the  worship  of  their  gods  was  extended  ;  and  we  hear  very  little 
of  the  High  Priests  or  of  the  Assembly  of  Elders  for  a  long  period.     The 
priestly  character  degenerated  till  it  became  a  byword  in  the  sons  of  Eli, 
when  there  arose  the  first  of  the  great  series  of  Prophets  to  call  back  the 
people  to  the  purer  service  of  Jehovah,  to  denounce  prevalent  sins,  and  to 
Samuel     e^eva^e  the  national  ideal.     Samuel  appears  not  to  have  intro- 
duced any  new  principles,  but  he  purified  the  national  worship, 
established  his  jurisdiction  as  a  pure  judge,  and  when  he  found  that  loyalty 
to  an  invisible  ruler  failed  to  unite  and  preserve  the  people  in  stable  order 
and  content,  he  anointed  the  most  notable  young  warrior  of  his  time  as 
king,  and,  as  far  as  in  him  lay,  established  the  kingdom  in  righteousness.  | 


THE   HEBREW  PSALMS.  627 

His  distinction  as  a  man  possessed  of  insight  into  affairs  human  and  divine 
was  made  evident  by  many  circumstances.  He  is  a  religious  leader  outside 
the  Aaronic  priesthood,  although  his  training  under  Eli  practically  adopted 
him  into  it ;  but  he  exalted  the  prophetic  teaching  conveyed  through  him- 
self above  the  functions  of  the  priests.  "  To  obey  is  better  than  sacrifice," 
he  powerfully  asserted,  and  his  lesson  has  embedded  itself  in  the  higher 
religious  conscience  of  mankind. 

Samuel's  appearance  was  but  the  first-fruit  of  an  awakening  which 
established  "  schools  of  the  prophets,"  or  religious  companies,  which  mani- 
fested and  trained  gifts  of  speech  and  song  that  soon  b3came  notable. 
Probably  David, — recognised  in  his  early  youth  by  Samuel  as  Saul's 
successor, — in  such  schools  matured  those  gifts  which  have  made  him  even 
more  famous  as  the  sweet  singer  than  as  the  powerful  King  of  Israel. 

David's  religious  importance,  in  addition  to  the  study  of  his  character 
and  history   as   impartially    detailed  to  us  in   the  Old  Testament,  consists 
in  his  development  of  public  worship  and  his  contributions  to 
sacred  literature.     Although,  contrary  to  the  notion  which  has 
grown  up  among  English  people,  the  majority  of  the  Psalms  are  not  the 
composition  of  David,  they  derived  their  original  stamp,  their  pattern,  their 
highest  flights  from  him,  and  are  rightly  associated  most  dis- 
tinctively  with  his  name.     No  man  has  more  vividly  or  truly 
expressed  the  depths  of  human  experience,  the  heights  of  religious  aspira- 
tion, the  strength  of  conviction  as  to  God's  nature,  prerogatives,  and  care 
for  His  people.     Athanasius  says  of  the  Psalms  that  they  are  to  Testimony  of 
him  who  sings  them  as  a  mirror,  wherein  he  may  see  himself  and  Athanasms» 
the  motions  of  his  soul,  and  with  like  feelings  utter  them.     Luther  says  in 
his  preface  to  the  Psalms  :  "  Where  will  you  find  words  more  aptly  chosen 
to  express  joy,  than  in  the  Psalms  of  praise  and  the  Psalms  of 
thanksgiving  ?     There  thou  mayest  look  into  the  heart  of  all  the 
saints,  as  into  fair  delightful  gardens,  yea,  even  into  heaven  itself,   and 
note  with  what  wonderful  variety  there  spring  up  therein,  like  so  many 
exquisite,  hearty,  delightful  flowers,  sweet  and  gladsome  thoughts  of  God 
and  His  benefits.     On  the  other  hand,  where  canst  thou  find  deeper,  sadder, 
more  lamentable  words  of  sorrow  than  are  to  be  found  in  the  Psalms  of 
complaint  ?     There  again  thou  rarest  look  into  the  heart  of  all  the  saints, 
as  into  death,  yea,  as  into  hell.     How  dark  and  gloomy  it  is  there  with  the 
manifold   hiding  of  God's   countenance  !      So   likewise,  when   the  Psalms 
speak  of  fear  or  hope,  they  speak  in  such  manner  of  words  that  no  painter 
could  so  paint  the  fear  or  the  hope,  and  no  Cicero  or  master  of  oratory  could 
express  them  to  the  life  more  happily." 

Edward   Irving  wrote   thus  of  the  Psalms:    "For   pure   pathos    and 
tenderness   of    heart,    for   sublime   imagination,    for   touching   pictures   of 
natural   scenery,    and    genial   S37  m  pa  thy   with   Nature's   various  and  Edward 
moods  ;  for  patriotism,  whether  in  national  weal  or  national  woe ;       Tvm%- 
for  beautiful  imager}^,  whether  derived  from  the  relationship  of  human  life 
or  the  forms  of  the  created  universe  ;  and  for  the  illustration,  by  their  help. 


628  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

of  spiritual  conditions ;  moreover,  for  those  rapid  transitions  in  which  the 
lyrical  muse  delighteth,  her  lightsome  graces  at  one  time,  her  deep  and  full 
inspiration  at  another,  her  exuberance  of  joy  and  her  lowest  falls  of  grief, 
and  for  every  other  form  of  the  natural  soul  which  is  wont  to  be  shadowed 
forth  by  this  kind  of  composition,  we  challenge  anything  to  be  produced 
from  the  literature  of  all  ages  and  countries,  worthy  to  be  compared  with 
what  we  find  even  in  the  English  version  of  the  Book  of- Psalms." 

After  considering  very  many  sublime  passages  of  the  Psalms,  it  may 

be  safely  said,  that  if  the  term  "  inspired,"  as  signifying  a  gift  of  language 

and  thought  in  a  superhuman  way,   may  not  be  applied  to  them,  it  can 

scarcely   be    applied    to    anything ;    and    the    general    adoption   of   their 

language  by  Christians  in  devotion  proves  their  correspondence  with  the 

wants  and  feelings  of  the  soul.     There  are,  however,  very  wide  divergences 

interpreta-  °^  0Pmi°n>  even  among  orthodox  divines,  as  to  the  interpretation 

tion  of     of  many  passages,  showing  that  there  is  no  theory  of  inspiration 

sufficiently  agreed  upon  to  settle  all  difficulties  or  to  obviate  the 

need  of  either   ecclesiastical  or  private  judgment.     The  most   important 

question  about  the  interpretation  of  the  Psalms,  is  their  reference  to  the 

Messiah  expected  by  the  Israelites,  in  the  two  characters  of  a  victorious  king 

and  a  suffering  prophet.     While  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  most  cases 

there  is  a  primary  meaning  of  the  Psalms,  applicable  to  the  writer  or  his 

subject,  many  divines  point  to  the  confessions  of  sin  as  excluding  numerous 

Messianic  so-called  Messianic  passages  from  having  a  Messianic  reference, 
Psalms.  ancj  maintain  that  in  others  such  references  were  not  consciously 
in  the  mind  of  the  writer,  although  they  have  a  broad  and  grand  fulfilment 
in  the  Person  of  Christ.  All  but  a  few  critics  agree  that  the  Psalms  in 
many  places  foreshadow  or  pre-typify  Jesus.  Dean  Perowne  observes : 
"  Nowhere  in  the  Psalms  are  the  redemption  of  the  world  and  Israel's  final 
glory  bound  up  with  the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  .  .  .  The  Advent  to 
which  Israel  looks  forward  is  the  Advent  of  Jehovah.  It  is  He  who  is 
Israel's  true  King.  It  is  His  coming  which  shall  be  her  redemption  and 
her  glory."  And  Calvin,  in  commenting  on  the  72nd  Psalm,  says:  "They 
who  will  have  this  to  be  simply  a  prediction  of  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  seem 
to  twist  the  words  very  violently."  x 

Apart  from  this,  the  Psalms  are  distinguished  beyond  all  other  sacred 
books  by  the  directness  of  their  appeal  to  God.     No  circumstance  of  life  or 

Character-  experience  is  regarded  as  hidden  from  the  Supreme  Being,  or  un- 
istics  of     suitable  to  be  the  subject  of  direct  communion  with  Him.     Fre- 

tne  Psalms.  qUent|y  ]jfe  -m  ^e  mi^st  of  trouble  or  on  pinnacles  of  greatness 
is  associated  with  God  in  such  a  way  that  the  human  and  the  Divine  belong 

1  "We  may  here  give  the  Messianic  foreshado  wings  from  the  Psalms  given  in  the 
New  Testament :  xxii.  18  (John  xiii.  18) ;  xxxiv.  20  (John  xix.  36) ;  xli.  9  (John  xiii.  18) ; 
lxix.  10  (Rom.  xv.  3);  lxix.  21  (John  xix.  28).  In  addition,  "In  Ps.  xxxv.  11  we  have 
a  foreshadowing  of  the  false  testimony  against  Jesus ;  in  Ps.  xxii.  7,  8,  lxix.  12,  of  the 
revilings ;  in  Ps.  xxii.  16,  of  the  piercing  of  the  hands  and  feet ;  in  Ps.  lxix.  21,  of  the 
offering  of  the  gall  and  vinegar"  (Cheyne). 


THE   HEBREW  J'SALMS. 


629 


to  one  cycle  of  being,  inseparably  related.  The  views  of  the  Divine  great- 
ness and  majesty  developed  in  the  Psalms  contain  some  of  the  snblimest  of 
all  poetic  expressions,  and  add  emphasis  to  the  frequent  repudiations  and 
denunciations  of  idolatry.  Worship,  by  songs  and  music,  prayer  and  praise, 
public  and  private  worship,  is  abundantly  inculcated  ;  but  there  is  little 
stress  laid  on  sacrifices,  compared  with  the  obedience  of  the  heart  to  the 
Divine  law,  and  the  consecration  of  the  life  to  righteousness.  Sin  is  laid 
bare  in  its  inner  working  in  the  soul,  and  as  inherent  in  human  nature  by 
birth ;  but  forgiveness  of  the  true  penitent's  sin  by  Jehovah  is  asserted,  and 
the  assistance  of  God's  "  Holy  Spirit  "  is  besought  in  efforts  after  righteous- 
ness.   Evil  is  recompensed  to  the  evil-doer,  and  good  will  befall  the  righteous  : 


THE    "MOLTEN    SEA "    UPON    THE    TWELVE    OXEN    IN    SOLOMON'S    TEMPLE. 

and  both  will,  in  part,  be  handed  on  to  their  children.  The  instruction  of 
others  by  the  righteous  is  exemplified  and  encouraged,  and  in  a  few  pas- 
sages, such  as  Psalm  vii.  4,  kindness  to  enemies  is  dimly  suggested.  But 
the  imprecations  upon  wilful  transgressors  of  Jehovah's  laws  and  defiers 
of  His  greatness  are  as  severe  as  denunciations  can  be,  affording  a  counter- 
part to  the  Commination  Service  of  the  Church  of  England.  On  the  other 
hand,  little  distinct  mention  of  a  future  life  is  made.  In  some  of 
the  Psalms,  indeed,  the  state  of  man  after  death  is  spoken  of  as 
non-existence.  In  death  there  is  no  remembrance  of  God,  we  are  told,  nor 
is  there  any  access  to  Him  for  them  that  lie  down  in  silence.  Yet,  at  times, 
there  are  glimpses  of  a  happy  future  for  the  righteous  (Ps.  xvii.  15 ;  xlix. 
15 ;    and  if  the  reading  "  to,"  rather  than  "  with,"  glory  be  accepted,  in 


Future  life. 


630  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Ps.  lxxiii.  24),  and  of  a  future  judgment,  when  the  good  will  be  rewarded 
and  the  evil  punished.1 

So  much  might  be  said  on  questions  connected  with  the  Psalms, — that 
"Bible  within  the  Bible,"  as  it  has  been  called, — that  it  is  difficult  to  choose 
or  to  abstain.  But  our  main  concern  here  is  with  the  place  of  the  Psalms 
in  the  religious  history  of  Israel.  Their  matter  is  universally  known  ;  able 
criticism  upon  them  is  accessible,  though  unfortunately  at  considerable  cost, 
in  works  such  as  those  of  Perowne  and  Cheyne.  Consequently,  we  shall 
not  discuss  whether  all  the  Psalms  attributed  to  David  in  the  inscriptions 
are  by  him,  or  whether,  as  some  say,  only  eleven  entire  Psalms  and  portions 
Growth  of  of  others  are  certainly  his.  It  is  acknowledged  that  the  Psalms 
the  Psalter,  represent  the  growth  of  centuries,  extending  from  the  very  early 
90th  Psalm,  ascribed  to  Moses,  to  the  date  of  the  Maccabees,  according  to 
some ;  that  they  grew  out  of  smaller  collections,  made  at  different  times 
by  zeal  like  that  of  the  "  men  of  Hezekiah,"  who  collected  Solomon's 
Proverbs,  and  that  it  is  now  impossible  to  ascertain  when  the  inscriptions, 
which  are  not  integral  parts  of  the  Psalms,  were  added,  or  upon  what 
evidence.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  Psalms,  doubtless,  beyond  those 
of  David,  belong  to  his  age, — to  the  singers  and  poets  whom  he  gathered 
round  him.  Only  two  Psalms  are  ascribed  to  Solomon.  The  times  of 
Jehoshaphat  and  Hezekiah  witnessed  the  collection  and  arrangement  of 
many  Psalms.  Others  were  written  in  connection  with  the  Assyrian  and 
Babylonish  captivities  ;  but  the  greatest  outpouring  of  sacred  song,  after 
David's  era,  was  connected  with  and  inspired  by  the  return  from  Babylon. 
The  Psalms  known  as  Pilgrim  Songs,  or  Songs  of  the  Going-up,  belong  to 
this  period,  and  one  set  (cxiii.-cxviii.)  constituted  the  Hallel,  sung  at  the 
Passover,  Pentecost,  etc.  A  strong  national  element  marks  this  later 
psalmody,  with  less  of  the  anguish  or  exultation  of  personal  individual  ex- 
perience. Some  of  the  Psalms,  which  are  most  confidently  referred  to  the 
much  later  time  of  the  desecration  of  Jerusalem  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
are  the  44th,  74th,  and  79th. 

Altogether,  the  Psalms  consist  of  five  books;  but  how  early  this  division 

existed  cannot  be  said  :  and  each  book  consists  of  one  or  more  groups,  many 

ascribed  to  the  same  authors,  or  sets  of  authors,  being  grouped 

Books  of    together.     "  The  first  book,"  says  Dean  Perowne,  "  consists,  with 

two  or  three  exceptions,  of  Psalms  of  David  ;  the  second,  of  a 

series  of  Psalms  by  the  sons  of  Korah,  and  another  series  by  David  ;    the 

third,  of  two  minor  collections,  one  supposed  to  be  by  Asaph,  and  the  other 

by  the  sons  of  Korah.     In  the  fifth  we  have  one  group  of  Pilgrim  Songs 

and  another  group  of  '  Hallelujah  Psalms,'  each  of  them  manifestly,  in  the 

first  instance,  distinct  hymn-books  or  liturgies."      The  first  book  uses  the 

name  Jehovah  about  eighteen  times,  as  often  as  Elohim ;    in  the  next  two 

books  the  latter  name  is  chiefly  used.     From  Psalm  lxxxv.  to  the  end,  and 

especially  in  Books  IV.  and  V.,  the  name  Jehovah  is  almost  exclusively  em- 

1  ]?or  "  The  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life  as  Contained  in  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures," 
see  Geden's  Fernley  Lecture,  lbTL 


THE   BOOK   OF  PROVERBS.  631 

ployed.  There  are  indications  that  chronological  order  has  been  disturbed 
in  the  existing  arrangement ;  and  in  many  psalms,  additions,  omissions,  and 
other  alterations  were  made  after  their  composition.  Specimens  of  such 
alterations  are  found  in  psalms  which  are  partially  repeated  either  as  psalms 
or  in  some  other  Old  Testament  book.  The  inscriptions,  too,  "  are  some- 
times genuine,  and  really  represent  the  most  ancient  tradition.  At  other 
times  they  are  due  to  the  caprice  of  later  editors  and  collectors,  the  fruits  of 
conjecture,  or  of  dimmer  and  more  uncertain  traditions"  (Perowne). 

Similarly  to  the  Psalms,  the  Proverbs  ascribed  to  Solomon  are  now 
acknowledged  to  form  a  composite  work,  which  was  probably  only  put 
together  three  centuries  after  the  age  of  Solomon  (Plumptre) ;  The 
and  it  is  a  question  whether  any  of  the  actual  sayings  of  Solo-  p™™1"158- 
mon  are  preserved  in  it,  for  much  of  the  matter  scarcely  agrees  with  his 
character,  or  the  thought  of  his  age.  The  central  portion  of  the  book 
(x.-xxii.  16)  is  probably  the  earliest.  This  is  followed  by  several  appendices, 
especially  one  extending  from  xxv.  to  xxix.  The  preliminary  "  Praise  of 
Wisdom  "  shows  many  marks  of  distinct  origin  from  the  rest  of  the  book, 
but  even  Canon  Cheyne  does  not  date  it  later  than  near  the  fall  of  the  king- 
dom of  Judah. 

Perhaps  the  most  characteristic  note  of  the  main  portion  of  the  Proverbs 
is  its  utilitarianism.  The  benefits  arising  from  wise  conduct,  and  the  evils 
produced  by  the  reverse,  are  pointedly  expressed.  Jehovah  and  praise  0f 
His  service  are  extolled,  the  king  is  revered,  and  the  glory  of  a  utility, 
nation  is  said  to  be  its  righteousness.  We  have  indications  that  monogamy 
prevails,  and  that  women  are  highly  regarded,  and  good  family  government 
is  praised.  As  regards  the  hope  of  immortality,  it  is  disputed  whether  dis- 
tinct reference  is  made  to  it.  We  are  told  that  the  king's  heart  is  plastic  in 
the  hand  of  Jehovah,  and  that  the  glory  of  a  nation  consists  in  its  righteous- 
ness. But  on  the  whole,  we  cannot  say  that  the  central  portion  of  the  Book  of 
Proverbs  greatly  enlarged  or  developed  the  Jewish  religious  ideals,  although 
it  put  many  of  its  ideas  in  a  more  popular  form.  The  latest  appendix 
develops  an  ideal  of  womanhood  more  full  and  detailed,  more  noble  and 
attractive,  than  had  till  then  been  found  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures — in 
attributing  to  the  virtuous  woman  wisdom,  and  kindness,  sympathy,  and 
help  for  the  afflicted. 

The  grandest  and  most  inspiring  portion  of  the  book  is  undoubtedly 
the  preliminary  "  Praise  of  Wisdom"  (ch.  i.-ix.),  especially  part  of- chapter 
viii.  Many  divines  agree  that  the  description  of  Wisdom  here,  Tbe  Eulogy 
if  not  prophetic  of  Jesus  Christ,  is  only  applicable  in  its  full  of  wisdom. 
meaning  to  Him,  especially  when  He  is  regarded  as  identical  with  the  Crea- 
tive Word.  This  Divine  Wisdom  is  represented  as  brought  forth  and  set 
up  "  from  everlasting,"  before  any  creation  existed,  and  as  actively  present 
in  all  subsequent  creation.  Incidentally  in  this  section,  we  have  one  of 
those  pregnant  sayings  which  have  been  the  consolation  of  multitudes  under 
suffering  :  "  Whom  Jehovah  loves,  He  chastens,  even  as  a  father  the  son  in 
whom  he  delights." 


632  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

The  Book  of  Ecclesiastes,  the  Preacher  or  Debater  (Koheletli),  as  Dean 
Plumptre  says,  comes  before  us  as  the  sphinx  of  Hebrew  literature.  "  It 
has  become  almost  a  proverb,  that  every  interpreter  of  this  book 
'  thinks  that  all  previous  interpreters  have  been  wrong.  Its  very 
title  has  received  some  dozen  discordant  interpretations.  The  dates  assigned 
to  its  authorship  by  competent  experts  range  over  very  nearly  a  thousand 
3Tears,  from  b.c.  990  to  b.c.  10."  "While,  on  the  one  hand,  many  stick  firmly 
to  its  apparent  authorship  by  Solomon,  others,  led  by  Luther,  regard  it  as 
a  later  book,  the  author  of  which  dramatically  puts  himself  into  the  sup- 
posed position  of  the  wise  and  experienced  Solomon.  Luther,  in  his  "  Table 
variety  of  Talk,"  says  :  "  Solomon  did  not  write  the  Book,  '  The  Preacher,' 
opinions,  himself,  but  it  was  composed  by  Sirach  in  the  time  of  the  Macca- 
bees." Others  point  to  the  many  words  in  it  which  only  occur  in  books 
written  after  the  exile,  and  Dr.  Ginsburg  states  that,  "  We  could  as  easily 
believe  that  Chaucer  is  the  author  of  '  Rasselas,'  as  that  Solomon  wrote 
'Koheletli.'"  One  of  the  most  powerful  evidences  for  its  late  date  is, 
that  we  find  no  external  mention  of  it  before  the  Talmud,  which  speaks 
in  a  tone  of  doubt  as  to  its  authority.  Several  learned  critics  place  it  in 
the  period  of  Persian  rule  over  Judasa ;  others,  among  whom  Mr.  Tyler  is 
conspicuous,  find  in  the  book  plain  indications  of  the  influence  of  the  Stoic 
and  the  Epicurean  philosophies,  which  are  contrasted  with  one  another,  and 
alternately  adopted  or  thrown  aside.  There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the 
parallelisms  of  sentiment  between  the  Greek  systems  and  the  philosophy  of 
Koheleth,  and  Dean  Plumptre  speaks  of  the  book  as  "  saturated  with  Greek 
thought  and  language."  Mr.  Tyler  and  Dean  Plumptre  date  the  book  about 
b.c.  200  to  b.c.  180.  But  many  experienced  critics  are  still  unconvinced,  and 
regard  the  author  of  Ecclesiastes  as  a  comparatively  early  Jewish  thinker, 
whose  ideas  are  rather  the  germ  of  systematic  ethical  philosophy,  and  whose 
expressions  have  a  predominantly  Hebrew  aspect. 

Readers  do  not  need  reminding  of  the  contents  of  Ecclesiastes.  It 
does  not  reveal  new  matter  in  theology  ;  rather  it  tends  to  show  that,  apart 
from  some  Divine  explanation,  the  system  of  the  world  is  disheartening 
and  incomprehensible,  and  that  there  is  no  certainty  of  a  future  rectifica- 
tion. Dean  Plumptre  has  drawn  out  a  highly  interesting  and  suggestive 
ideal  biography  of  the  Preacher,  which  forms  a  setting  for  his  thought,  in- 
dispensable to  students.  Many  think  the  last  portion  (xii.  8-14)  was  added 
by  a  subsequent  writer  as  a  summary,  with  a  religious  precept,  "  Fear  God, 
and  keep  His  commandments  "  ;  but  it  is  by  no  means  foreign  to  Hebrew 
style,  that  the  author  should  have  also  written  the  Epilogue. 

The  Book  of  Job  is  unique  in  the  Old  Testament,  in  its  poetic  grandeur 
and  in  its  philosophy ;  and  this  is  saying  a  great  deal.  It  might  appear  that 
The  Book  of  it  should  be  easy  to  date  such  a  book  ;  but  it  is  the  most  variously 
Job-  dated  book,  perhaps,  in  the  Canon — for  some  consider  it  to  be 
pre-Mosaic,  others  that  it  was  written  by  Moses ;  many  date  it  in  Solomon's 
time,  while  another  school  refer  it  to  the  period  of  the  exile.  Even  its  style 
and   references,   precise  as    they  seem,  are    variously  viewed    by  different 


Mi  ' 


SHAPHAN   READING   THE    BOOK   OF   THE    LAW    BEFORE    KING    JOSIAH. 


633 


634  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

writers,   some   regarding  the  lack  of   reference  to  Mosaic  legislation  and 

Jewish  history  as  proving  its  very  early  date,  others  seeing  in  this  only  a 

detachment  from  ordinary  events  and  concentration  on  the  problem  that 

Diversity  of  ^s  studied.     Many  have  regarded  the  book  as  a  faithful  descrip- 

views      tion  of  actual  events  throughout,  even  as  to  the  Divine  dialogue 
about  it.         .         o,  ....  .  & 

with  batan ;  others  see  m  it  a  traditional  narrative  based  on  a 

real  case,  and  expanded  by  a  later  philosopher.  The  parallelisms  discover- 
able between  it,  the  Proverbs,  Psalms,  etc.,  have  been  said  to  be  caused  by 
the  author  of  Job  having  read  these  books,  while  the  converse  is  assumed 
by  others.  The  fact  is,  that  on  many  points  connected  with  the  Book  of 
Job,  no  positive  answer  can  be  given,  for  no  positive  proofs  are  now  attain- 
able. We  are  driven  to  the  contents  of  the  book  itself,  which  are  what  is 
really  most  important.  And  one  can  scarcely  help  admitting  that  it  marks 
its  loftiness  a  development  in  thought,  in  conception  of  the  world  and  of  its 
of  thought,  government,  of  grasp  of  evidence,  of  power  of  discussion,  of 
depth  of  insight,  as  well  as  sublimity  of  expression,  which,  taken  altogether, 
places  it  later,  regarded  as  a  product  of  the  human  mind,  than  the  writings 
we  have  hitherto  considered — excepting,  of  course,  the  later  Psalms.  This 
view  does  not,  of  course,  exclude  the  possibility  that  a  work,  which  is  later 
in  the  order  of  thought,  may  have  come  into  existence  at  an  earlier  date 
than  we  should  expect.  And,  again,  it  is  dangerous  to  infer  that  what  the 
writer  of  a  book  does  not  say  he  did  not  know. 

The  book  may  be  regarded  as  a  statement  of  the  most  painful  problems  in 
the  government  of  the  world — the  physical  and  mental  trials  of  the  righteous, 
salient  anc^  ^ie  justification  of  God's  dealing  with  good  men.  Both  Job 
problems  and  his  friends  are  introduced  as  possessed  by  the  idea  that 
prosperity  followed  the  righteous  as  adversity  overwhelmed  the  sin- 
ful ;  and  the  book  shows — to  quote  the  Rev.  S.  Cox — "  in  the  most  tragic  and 
pathetic  way,  that  good,  no  less  than  wicked,  men  lie  open  to  the  most  cruel 
losses  and  sorrows  ;  that  these  losses  and  sorrows  are  not  always  signs  of  the 
Divine  anger  against  sin  ;  that  they  are  intended  to  correct  and  perfect  the 
righteousness  of  the  righteous.  ...  Its  higher  intention  is,  to  show  that 
God  is  capable  of  inspiring,  by  showing  that  man  is  capable  of  cherishing, 
that  genuine  and  disinterested  affection  which  is  the  very  soul  of  goodness  ; 
.  .  .  and  that  man  is  capable  of  loving  right,  simply  because  it  is  right, 
and  of  hating  wrong  purely  because  it  is  wrong,  even  though  he  should  not 
gain  by  it,  but  lose."  In  this  sublime  book,  as  Canon  Cook  remarks  in  the 
"  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"  nearly  every  theory  of  the  objects  and  uses 
of  suffering  is  reviewed  ;  and  there  are  magnificent  descriptions  of  the 
mystery  and  majesty  of  God's  works,  and  vindications  of  His  ways  to  man. 
In  many  ways  the  Book  of  Job  so  far  exhausts  the  subject,  that  what  has 
really  been  added  since  to  the  argument  is  essentially  slight,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Christian  hope  in  a  future  existence  of  reward  and  redress, 
which  many  believe  to  be  explicitly  foreshadowed  in  the  Book  of  Job. 

Here  it  may  be  remarked  that  Job's  patience,  so  proverbial,  is  not  what 
it  is  popularly  represented  to  be — a  mere  quiet  endurance  under  suffering. 


THE  BOOK  OF  JOB.  635 


True,  he  endured  great  plijTsical  pain  and  discomfort  with  patience;  but 
what  could  be  the  reason  for  it  tortured  him  almost  beyond  en-  job's 
durance,  so  that  he  complained  at  times  in  very  strong  language.  Patience- 
The  doubt  as  to  God's  providence,  the  feeling  of  being  unjustly  treated  in 
comparison  with  the  wicked,  as  well  as  the  unjust  criticisms  to  which  he 
was  subjected,  worried  him  exceedingly,  and  it  was  only  by  huge  efforts 
that  he  was  able  to  control  the  unquietness  within.  His  was  a  patience 
produced  out  of  the  utmost  turbulence  of  spirit,  and  by  no  means  out  of 
quietism  or  stoicism. 

As  to  the  extent  of  belief  in  a  heaven  and  a  future  judgment  implied  in 
the  Book  of  Job,  there  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion.  In  chapter  x. 
Job  certainly  represents  the  spirit  world  as  "a  land  of  gloom,  Futurelife 
black  as  the  blackness  of  death,  where  there  is  no  order,  and  the  and 
light  is  darkness."  Later,  in  chapter  xiv.,  he  has  a  glimpse  of  a 
possible  future  existence  ;  if  he  had  the  least  assurance  of  it  he  would  gladly 
endure  pain  till  then  ;  and  in  the  memorable  verses  25-27  of  chapter  xix., 
he  rises  to  a  solemnity  of  conviction  and  expression  about  the  future  which 
is  one  of  the  prime  sentences  of  inspiration  and  comfort  to  multitudes  of 
the  human  race.  In  a  marvellous  burst  of  confidence,  after  expressing  the 
wish  that  his  words  might  be  written  down,  engraved  with  iron,  and  filled 
in  with  lead  or  rock,  Job  says :  "  I  know  that  my  God  or  Redeemer  (or  vin- 
dicator) liveth,  and  He  shall  stand,  at  last,  over  this  dust  (or  upon  the  earth), 
and  after  my  body  hath  thus  been  destroyed,  yet  (free)  from  my  flesh  I  shall 
see  God  ;  whom  I  shall  see  on  my  side,  and  mine  own  eyes  shall  behold,  not 
those  of  another."  Notwithstanding  all  the  doubts  he  had  expressed,  he 
was  at  bottom  convinced  of  the  justice  and  goodness  of  God,  and  there- 
fore, failing  a  present  vindication,  he  had  a  vision  of  a  future  vindication  by 
God  Himself.  So  far  there  is  widespread  agreement  as  to  the  interpretation 
of  this  remarkable  passage  ;  but  beyond  this  there  are  diversities  of  opinion 
as  to  its  reference  to  a  bodily  resurrection  upon  this  earth,  as  to  its  specific 
prophetic  reference  to  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  certaint}'  of  retribution  in  a 
future  life,  on  which  general  agreement  can  by  no  means  be  attained.  It 
is  remarkable  that  after  such  a  declaration  Job  should  be  represented  as 
again  falling  into  deep  despondency  ;  but  it  is  claimed  that  he  never  again 
despairs  so  greatly,  and  that  his  moods  are  due  to  the  natural  alterations 
caused  by  his  physical  state. 

Job  is  depicted  as  having  had  a  personal  character  unsurpassed  in  the 
Old  Testament;  and  in  many  ways  his  conduct  is  that  of  an  eminent  type 
or  foreshadowing  of  Christ.  Elihu  contributes  to  the  argument  Job  and 
.the  view  that  suffering  may  be  corrective  and  for  improvement,  Eimu- 
as  well  as  punitive;  yet  he  charges  Job  with  secret  faults  which  his  sufferings 
were  to  induce  him  to  correct.  He  also  supplies,  in  chapter  xxxiii.,  a  very 
clear  view  of  the  ways  in  which,  in  his  time,  God  was  believed  to  communi- 
cate with  and  instruct  man.  And  he,  equally  with  Job,  believes  that  God 
cannot  be  unjust.  The  great  question  to  be  solved  was,  Should  man  impose 
his  law  upon  God,  or  God  His  upon  man  ?     Yet  in  any  case  he  shows  that 


636 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


it  is  best  in  many  ways  for  men  to  be  righteous ;  but  a  man  ought  rather  to 
suspect  himself  of  sin  than  God  of  injustice.  Numerous  critics  consider 
there  are  signs  indicating  that  the  speeches  of  Elihu  are  a  later  addition 
to  the  book,  especially  because  Of  the  peculiar  words  it  contains,  and  because 
there  is  no  reference  to  Elihu  in  later  parts  of  the  book,  and  especially  in 
the  Divine  judgment. 

The  speech  put  in  the  mouth  of  Jehovah — the  Theophany  as  it  is 
generally  called — is  inexpressibly  grand  ;  yet  it  is  generally  felt  that  it  is 
The  not  convincing  or  fully  explanatory  of  God's  dealings  with  man. 
Theopbany.  Many  consider  that  this  is  because  no  full  explanation  is  possible 
in  man's  present  state,  and  because  it  is  of  the  essence  of  man's  training 
that  a  fathomless  mystery  shall  be  involved  in  and  be  behind  his  life,  com- 
pelling his  attention  to  the  possibilities  of  a  future  one.  Job,  however,  is 
satisfied  with  the  Divine  revelation,  perhaps  because  he  has  now  attained 
what  he  had  so  greatly  longed  for — actual  communion  with,  and  speech 
from,  his  Maker.  Or,  we  may  take  it  that  the  lesson  taught  was  to  study 
God  in  Nature — a  lesson  which  is  being  so  well  learnt  in  these  latter  clays — 
and  not  to  dwell  on  his  own  personal  woes,  but  rather  to  contemplate  the 
broad  field  of  existence.  We  cannot  here  discuss  the  questions  raised  by 
many  as  to  the  Theophany,  the  prologue  and  the  epilogue,  being  the  work 
of  different  writers  from  the  body  of  the  book.  In  conclusion,  we  must 
strongly  urge  those  who  wish  to  gain  a  true  idea  of  the  full  meaning  of 
the  Book  of  Job,  to  read  it  in  the  Revised  Version,  and,  if  possible,  in 
some  commentary  like  those  of  Dean  Bradley  and  the  Rev.  S.  Cox. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
€l)e  propjbetas  of  Brad. 

Kuenen's  views— Greatness  of  the  prophets— The  early  seers— Elijah— Elisha— Amos,  Hosea,  and  Joel 
—Their  conception  of  Jehovah's  nature— Vision  of  the  ingathering  of  nations —Isaiah :  two 
authors— Main  topics  of  first  portion— "  Immanuel "  predictions —Isaiah  and  Jewish  history— 
His  grand  predictions— The  second  Isaiah  or  great  unknown — Later  date  —Prediction  of  returu 
from  exile— The  "  Servant  of  the  Lord  "—Cyrus— Description  of  the  "  Servant  "—His  humiliation 
and  death— Vicarious  suffering— The  future  glory  of  Zion— Other  teachings  of  the  prophet— 
Micah— Jeremiah— Ezekiel— Daniel— Predictions  as  to  empires  of  the  world— Prediction  of 
Resurrection— Zechariah— Messianic  prophecies— Haggai— Malachi. 

IN  briefly  discussing  the  prophets  of  Israel,  we  may  quote  from  Dr.  Muir's 
Summary  of  Kuenen's  argument  (Introduction  to  Kuenen's  "  Prophets 
and  Prophecy  in  Israel  "),  as  showing  what  those  who  grant  least  Kuenen's 
to  them  say  of  their  work.  "  In  estimating  their  action,  we  must  views, 
take  a  higher  standpoint  than  the  national  one,  and  regard  their  contribu- 
tion to  the  spiritual  development  of  our  race  as  its  most  important  result. 
Ethical  monotheism  is  their  creation.  They  have  themselves  ascended  to 
the  belief  in  one  only  holy  and  righteous  God,  who  realises  His  will  or 
moral  good  in  the  world,  and  they  have,  by  preaching  and  writing,  made 
that  belief  the  inalienable  property  of  humanity.  It  was  not  an  intellectual 
or  philosophical  system,  but  a  religious  belief,  which  they  presented.  The 
God  of  the  prophets  bore  a  very  different  character  from  that  of  the  Deity 
of  the  philosophers  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Holiness,  righteousness,  and 
mercy  constituted  the  very  nature  of  the  former." 

We  have  already  spoken  of  Samuel  and  David ;  now  we  come  to  Elijah 
as  the  next  name  of  high  importance.  In  the  prophets  of  Israel  we  witness 
in  culmination  a  form  of  Divine  teaching  which  has  been  by  no  Greatness  of 
means  scantily  displayed  in  our  previous  narrative.  In  other  rot*J,etg 
forms  of  religion  we  have  seen  reason  to  believe  that  no  small 
amount  of  error,  no  small  amount  of  imposture,  was  mixed  in  their  religious 
teachers  with  genuine  belief  in  their  mission,  and  genuine  services  which 
they  rendered  to  their  fellow-tribesmen  in  their  advance  in  civilisation. 
The  prophets  of  Israel  as  a  whole  (though  with  many  imperfect  members) 
rendered  services  and  gave  teaching  which  place  them  in  the  highest  rank 
among  religious  teachers.  They  were  the  seers  who,  if  any  persons  did, 
received  messages  from  the  Divine  ;  they  were  pioneers  of  progress,  radical 
reformers,  yet  in  a  conservative  fashion,  for  they  sought  to  conserve  the 
nation  by  maintaining  the  national  worship  of  Jehovah,  and  deepening  and 
strengthening  it.  Of  their  organisation  we  know  little.  They  formed 
schools  or  groups  ;  but  how  a  man  was  admitted  to  be  a  prophet  we  do  not 

687 


638  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

know.  Probably  his  inspiration  was  either  self-evident,  or  was  claimed  by 
himself,  and  readily  admitted.  But  there  is  evidence  in  a  remarkable  passage 
The  early  XVL  1  Samuel  ix.  that  the  new  order  of  prophets  developed  out  of 
seers.  ^q  older  soothsayers  or  seers,  honoured  and  consulted  on  account 
of  their  knowledge  of  hidden  things.  By  the  time  of  Elijah  they  had  in- 
creased to  a  large  number  ;  they  were  known  as  the  opponents  of  the  calf- 
worship  and  other  forms  of  idolatry  that  had  been  introduced  into  Israel, 
and  the  establishment  of  centres  of  worship  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  in  rivalry 
to  Jerusalem.  At  Bethel,  a  new  sanctuary,  a  rival  to  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem, had  been  erected,  which,  during  the  persistence  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  continued  to  be  its  great  place  of  worship.  "We  have  remarkable 
accounts  of  the  denunciations  by  prophets  of  the  new  order  of  things,  and 
predictions  of  the  future  destruction  and  desecration  of  the  new  altars.  It 
must  be  noted,  however,  that  some  critics  consider  these  narratives  were 
written  after  the  fulfilments  they  describe.  When  Ahab,  however,  departed 
from  even  the  calf-worship  in  which  Jehovah  had  been  symbolised,  and  in- 
troduced the  gods  of  his  wife  Jezebel's  native  kingdom  of  Sidon, 

Elijah  .  .  . 

with  many  impure  and  licentious  rites,  the  Gileadite  Elijah  sud- 
denly appeared  before  the  king  and  denounced  God's  vengeance  upon  him, 
and  predicted  a  prolonged  drought.  At  some  time  undefined,  Jezebel  had 
ordered  the  complete  destruction  of  the  prophets  of  Jehovah ;  and  it  was 
against  such  a  persecution  that  Elijah  had  to  make  headway,  and  finally 
triumphed.  The  miracles  related  in  regard  to  Elijah's  preservation  are  em- 
phatic testimonies  to  his  greatness  and  to  the  belief  of  a  later  age  ;  and  the 
supreme  scene  on  Carmel  is  one  of  the  most  marvellous  and  impressive  in 
Biblical  records.  Like  Moses,  Elijah  was  privileged  to  obtain  a  nearer  sight 
of  the  Divine  glory  and  power  than  other  mortals  ;  and  to  the  account  of  this 
we  are  indebted  for  a  phrase  which  has  become  proverbial  for  the  inward 
voice  of  conscience.  But  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  dilate  on  so  well-known 
a -story,  especially  as  no  new  truths  appear  to  have  been  revealed  by  Elijah. 
The  impression  he  made  upon  his  countrymen  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
centuries  afterwards  it  was  expected  that  the  calamities  of  the  country 
were  only  to  be  remedied  by  his  reappearance.  He  was  a  hero-combatant 
for  the  truth  against  kings  and  false  priests — a  witness  of  the  first  rank  for 
the  Invisible  and  for  the  purity  of  worship.  That  miracles  were  ascribed 
to  him  is  a  matter  of  course,  whether  on  the  one  hand  we  believe  that  such 
events,  in  fact,  took  place  as  part  of  the  Divine  dispensation,  or  whether, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  regard  it  as  the  inveterate  habit  of  mankind  to 
ascribe  supernatural  deeds  to  those  whom  they  stamp  as  supremely  great. 

Elisha,  his  successor,  is  an  example,  in  some  marked  instances,  of  re- 
ligious tolerance,  in  his  intercourse  with  foreign  kings,  and  especially  in  the 
permission  he  gave  to  Naaman  to  continue  his  attendance  in  the 
temple  of  Rimmon.  But  he  chiefly  appears  as  "  a  worker  of 
prodigies,  a  predicter  of  future  events,  a  revealer  of  secrets  and  things  hap- 
pening out  of  sight,  or  at  a  distance."  ("  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.")  Thus 
we  see  in  him,  to  some  extent,  a  reversion  to  the  type  of  diviner,  soothsayer, 


THE   PROPHETS  OF  ISRAEL.  639 

and  seer.  "  It  is  difficult  to  lielp  believing"  (according  to  the  same  author- 
ity), "  that  the  anecdotes  of  his  life  were  thrown  into  their  present  shape  at 
a  later  period."  And  this,  too,  accounts,  no  doubt,  for  some  of  the  marvels 
related  of  him. 

In  entire  consistency  with  the  work  of  Elijah  in  denouncing  Baal- 
worship,  but  extending  his  denunciations  to  every  form  of  departure  or 
derogation  from  pure  worship  of  Jehovah,  we  come  to  the  cycle  Amos,  Hosea, 
of  prophets  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  and  in  the  eighth  centuries  and  Joel- 
B.C.,  Amos,  Hosea,  and  Joel.  Their  testimony  is  expressly  important,  that, 
together  with  noisy  feasts,  festivals,  and  sacrifices  to  Jehovah,  there  'co- 
existed much  image  calf-worship  in  His  name,  as  well  as  Baal  and  Ashera 
worship,  with  licentious  rites,  and  witchcraft  and  soothsaying  abounded. 
Against  these  evils  they  protested  mightily,  as  their  books  show,  meeting 
with  great  opposition  because  they  predicted  the  downfall  of  Israel  unless 
these  things  were  amended.  Their  conception  of  the  character  Their  con- 
of  Jehovah  is  most  lofty.  He  is  the  one  God,  pure  and  holy,  Jehovah's 
desiring  spiritual  worship,  and  the  practice  of  mercy  and  right-  nature, 
eousness  by  His  servants.  Festivals  and  assemblies  are  denounced.  "  I 
desire  mercy,  and  not  sacrifices,"  is  the  keynote  of  their  teaching.  "  In- 
temperance and  luxury,  oppression  of  the  poor,  of  widows  and  orphans, 
unjust  appropriation  of  another's  goods,  dishonesty  in  trade,  the  sordid 
pursuit  of  gain,  harshness  towards  debtors — these  are  some  of  the  sins  which 
the  prophets  combat  zealously."  But  although  judgments  and  calamities 
are  announced,  hope  is  given  of  a  glorious  future.  The  language  of  Hosea 
is  quoted  by  St.  Paul  as  describing  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles ;  he  speaks 
of  a  time  when  Israel  shall  be  betrothed  to  God  for  ever.  In  one  passage 
there  is  a  promise  of  ransom  from  the  power  of  the  grave. 

Joel  was  a  prophet  of  Juclah  as  Hosea  was  of  Israel.  In  view  of  a  ter- 
rible series  of  calamities  then  occurring  or  impending,  he  exhorted  the 
people  to  repent  and  return  to  Jehovah,  when  an  era  of  prosperity  would 
again  dawn  ;  after  which  God  would  extend  the  blessings  of  His  Vision  of  tne 
religion  to  all  lands,  A  glowing  vision  is  depicted  of  a  future  ingathering 
time,  when  the  "  Spirit'  of  the  Lord  "  should  be  poured  out,  at- 
tended by  great  wonders  and  a  gathering  of  all  nations.  Many  expressions 
of  this  prophet  are  interpreted  of  the  outpouring  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost, 
and  of  numerous  events  in  Christian  history.  Amos,  after  all  his  denuncia- 
tions, concludes  with  a  prediction  of  the  future  restoration  of  Israel  to  power 
and  greatness  after  calamity. 

It  is  now  so  generally  agreed  that  the  prophetic  book  entitled  "  Isaiah  " 
is  composed  of  two  portions  at  least,  written  by  different  authors  (i.  to 
xxxix.,  xl.  to  lxvi.),  that  we  shall  only  briefly  note  the  points  isaiah:  two 
which  are  regarded  as  deciding  this.  Isaiah  wrote  at  Jerusalem,  au^ors. 
and  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah ;  while  the  second 
writer,  plainly  and  throughout,  belongs  to  the  period  of  the  exile.  The 
Babylonian  captivity  is  presupposed  as  having  already  lasted  a  long  time. 
The  work  is  written  to  comfort  the  exiles.     In  it  Jerusalem  is  depicted  in 


640 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


ruins,  Judaea  is  ravaged  and  depopulated,  and  the  nation  is  captive.  Cyrus 
is  spoken  of  as  the  destined  deliverer  of  the  people,  and  as  a  contemporary. 
Although  there  are  undoubted  resemblances  between  the  two  writers,  it  is 


claimed  that  this  only  shows  that  the  later  writer  had  assimilated  the  spirit 
of  the  former ;  while  there  are  certain  strong  divergences  of  style.  But  yet 
there  are  serious  difficulties  in  explaining  why  the  later  book  was  incor- 
porated with  the  earlier,  and  why  there  is  no  mention  of  its  author's  name. 


THE   PROPHETS   OF  ISRAEL.  641 

The  Book  of  Isaiah  proper,  containing  discourses  or  narratives  of  diverse 
dates,  is  not  arranged  chronologically,  and  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
arranged  by  the  author.     Many  critics  believe  that  several  por-  Maln  topics 
tions  were  written  by  a  different  hand.     The  main  topic  of  Isaiah      of  first 
is  denunciation  of  wickedness,  both  in  Judah  and  in  other  nations, 
and  the  punishments  which  will  follow.    Many  passages  describe  the  idolatry 
and  the  image-worship  of  his  time,  and  the  excess  of  offerings  and  feasts 
to  Jehovah,  compared  with  the  lack  of  justice  and  mercy.     He  pictures  a 
high  ideal  of  a  righteous  character,  scorning  bribes  and  abhorring  bloodshed, 
speaking  truth,  and  doing  justly.     He  has  a  special  dislike  to  the  lofty  and 
proud,  all  of  whom,  he  says,  shall  be  brought  low.     He  definitely  predicted 
the  captivity  in  Babylon  to  Hezekiah. 

In  Isaiah's  view,  "A  marvel  or  miracle,"  says  Professor  Robertson 
Smith,1  "is  a  work  of  Jehovah  directed  to  confound  the  religion  of  formal- 
ism, to  teach  men  that  Jehovah's  rule  is  a  real  thing,  and  not  a  traditional 
convention  to  be  acknowledged  in  formulas  learned  by  rote  ;  and  the  mark 
of  such  a  work  is  not  that  it  breaks  through  laws  of  nature — a  conception 
which  had  no  existence  for  Isaiah — but  that  all  man's  wisdom  and  foresight 
stand  abashed  before  it.  The  whole  career  of  Assyria  is  part  of  the  marvel 
that  confounds  the  Irypocris}^  and  formalism  of  Judah."    (See  Isa.  xxix.  13, 14.) 

One  of  Isaiah's  favourite  phrases  is  "  the  Holy  One  of  Israel,"  and  his 
conception  of  God  predominantly  sets  forth  His  majesty  and  holiness.  Very 
grand  is-  his  view  of  the  universal  worship  of  Jehovah  "  at  the  end  of  the 
days,"  with  its  accompaniment  of  universal  peace  (ii.  2-4) ;  but  he  rises  still 
higher  in  the  "  Immanuel "  predictions,  in  chapters  vii.  and  ix..<Immanuel.- 
Often  held  to  be  a  clear  prediction  of  the  birth  of  Christ  of  a  predictions, 
virgin,  scholars  point  out  that  the  word  used  in  vii.  14  is  not  the  ordinary 
Hebrew  word  for  virgin,  and  is  not  exclusively  applicable  to  one  who  was 
unmarried  ;  the  Revised  Version  offers  in  the  margin  the  alternative  render- 
ing "  maiden."  Professor  Driver  remarks,  in  his  valuable  "  Isaiah  :  his  Life 
and  Times,"  "  The  language  of  Isaiah  forces  upon  us  the  conviction  that  the 
figure  of  Immanuel  is  an  ideal  one,  projected  by  him  upon  the  shifting 
future— upon  the  nearer  future  in  chapter  vii.,  upon  the  remoter  future  in 
chapter  ix^,  but  grasped  by  the  prophet  as  a  living  and  real  personality,  the 
Guardian  of  his  country  now,  its  Deliverer  and  Governor  hereafter.  .  .  . 
It  is  the  Messianic  King,  whose  portrait  is  here,  for  the  first  time  in  the  Old 
Testament,  sketched  distinctly.  Earlier  prophets  or  psalmists  had  told  of 
the  promises  bestowed  upon  David,  and  had  spoken  of  the  permanence  thus 
assured  to  David's  line,  but  by  Isaiah  these  comparatively  vague  hopes  are 
more  closely  defined,  being  centred  upon  a  concrete  personality,  to  whose 
character  we  shall  find  fresh  traits  added  more  than  thirty  years  afterwards 
in  chapter  xi." 

We  cannot  detail  the  successive  prophecies  and  warnings  of  Isaiah  as 
relating  to  the  history  of  Israel ;  but  all  through  his  public  life  he  exhibited 
in  perfection  that  admirable  character  of  the  true  statesman  given  four 
1  Robertson  Smith,  "  Prcpliets  of  Israel,"  p.  315. 

T    T 


642  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

centuries  later  by  Demosthenes,  in  his  oration  "  On  the  Crown,"  that  of 

Isaiah  and   "discerning  events  in  their  beginnings,  being  beforehand  in  the 

Jewish     selection  of   movements- and   tendencies,    and   forewarning   his 

countrymen  accordingly  ;  fighting  against  the  political  vices  of 

procrastination,  supineness,  ignorance,  and  party  jealousy ;  and  impressing 

on  all  the  paramount   importance   of  unity,   and  the   duty  of  providing 

promptly  for  their  country's  needs."     His  predictions  were  by  no  means 

always  realised  ;  and  many  of  them,  while  not  receiving  the  contemporary 

fulfilment  he  expected,  have   been  but  partially  fulfilled  in  the  Messianic 

kingdom,  or  still  wait  their  realisation.     Speaking  in  a  religious   sense,  it 

may  be  said  that  the  ideals  he  described,  the  glowing  and  pure  visions 

His  grand    which  he  projected  upon  the  future,  are  more  important  than  the 

predictions,  literal  fulfilments  of  them  which  have  yet  been  seen,  and  which 

have   differed   very  materially  from  what   he  appears  to   have  expected. 

Isaiah's  descriptions  of  the  majesty  and  holiness  of  the  Divine  Being,  the 

certainty  of  His  pure  and  just  judgments,  the  imperishableness  of  the  Divine 

kingdom  of  Zion,  the  exquisite  consummation  of  the  Messianic  kingdom, 

remain  among  the  very  greatest  treasures  of  the  religious  soul  of  mankind. 

The  ingathering  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  Divine   kingdom  is  predicted  in 

very  detailed  language.     The  literary  characteristics  of  Isaiah  are  so  well 

known  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  on  them  ;  by  common  consent,  Isaiah 

reaches  the  front  rank  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Although  not  in  chronological  sequence,  it  is  convenient  to  deal  here 
with  the  great  unknown  who  wrote  the  latter  part  of  the  Book  of  Isaiah,  in 
The  second  the  period  of  the  Babylonish  exile  of  the  Jews,  in  the  sixth  cen- 
"  Great      tury  B.C.,  when,  as  the  prophet  writes,  Jerusalem  and  the  temple 
unknown."  were  in  ruins,  the  Babylonian  empire  was  apparently  secure,  and 
the  exiles  were  in  despair  or  indifferent,  thinking  God  had  forgotten  them. 
This  period,  like  other  critical  seasons,  produced  its  great  genius,  able  to 
l  t    d  t     rouse  h^  people  to  their  mission,  to  raise  among  them  a  high 
ideal,  and  to  present  pictures  of  a  future  which  would  more  than 
compensate  for  the  miseries  of  the  past.     The  period  within  which  those 
prophecies  may  most  reasonably  be  believed  to  have  been  written  is  549-538 
b.c,  during  which  Cyrus  was  growing  in  success  and  fame.    Comfort  is  pro- 
Prediction   claimed  for  the  people  of  Jehovah,  and  God's  glory  and  power  in 
of  return    laying  low  human  pride  are  set  forth.      Israel's  oppressors  are 
mortal ;  Jehovah  will  return  to  Zion  as  a  Conqueror,  bringing 
back  His  people.     A  magnificent  description  of  the  power  of  Jehovah  is 
forcibly  contrasted  with  the  impotence  of  the  gods  and  idols  of  the  heathen. 
Even  Cyrus's  career  of  conquest  was  ordered  and  controlled  by  Jehovah. 

In  chapter  xlii.  a  new  figure  is  introduced,  destined  to  be  the  most 

striking  in  the  book,  the  "  Servant  of  Jehovah,"  an  ideal  personage  invested 

The       with  the  grandest  characteristics  of  the  Israelites,  and  with  others 

"Servant  of  in  addition,  and  destined  to  exert  a  world-wide  influence.     He  is 
the  Lord.  .         ' 

to  teach  the  world  true  religion,  and  to  effectually  restore  Israel. 

Here  we  find  a  full  prevision  of  the  ingathering  of  the  non-Israelite  world 


THE  PROPHETS   OF  ISRAEL.  fM3 


into  the  true  worship  of  Jehovah.  Later  we  see  that  the  "  Servant  "  lives 
by  no  means  wholly  in  the  future,  for  it  is  said,  "  Who  is  blind,  but  my  ser- 
vant? or  deaf,  as  my  messenger  that  I  send?"  evidently  referring  to  the 
Israelites'  supineness  at  the  time.  One  of  the  most  interesting  passages  to 
students  of  early  customs  is  the  first  half  of  the  forty-fourth  chapter,  de- 
scribing in  a  satirical  spirit  the  laborious  stages  of  the  manufacture  of  idols. 
But  Israel  is  pardoned,  and  Cyrus  is  commissioned  to  permit  the 
restoration  of  the  people  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  known  throughout  the  world  that  Jehovah  is  the  true 
and  only  God.  "  Unto  Me  every  knee  shall  bow,  every  tongue  shall  swear." 
Throughout  Cyrus  is  regarded  favourably,  and  the  coming  humiliation  of 
Babylon  and  her  idols  is  predicted  and  rejoiced  in.  Incidentally  we  learn 
much  about  contemporary  Babylonish  customs. 

In  the  second  division  of  the  prophecy  (chaps,  xlix.-lvii.),  Baljylon, 
Cjtus,  and  contemporary  history  fall  into  the  background,  and  the  character 
of  "  the  Servant  of  the  Lord  "  is  more  fully  developed.     Far-off  Description 
nations  are  invited  to  listen,  and  a  careful  delineation  is  given  of      of  the 

"  Servant " 

the  great  Ideal  Servant,  "  Israel,  in  whom  I  will  be  glorified." 
The  "  Servant "  describes  himself  at  first  in  the  first  person,  and.  later  he 
is  depicted  in  the  third  person.  He  is  to  be  "  a  light  to  the  Gentiles,"  as 
well  as  the  restorer  of  Israel.  He  describes  himself  as  the  prophet,  teaching 
what  he  is  taught,  capable  of  sustaining  the  weary  with  his  words,  receiv- 
ing daily  fresh  inspiration,  and  shrinking  from  no  humiliation.  "  I  gave 
my  back  to  the  smiters,  and  my  cheeks  to  them  that  plucked  off  the  hair 
I  hid  not  my  face  from  shame  and  spitting." 

Zion  is  called  upon  to  awake,  and  put  on  splendid  apparel :  the  waste 
places  of  Jerusalem  are  to  rejoice  ;  a  happy  and  comfortable  return  journey 
shall  be  made.    Then,  in  lii.  13  to  liii.  12,  we  have  the  exquisitely        ma 

pathetic  picture  of  the  Ideal  Servant's  humiliation,  his  lack  of  humiliation 

.      and  death, 
outward  beauty  and  general  recognition,  his  suffering  for  Israel's 

sins,  his  calm  and  humble  demeanour  before  his  accusers,  his  death  as  a 
malefactor.  u  But  out  of  death  will  spring  a  new  life :  after  his  soul  has 
been  made  a  guilt-offering,  he  will  live  again,  enjoy  long  life,  and  be  re- 
warded with  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  God's  work,  or  '  pleasure,'  prospering 
in  his  hand.  Possessed  of  an  intimate  '  knowledge  '  of  the  dealings  and 
purposes  of  Jehovah,  he  will  '  justify  the  many  '  (viz.,  by  a  method  or 
principle  based  upon  this  knowledge) ;  whilst  his  final  reward  for  having 
submitted  to  the  death  of  a  transgressor  will  be  that  lie  will  be  reckoned  as 
a  conqueror,  and  honoured  amongst  the  great  ones  of  the  earth  "  (Driver). 
Nothing  is  more  clear  than  that  vicarious  suffering,  the  suffering  vicarious 
of  the  "  Servant "  for  the  people,  is  here  set  forth.  "  The  central  suffering, 
point,"  says  Orelli,  "  is  the  realising  of  ideas  foreshadowed  in  the  sacrificial 
ritual.  There  certainly  substitution  is  a  common  idea  ;  there  the  guiltless 
lamb  suffers  for  the  sinner's  good ;  there  a  penitential  or  compensatory 
offering  must  be  given  to  God  for  transgressions.  To  that  which  these 
customs   and   ordinances   typically    and   unconsciously   foreshadowed,    this 


644  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

prophecy  gives  a  conscious  reference  to  something  future,  at  the  same  time 
severing  those  great  Divine  ideas  from  the  inadequate  embodiment  of  the 
Levitical  ritual,  and  holding  forth  the  prospect  of  their  adequate  expression 
in  a  higher  sphere."  This  "  Servant  "  cannot  exclusively  represent  either 
Israel  as  a  whole  or  in  part,  or  any  prophet ;  yet  in  some  ways  all  of  these 
may  be  found  related  to  the  conception.  It  was  not  an  abstract  conception, 
but  a  concrete  living  figure,  more  perfect  than  any  man  ever  had  been,  that 
stood  before  the  prophet's  vision  ;  and  the  vast  majority  of  students,  as  well 
as  of  the  unlearned,  wrho  take  plain  and  not  fanciful  or  preconceived  views, 
hold  that  the  "Servant  of  Jehovah  "  can  only  be  referred  to  and  find  fulfil- 
ment in  one  great  subsequent  figure,  the  Founder  of  Christianity.  How- 
ever considerably  such  words  as  those  of  chapter  lv.  may  be  referred  directly 
to  the  return  of  the  Jewrs  from  exile,  it  passes  the  bounds  of  reason  or  com- 
pulsion to  induce  Christians  to  reject  the  application  of  the  everlasting 
covenant  and  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  to  their  religion,  developed  out  of 
Judaism. 

When  we  enter  upon  the  third  division  of  the  prophecy,  we  yet  again 
find  an  enlargement  of  view.      The  vision  of  Zion  grows  more  and  more 

detailed,  more  beautiful,  more  glorious.  In  chapter  lx.  an  un- 
glory  of  surpassed  picture  of  the  future  glory  is  drawn,  when  Jehovah 
Zlon"  should  reign  in  utter  splendour,  the  people  all  righteous ;  a  day 
not  yet  come,  but  a  picture  which  inspires  the  efforts  and  the  hopes  of  mil- 
lions at  this  clay,  as  connected  with,  and  to  be  perfectly  fulfilled  by,  the 
labours  of  the  "  Servant  of  the  Lord,"  as  expressed  in  chapter  lxi.  "There 
will  be  new  heavens  and  a  new  earth,"  they  read;  a  transformed  life,  without 
vain  strife,  bitter  disappointments,  or  carking  care,  shall  then  be  lived.  The 
continual  competition  of  the  struggle  for  existence  will  be  over  then,  and 
however  good  its  results  may  have  bean,  few  out  of  the  earth's  millions  fail 
to  catch  some  of  the  prophet's  exultation  in  reading  the  prophecy  of  uni- 
versal peace  and  happiness.     In  the  midst  of  his  discourses,  and  repeatedly, 

the  prophet  lays  stress  on  Sabbath  observance  and  obedience  to  the 

ings  of     laws  about  food  ;  and  the  book  closes  with  a  severe  denunciation 

the  prophet.  ^  tho5e  ^q  ^q  refuse(j  to  j0in  in  Jehovah's  worship.     "  They 

(the  worshippers)  shall  go  forth  to  see  the  corpses  of  the  people  who  fell 
away  from  me  :  for  their  worm  shall  not  die,  and  their  flame  shall  not  be 
qusnched  ;  and  they  shall  be  a  horror  to  all  flesh :  "  a  picture  which,  read 
as  that  of  a  hell  of  torment,  has  had  very  great  influence.  So  many  are  the 
points  of  original  theology,  as  Well  as  of  history,  that  may  be  drawn  from 
this  great  book,  that  we  cannot  do  more  than  refer  to  such  books  as  those 
of  Driver,  Orelli,  and  Cheyne,  and  others,  for  their  fuller  treatment. 

At  the  same  time  as  Isaiah,  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  Micah,  a  plain 

countryman,  added  to  his  warnings  and  prophecies  of  destruction  the  vivid 

pictures  which  remain  in  his  book,  revealing  to  us,  as  a  man  of 

the  common  people  himself,  the  sufferings  of  the  peasantry  at  the 

hands  of  their  oppressors,  men  of  their  own  nation,   and  predicting   the 

destruction  of  the  government  and  the  nobles.     A  new  Davidic  king  was  to 


THE  PROPHETS   OF  ISRAEL. 


645 


reign  over  a  future  purified  Zion,  in  which  all  nations  should  worship,  and 
universal  peace  should  ensue.  He  would  be  born  in  Bethlehem  Ephratah, 
the  home  of  David,  and  put  down  all  iniquity  and  idolatry. 

Only  brief  mention  must  be  made  of  Jeremiah,  the  prophet  of  the  later 
da}rs  of  the  Jewish  monarchy,  because,  while  he  denounced  sin,  predicted 


events,  and  endured  bitter  persecutions,  he  contributed  little  in  comparison 

with  Isaiah  to  the  development   of   the   intellectual  features  of   . 

the  Jewish  religion.     He  affirmed  in  a  few  places  the  Davidic 

kingly  ideal,  who  is  to  bear  the  name  Jehovah  our  Righteousness,  and  the 

introduction  of  a  new  spiritual  covenant,  when  Jehovah's  law  should  be 

written  in  the  hearts  of  the  people.     We  cannot  here  discuss  his  possible 

relation  to  the  Torah  (or  Book  of  Deuteronomy?),  which  Hilkiah,  possibly 


646  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


his  father,  discovered  and  brought  out  to  Josiah.     His  influence  on  his  time, 
and  his  importance  in  the  history  of  his  time,  were  very  great,  and  his 
character  was  profoundly  worthy  of  study. 

Ezekiel,  the  prophet  of  the  early  days  of  the  captivity  (early  in  the  sixth 
century  B.C.),  was  a  yet  more   powerful  influence,  in   rousing   and   keep- 
ing alive  the  national  and  religious  feelings  of  the  captives,  in 
Ezekiel.  .      .  .  .  .  . 

predicting  events  concerning  Israel  and  surrounding  nations  with 

singular  vividness  and  truth,  and  by  reason  of  his  visions  of  a  restored  king- 
dom of  Israel,  and  a  Divine  future.  Ezekiel's  marvellous  opening  vision, 
in  which  he  received  his  prophetic  -call,  includes  a  grand  description  of  a 
Divine  majesty  and  court,  which  had  great  effect  upon  the  imagery  of  the 
New  Testament  Apocalypse.  In  his  later  prophecies  he  again  and  again 
speaks  in  language  of  gorgeous  but  mysterious  imagery,  in  describing  the 
Divine  glory  and  wonderful  works.  The  Davidic  king  of  the  restored  people, 
and  the  happy  state  of  the  future  Jews  who  serve  God,  are  gloriously  de- 
picted; and  a  complete  description  of  a  new  temple,  differing  in  many  details 
from  the  old,  is  given,  with  many  features  of  a  newly  organised  State 
and  ritual.  The  ark  and  the  high-priest  are  not  mentioned ;  prominence  is 
specially  given  to  the  morning  burnt-offering ;  and  the  Passover  and  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  are  the  only  great  feasts  mentioned.  No  prophet 
more  vigorously  expressed  the  sense  of  sin  and  denunciation  of  sin  than 
Ezekiel. 

O.i  the  Book  of  Daniel  it  is  necessary  to  be  brief,  because  of  the  wide 

diversities  of  opinion  about  the  book,  and  the  very  unsettled  state  of  the 

controversies  to  which  it  has  given  rise.     "Whether  it  was  written 

Dctnicl 

at  the  date  which  it  professes  to  describe,  and  was  edited  or  added 
to  later,  or  was  written  at  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  or  later,  it  is 
difficult  to  decide  with  certainty.  It  shows  a  more  or  less  accurate  know- 
ledge of  Babylonia,  probably  some  influence  of  Persia  and  Zoroastrianism, 
and  certainly  an  acquaintance  with  "Greek  names  of  musical  instruments. 
Predictions  The  look  includes,  besides  its  historical  narratives,  remarkable 
empires  of  predictions  and  visions  as  to  the  empires  of  the  world,  which  to 
the  world.  a  considerable  extent  were  realised.  Under  the  image  of  the 
"  Ancient  of  Days,"  in  Eastern  poetry  used  of  an  old  man,  a  Divine  Judge 
and  Ruler  is  portrayed  reigning  in  unequalled  majesty  for  ever ;  and  there 
is  a  special  prophecy  of  the  coming  of  the  Prince  Messiah  in  seventy  weeks 
(usually  interpreted  as  490,  or  70  x  7  years),  after  which  the  Messiah  should 
be  cut  off.  Other  circumstantial  prophecies  have  received  very  variou: 
Prediction  of  interpretations.  The  book  also  contains  a  definite  prediction  oJ 
resurrection.  a  resurrection  from  the  dead  at  a  future  time.  "  And  many  01 
them  that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth  shall  awake,  some  to  everlasting 
life,  and  some  to  shame  and  everlasting  oon tempt.  And  they  that  be  wis* 
shall  shine  as  the  brightness  of  the  firmament;  and  they  that  turn  maivv 
to  righteousness  as  the  stars  for  ever  and  ever." 

Other  very  distinctive  prophets  are  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  who  cann 
forward   in  Jerusalem  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon  to  en 


THE  PROPHETS   OF  ISRAEL.  647 

courage  them  to  rebuild  the  temple.     The  first  eight  chapters  of  Zechariah 
deal  with  this  period,  and  the  coming  freedom  of  Israel  and  dis- 

Zg  oti3.ri3.lL 

comfiture  of  the  heathen.  In  chapter  iii.  we  find  a  description  of 
the  accuser,  or  "  the  Satan  :\  or  adversary,  accusing  Joshua,  the  high-priest 
before  Jehovah.  The  high-priest,  however,  is  purified,  and  receives  a 
promise  involving  the  future  appearance  of  "  the  Servant  of  God  the 
Branch,"  the  Messiah.  In  accordance  with  the  style  of  many  of  the  pro- 
phets, there  are  visions  of  chariots  and  horses  going  through  the  earth  to 
execute  Jehovah's  will.  The  second  part  of  the  book  is  apparently  later  in 
date  and  by  another  author,  and  depicts  Jehovah's  will  accomplished  on 
Syria,  Ass3Tria,  and  Egypt.  The  Messianic  prophecies  are  renewed  Messianic 
and  amplified.  Zion  is  bidden  to  rejoice :  "  Behold  thy  King  prop*160163- 
cometh  unto  thee  ;  He  is  just,  and  saved  ;  afflicted,  and  riding  upon  an  ass, 
even  upon  a  colt  the  foal  of  an  ass  "  ;  and  a  great  future  is  predicted  for 
his  people.  Later  is  a  prophecy  of  the  domination  of  foreign  kings  over 
Israel  through  native  princes.  Jerusalem  would  be  destroyed,  and  the 
people  dispersed  into  all  lands.  At  another  time  "  they  shall  look  upon  Me 
(or  Him)  whom  they  have  pierced,  and  they  shall  mourn  for  Him,  as  one 
mourneth  for  his  only  son.  ...  In  that  day  there  shall  be  a  fountain 
opened  to  the  house  of  David,  and  to  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  for  sin 
and  for  uncleanness."  Living  waters  should  go  out  of  Jerusalem,  and 
Jehovah  should  be  King  over  all  the  earth.  "  In  that  day  shall  the  Lord 
be  One,  and  His  name  One."  Finally  there  is  a  vision  of  a  universal  annual 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  when  everything  should  be  sacred  to  Jehovah. 

There  can  be  no  question  about  the  great  importance  and  the  defmite- 
ness  of  the  predictions  in  Zechariah  about  a  future  deliverer  and  king  of 
the  Jews.  The  second  portion  of  the  book  appears  to  date  from  a  time 
when  the  Greeks  had  begun  their  conquests  in  Asia,  for  the  sons  of  Javan, 
i.e.,  the  Greeks,  are  named  as  the  representatives  of  the  heathen  powers. 

Haggai,  the  contemporary  of  Zechariah,  agrees  with  him  in  predict- 
ing a  period  when  the  sacred  temple  would  have  greater  glory  than  the 
preceding  one,  by  reason  of  the  splendid  offerings  of  the  Gen- 
tiles,  and  says  that  the  calamities  of  heathen  nations  would  give 
peace  to  Jerusalem.  Christians  usually  identify  "  the  desire  of  all  nations  " 
with  the  Messiah  ;  but  it  is  significant  that  this  passage  is  not  quoted  in  the 
Gospels  as  a  Messianic  prediction  ;  and  in  the  "  Speaker's  Commentary  "  it 
is  not  claimed  as  such,  although  every  Christian  will  recognise  the  peculiar 
applicability  and  fulfilment  of  many  of  the  phrases  in  the  person  of  Christ. 

Passing  over  the  other  minor  prophets,  who,  while  contributing  accord- 
ing to  their  mission  to  the  Messianic  tradition,  the  rousing  and  sustaining 
influences  of  patriotism,  the  denunciation  of  sin  and  of  wicked  heathen 
nations,  did  not  add  notably  to  the  religious  ideas  of  the  nation, 

#  _  .  ItIcLIclCIII. 

we  come  to  Malachi,  who  prophesied  apparently  in  the  later  time 
of  Nehemiah.     In  a  simpler  and  less  elevated  style  than  many  of  his  prede- 
cessors, he  denounces  the  sins  prevalent  in  his  time,  and  predicts  the  advent 
of  a  messenger,  to  prepare  the  waj'  for  the  arrival  of  the  Lord  whom  they 


648 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


sought,  evidently  the  Messiah.  He  would  be  like  a  refiner's  fire,  who  would 
purify  the  sons  of  Levi.  A  Sun  of  Righteousness  was  to  arise  for  those  that 
feared  Jehovah,  with  healing  in  his  wings.  The  prophet  Elijah  would  be 
sent  to  them  befcre  the  coming  of  the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  Jehovah  ; 
and  he  would  turn  the  heart  of  the  fathers  to  the  children  and  the  heart  of 
the  children  to  their  fathers,  "lest  I  come  and  smite  the  earth  with  a 
curse  ;  "  and  so  ends  the  Old  Testament,  "  the  record  of  the  period  in  which 
the  religion  of  Israel  continued  to  grow,  and  develop  new  principles,  to  gain 
new  insight  into  the  ways  of  God  with  man/' 


FEAST    OF    TABEBKACLESJ       IN    THE    "BOOTH.' 


%*k 


-  '    -  .J    ' 

SoA  Mm* 


/      / 


PALM    PKOCESSION.       FKAST    OF    TABEBNACL.ES. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Strtiafcm  after  tbe  9rop&rt& 

Dispersion  of  the  Jews— The  Septuagint— The  Apocrypha— Ecclesiasticus— The  "  Wisdom  of  Solomon  " 
— The  Messianic  hope —Influence  on  New  Testament  phraseology— The  Psalter  of  Solomon— Philo 
of  Alexandria — His  relation  to  Greek  philosophy— His  views  on  the  Old  Testament— His  philosophy 
of  the  Godhead — Divine  Ideas— The  Logos  — Philo's  allegorical  interpretations —The  Scribes— 
Hillel  and  Shammai — Discussions  on  the  Sabbath— Purity  and  impurity— The  Talmud  -  Mishna 
and  Gemara— The  Talmud  and  Christianity —Gems  of  the  Talmud— Unsatisfactory  contents— The 
Pharisees— Principal  beliefs— The  Sadducees  — The  Essenes— Later  Dispersion  of  the  Jews  — 
Maimonides— His  Creed— Later  works— His  beliefs -Jews  in  Spain  and  Portugal  Persecution 
and  isolation — Moses  Mendelssohn— Reforms— Napoleon  and  the  French  Jews  -Jews  in  England — 
In  various  countries — The  Beni  IsraeL 

THE  decadence  of  Israel  paved  the  way  for  the  coming  of  Jesus.     The 
fall  of  the  temporal  power  fixed  the  people's  minds  upon  the  promise 
of  the  Messiah  and  a  renewed  pre-eminence  for  the  chosen  people.       Earl 
The  same  occurrences  led  to  a  growing  dispersion  of  the  Jews  in  Dispersion  of 
Asia  Minor,  Sj^ria,  and  Egypt,  which  prepared  the  way  for  the 
spread  of  Christianity.      In  Egypt  especially,  the  Jews  came  under  the 
influence  of  Greek  culture  and  philosophy,  and  under  the  first  Ptolemies 
(third  century  B.C.),  possibly  the  entire  Old  Testament,  and  certainly  the 
Pentateuch,  was    translated   at   Alexandria   into   Greek,    constituting    the 
Septuagint  version,  which  is  so  precious  as  an  early  testimony  and        -n^ 
check  to  the  Hebrew   text,   and  which  was  almost  exclusively  septuagint. 
used  and  quoted  by  the  New  Testament  writers.     It  may  be  regarded  as 


650  TffE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 

the  result  of  a  need  felt  by  the  foreign  Jews  of  a  translation  in  the 
language  they  commonly  used.  Whether  in  fact  there  is  anything  in  the 
tradition  which  says  that  the  Septuagint  was  the  work  of  seventy  (or 
seventy-two)  translators,  cannot  now  be  ascertained.  The  books  included  in 
the  Septuagint,  however,  are  more  numerous  than  those  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible ;  and  these  additions  are  another  proof  of  the  literary  activity  and 
Greek  culture  of  the  Jews,  both  in  Alexandria  and  in  Palestine,  previous  to 
the  time  of  Christ.  Only  one  or  two  of  the  books  of  the  "  Apocrypha," 
The        or  Septuagint  additions  to  the  Old  Testament,  were   originally 

Apocrypha.  comp0sec[  [n  Hebrew.  It  is  not  necessary  here  to  discuss  the 
contents  of  the  Apocryphal  books,  excepting  so  far  as  they  illustrate  the 
religious  state  or  development  of  the  Jews. 

The  most  interesting  and  oldest  book  of  the  Apocrypha  is  that  known 
as  the  "Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus.  It  was  first 
Ec^iesi-  written  in  Hebrew  in  Palestine,  probably  in  the  second  century 
asticus.  B  Cj  anc[  js  a  continuation  of  the  "  wisdom-writings  "  of  the  Old 
Testament,  in  a  less  spiritual  form.  Of  its  author  scarcely  anything  is 
known,  except  that  he  was  a  sage  who  had  travelled  much  and  had  gone 
through  great  personal  dangers.  The  book  is  mainly  devoted  to  the  praise 
of  Wisdom,  which  he  had  sought  from  his  early  days,  and  to  the  vindication 
of  the  ways  of  God  to  man.  He  sees  the  wisdom  of  God  in  creation,  in 
Providence,  in  history,  and  in  the  Scriptures.  The  Law  is  to  him  the 
highest  manifestation  of  Wisdom  ;  and  its  observance  is  the  foremost  duty. 
Wisdom  is  the  earliest  creation  of  God,  and  the  understanding  of  Wisdom  is 
identical  with  the  fear  of  God.  Hence  Wisdom  is  true  happiness.  God  is 
omniscient,  almighty,  and  irresistible ;  and  His  predestination  determines 
eveiything.  In  the  end,  right-doing  will  inevitably  be  blessed.  The 
sorrows  and  sufferings  of  the  righteous  are  not  without  consolation,  like 
those  of  the  wicked.  Mercy  is  specially  shown  to  the  poor  and  needy,  the 
prayerful,  penitent,  and  merciful.  It  is  singular,  however,  how  far  the 
son  of  Sirach  was  from  realising  the  doctrine  of  immortality.  Mankind 
after  death  are  imagined  as  lying  in  eternal  sleep ;  and  in  other  respects 
the  writer  of  Ecclesiasticus  shows  himself  to  be  on  a  much  lower  level  than 
the  writers  of  the  canonical  books.  Almsgiving  and  prayer  are  his  main 
dependences,  though  he  enjoins  observance  of  the  Temple  services.  On 
the  whole,  religion  is  upheld  as  the  thing  that  is  most  profitable,  and  the 
reward  for  righteousness  is  in  the  main  earthly.  Strange  to  say,  we  find 
no  trace  of  an  expected  personal  Messiah ;  though  the  author  refers  to 
coming  judgments  on  the  Gentiles,  the  ingathering  of  all  Israel,  and  their 
triumph.  Many  critics  believe  that  the  book  contains  much  that  was  not 
the  writer's  own,  but  was  derived  from  previous  sages. 

The  other  important  religious  book  in  the  Apocrypha,  the  "  Wisdom 
of  Solomon  "  (written  in  Greek),  is  of  much  later  date,  for  the  writer  quotes 
The  "  wisdom  the  Septuagint;  but  he  makes  no  reference  to  Christian  writings 

of  Solomon. "or  ]1istory>  The  c]ate  0f  the  book  has  been  variously  placed 
between  220  b.c.  and  a.d.  40,  and  Archdeacon  Farrar  inclines  to  accept  the 


JUDAISM  AFTER    THE  TROTHETS.  651 


latter  date,  believing  that  the  book  shows  traces  of  the  influence  of  Philo. 
Some  have  suggested  that  it  was  written  by  Apollos.  In  assuming  the 
personality  of  King  Solomon,  the  author  was  adopting  a  common  literary 
device  of  his  age,  and  an  appropriate  one,  as  the  name  of  Solomon  had 
become  identified  with  Jewish  proverbial  wisdom.  The  author  was  appa- 
rently an  Alexandrian  Jew,  acquainted  both  with  the  Septuagint  and  with 
Greek  literature  and  philosophy.  His  knowledge  of  various  forms  of 
nature-worship  is  well  shown  in  chap,  xiii.,  but  striking  tolerance  is 
manifested  in  verse  6,  where  we  read,  "  for  this  they  are  the  less  to  be 
blamed  ;  for  they  peradventure  err,  seeking  God,  and  desirous  to  find  Him  ; 
for  being  conversant  in  His  works,  they  search  Him  diligently,  and  believe 
their  sight :  because  the  things  are  beautiful  that  are  seen."  Yet  he  tells 
such  persons  that  they  ought,  while  reverencing  things  of  beauty  and  signs 
of  power,  to  understand  how  much  better  the  Lord  and  Creator  of  them  is. 
Worship  of  manufactured  idols,  or  of  stones  is  crushingly  denounced,  as 
well  as  ancestor  and  king-worship.  Throughout,  the  writer  is  keen  in 
exposing  the  folly  of  the  inferior  or  degraded  religions  he  saw  around  him, 
and  so  far  reaches  a  high  level.  Neither  could  philosophy,  he  maintains, 
teach  the  true  ideal  of  God.  His  object  is  to  show,  that,  while  sin  leads  to 
punishment  and  death,  wisdom  is  the  source  of  all  blessings  of  life  and 
immortalit}\  Such  expressions  as  "  God  created  man  to  be  immortal,  and 
made  him  to  be  an  image  of  His  own  eternity  ;  "  "  the  righteous  live  for 
evermore,  and  the  care  of  them  is  with  the  most  High.  Therefore  shall 
they  receive  a  glorious  kingdom,  and  a  beautiful  crown  from  the  Lord's 
hand,"  show  the  essence  of  his  teaching  about  immortality.  The  evil  are 
to  undergo  retribution  after  death,  in  a  state  which  is  not  quite  clearly 
unfolded. 

The  Messianic  hope,  however,  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  is  reduced  to 
a  hope  in  the  temporal  dominion  of  Israel  and  the  universal  worship  of 
Jehovah  ;  and  there  is  "  no  personal  and  no  suffering  Messiah."        The 

•   •  IVTf  ssifLiiic 

In  rnany  ways  the  author  reproduces  conceptions  made  familiar       hope, 
in  the  Old  Testament,  but  in  inferior  language  and  with  far  less  force. 
The  historical  allusions  by  which  the  influence  of  Wisdom  in  history  are 
enforced  are  tinged  by  strong  preconceived  notions  about  Israel,  and  by  a 
limited  reading  of  the  order  of  Providence. 

The  sense  given  to  the  word  "  Wisdom  "  by  this  writer  suggests  to  the 
Christian  that  it  is  a  personification  of  Christ ;  but  Wisdom  is  not  even 
thought  of  by  the  writer  as  an  incarnate  Divine  Person,  but  as  the  Spirit 
of  God,  as  the  Providence  of  God,  and  as  the  sum  of  human  trustworthy 
knowledge.  It  is  evident  from  the  varying  uses  of  the  word  that  dogmatic 
precision  must  not  be  sought  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom  ;  and  this  no  doubt 
weakens  its  force,  the  author  not  having  a  strong,  clear,  definite  conception, 
but  using  one  word  in  a  wide  latitude  of  meanings  suited  to  the  imper- 
fection of  his  mental  standpoint.  Yet  it  is  evident  that  the  author  of 
"Wisdom"  had  a  marked  influence  on  the  language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;   at  anj-  rate  both  use  a  number  of  similar  special  expressions.     The 


'652  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


words  we  translate  "  faith,"  "  hope,"  "  to  love  "  in  the  Christian  sense,  and 

influence  on  the  expression  that  the  just  man  is  the  "  son  of  God  "  are  found 
ofNew Tefta-  *n  Wisdom.  The  conception  of  the  "  visible  "  as  revealing  the 
ment.  "  invisible,"  and  many  other  words  and  phrases  used  in  this 
book  are  found  in  various  books  of  the  New  Testament,  and  especially  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  Not  the  least  of  its  claims  to  regard  are,  that 
it  expresses  the  nature  of  God  as  predominantly  loving  ;  as  in  xi.  24,  26, 
"  Thou  lovest  all  the  things  that  are,"  and  "  Thou  sparest  all :  for  they  are 
thine,  0  Lord,  thou  lover  of  souls." 

Here  we  may  mention  a  collection  of  Psalms  not  included  in  the 
Apocrypha,  but  regarded  as  canonical  by  numerous  early  Christian  Churches, 
termed  the  Psalter  of  Solomon,  apparently  written  after  the  capture  of 
The  Psalter  of  Jerusalem  by  Pompey  in  63  b.c.  It  depicts  the  sad  state  of  the 
Solomon,  city  and  people  in  a  tone  of  earnest  piety  based  on  Pharisaic 
observances  ;  and  it  expresses  a  strong  Messianic  hope,  which  is  for  us  its 
most  important  feature.  Thus  it  says  :  "  Behold,  0  Lord,  and  raise  up  their 
king,  the  son  of  David,  at  the  time  that  Thou  hast  appointed,  to  reign  over 
Israel  Thy  servant ;  and  gird  him  with  strength  to  crush  unjust  rulers  .  .  . 
to  destroy  the  lawless  nations.  .  .  .  He  shall  divide  them  by  tribes  in 
the  land,  and  no  stranger  and  foreigner  shall  dwell  with  them ;  he  shall 
judge  the  nations  in  wisdom  and  righteousness.  The  heathen  nations  shall 
serve  under  his  yoke ;  he  shall  glorify  the  Lord  before  all  the  earth,  and 
cleanse  Jerusalem  in  holiness  as  in  the  beginning.  .  .  .  He  is  pure  from 
sin  to  rule  a  great  people,  to  rebuke  governors  and  destroy  sinners  by  his 
mighty  word.  In  all  his  days  he  is  free  from  offence  against  his  God,  for 
he  hath  made  him  strong  by  the  Holy  Spirit." 

What  Helleno-Judaism  at  its  best  could  accomplish,  without  the  light 

of  Christianity,  is  seen  in  the  writings  of  Philo  of  Alexandria,  born  perhaps 

PMio  of     in  B-c-  20,  and  living  on  to  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Claudius. 

Alexandria.  Little  is  known  of  his  life,  except  that  in  a.d.  40  he  was  sent  to 
Rome  by  the  Alexandrian  Jews  at  the  head  of  an  embassy,  to  try  and 
persuade  the  Emperor  Caligula  to  refrain  from  claiming  divine  honour  from 
the  Jews.     Of  this  embassy  Philo  has  left  a  full  account.     Philo,  while  well- 

His  relation  acquainted  with  the  Septuagint,  was  even  better  versed  in 
to  Greek  Greek  philosophy  of  all  schools  ;  and  while  accepting  the  literal 
divine  origin  of  the  Old  Testament,  he  sought  to  explain  it  in  an 
allegorical  fashion,  so  as  to  deduce  from  it  the  most  important  results  of 
Greek  philosophy,  and  thus  show  to  the  Greeks  that  Judaism  was  worthy 
of  their  respect  and  acceptance.  He  is  so  thoroughly  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  Plato,  that  it  has  been  said  that  either  Philo  platonises  or  Plato 
philonises.  In  his  writings  he  argues  not  only  against  scoffers  amongst  his 
own  people,  but  against  believers  in  astrology  and  divination,  and  against  the 

Hlsviewson  Egyptians  and  their  beliefs.     His  belief  in  the  Old  Testament  as 

the  ow  Testa-Divine  is  so  strong  that  he  calls  it  usually  the  Sacred  and  Divine 

Word,  or  Divine  Oracles  ;   and  he  treats  the  Old  Testament  as 

forming  one  inseparable  whole,  down  to  the  smallest  letter.     Thus  he  was 


JUDAISM  AFTER    THE  PROPHETS. 


653 


not  a  critic  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  modern  sense.  He  was  rather  an 
expounder  of  its  philosophical  meaning  as  he  conceived  it  by  the  light  of 
Greek  philosophy.  He  claimed  that  the  Jews  in  the  Mosaic  revelation 
possessed  the  true  knowledge  of  things  religious  ;  and  he  strongly  believed 
the  doctrine  of  One  God,  and  His  absolute  sovereignty  and  supremacj',  and 
that  He  was  to  be  worshipped  without  images.  He  went  beyond  the  limited 
view  that  everything  was  to  be  done  by  and  for  the  Jews,  and  regarded 


the  priestly   blessing.      (See  page  075.) 

the  law  of  Moses  as  rightfully  the  law  for  the  whole  world  ;  and,  according 
to  him,  prosperity  is  promised  to  all  who  turn  from  idols  to  the  true  God. 

Philo's  philosophy  of  the  Godhead  is  too  abstruse  to  be  fully  expounded 
here.     He  regards  God  as  eternal,  absolute,  unchangeable,  without  limita- 
tions.    Consequently  God  cannot  come  into  direct  contact  with     Hig       o 
finite  beings,  but  He  acts  by  a  multitude  of  divine  Ideas  or    sjphy  of  the 
Forces,  produced  before  the  visible  world,  and   termed  Logoi.      Golllea<i- 
These  he  identifies  with  the  damans  of  the  Greeks  (see  p.  408),    and  the 


654  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


angels  of  the  Jews.     In  this  view  Philo  does  not  get  rid  of  ambiguity,  for 

while  the  Logoi  are  immanent  in  God,  they  are  at  the  same  time 

Divine  ideas.  regarded  as  distinct  from  God.      Again,  he  regards  all  the  indi- 

Tne  Logos    victual  Ideas,  or  Logoi,  as  being  included  in  one  supreme  Logos, 

or  Reason,  or  Word  of  God,  as  the  firstborn  of  God,  as  the  highest 

mediator  between  God  and  the  world,   and   the  high-priest  for  the  world 

before  God.     Consequently  it  is  through  the  Logos  that  the  world  was 

created.      Thus  in  one  way  Philo  develops  the  idea  of  wisdom  found  in  all 

the  Jewish  wisdom-books,  while  at  the  same  time  following  Plato's  doctrine 

of  ideas  and  the  soul  of  the  world.      The  bearing  which  this  has  upon  the 

consideration  of  the  fourth  gospel  will   be  referred  to  later.     There  is  no 

doubt  that  his  philosophy  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on  scholars,  both 

Jewish  and  Christian,  for  a  long  time  after  he  wrote. 

As  to  man,  Philo  treats  him  as  a  compound  of  soul  and  physical  body, 

the  soul  being  attracted  from  the  pure  souls  that  fill  space,  the  body  being 

the  source  of  sin  and  evil.     Thus  the  body  is  a  sort  of  prison  for 

TVFsn's  H^turs 

'  the  soul,  which  longs  to  rise  again  to  God.  "While  Philo  considers 
that  man's  salvation  lies  in  the  direction  of  the  mortification  of  sensual 
impulses,  he  does  not  follow  the  Stoics  in  throwing  man  upon  his  personal 
powers ;  but  he  directs  him  to  the  help  which  God  will  give  to  men  who 
seek  to  rise  to  Him.  At  death  this  happy  result  happens  to  those  who 
while  in  the  body  have  kept  themselves  free  from  the  bondage  of  the  senses 
and  sensuality ;  while  all  others  must  after  death  enter  another  body. 

Philo  carries  allegorical  interpretation  very  far,  and,  no  doubt,  displays 
remarkable  ingenuity ;  there  is  nothing  in  which  he  cannot  discover  a 
.  ,  „  hidden  meaning.  To  take  some  examples  from  his  interpretation 
goricai  inter- of  Genesis  :  Adam  is  found  to  represent  pure  human  reason  ;  Eve, 
pre  a  ions.  ^e  se,nses  ;  the  serpent,  desire.  Enoch  symbolises  man  retiring  in 
penitence  from  the  world  to  God ;  Noah  is  the  truly  righteous  man.  The 
Hebrews  represent  pilgrims  from  the  world  of  sense  to  that  of  spirit ;  the 
ark  of  the  covenant  is  the  intellectual  world,  the  two  cherubs  over  it  are 
the  two  chief  Logoi  next  to  the  Logos.  Even  the  precepts  of  the  law  are 
allegorised  throughout.  In  many  of  the  problems  which  he  stated,  and  of 
the  solutions  he  proposes,  Philo  is  the  earliest  of  the  commentators  and 
critics,  rather  than  expounders,  of  the  Scriptures. 

But  while  Philo  in  many  ways  was  an  advanced  religious  thinker, — 
while  he  often  uses  the  name  Father  for  God, — he  was  so  far  from  discerning 
the  signs  of  his  times  that  he  makes  but  little  reference  to  the  Messianic 
hopes  of  the  Jews ;  and  when  he  does  so,  it  is  in  the  way  of  identifying  the 
Logos  with  the  promised  Messiah,  but  transferring  all  hopes  based  upon 
His  coming  to  heaven,  thus  in  fact  dissipating  that  which  aloue  really  con- 
stituted the  Messianic  hope  of  the  Jews.  He  even  shows  a  tendency  to 
rely  on  quite  another  kind  of  mediation,  for  he  recognises  as  elements  in 
the  Jews'  hope,  in  addition  to  the  kindness  of  God,  and  personal  repentance, 
the  holiness  of  the  patriarchs,  who  intercede  with  God  for  their  descendants. 

We  have  already  (pp.  610,  623,  624)  referred  to  the  later  organisation 


JUDAISM  AFTER    THE  PROPHETS.  655 


of  the  priests  and  the  existence  of  the  synagogue.  We  must  here  briefly 
notice  the  elements  which  developed  the  extraordinary  atmosphere  of 
legalism  and  formalism  which  pervaded  Jerusalem  and  Judaea  in  the  time 
of  Christ.  This  was  due,  not  so  much  to  the  priests,  who  formed  a  powerful 
and  wealthy  aristocracy,  as  to  the  scribes,  or  persons  learned  in  the 
law,  who  from  the  time  of  Ezra  gradually  grew  in  influence  till  they  e  Scnl)e3- 
attained  a  commanding  position.  The  law  being  a  direct  gift  from  God,  in 
every  detail,  its  complete  observance  being  incumbent  on  every  Israelite,  it 
became  an  all-important  matter  to  have  a  living  exposition  of  all  possible 
cases  of  question.  The  same  consideration  later  became,  as  the  canon  was 
completed,  extended  to  all  books  recognised  as  prophetic,  or  as  containing 
the  older  history  of  Israel.  At  first  only  priests  studied  and  interpreted  the 
law  ;  at  some  later  period  it  became  customary  for  non-priestly  Israelites 
to  take  up  the  study ;  and  as  the  priests  grew  more  wealthy,  and  more 
or  less  influenced,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  by  non-Jewish  ideas  the 
scribes  became  marked  out  as  those  persons  who  were  specially  learned  in 
and  zealous  for  the  law,  holding  their  opinions  with  fanatical  strength  and 
obstinacy,  and  swaying  the  people  by  reason  of  their  fanaticism.  They  were 
habitually  addressed  as  Rabbi  (my  master),  and  required  from  pupils  and 
also  from  the  public,  the  most  entire  reverence  and  submission.  Their 
decisions  were  gratuitously  rendered,  and  they  were  always  persons  of  pro- 
perty or  practised  some  trade.  But  they  always  regarded  as  their  main 
occupation  the  development  of  the  law  in  theoretical  and  practical  details 
and  especially  by  oral  discussions  among  themselves. 

The  term  sanhedrim  (derived  from  the  Greek  synedrium,  "  assembly,") 
describes  the  governing  and  judicial  assembly  of  the  Jews,  the 
native  tribunal  recognised  by  foreign  powers  in  later  Jewish  times.    a    e    im' 
It  included  the  high  priest  as  president,  chief  priests  (mainly  Sadducees) 
scribes,  and  other  notables.     It  had  not  the  power  of  capital  punishment. 

Naturally   schools    of  interpretation   gathered   about    leading   scribes 
such  as  Shammai  and  Hillel.     The  latter,  born  at  Babylon  about  75  b.c. 
came   to   Jerusalem   in   36,    and   was    chosen   president  of   the  imiei  and 
Sanhedrim  from  30  b.c.  to  a.d.  10.     He  had  thousands  of  pupils,    Shaimnai. 
and  spent  his  life  in  endeavouring  to  give  greater  precision  to  the  law. 
Shammai  was   vice-president   when    Hillel    was  president,    was   often  his 
antagonist   in  disputes,  being  less  liberal  in    his  views    than  Hillel,  who 
taught,  it  is  said,  that  the  great  aim  of  life  is  "  to  be  gentle,  showing  all 
meekness  to  all   men,"   and    "  when  reviled,  not  to    revile  again."      The 
opinions  of  their  two  schools,  strange  to  say,  were  afterwards  quoted  by 
the  Jews  as  being  of  equal  authority.     It  is  scarcely  possible  without  repro- 
ducing whole  sections  of  the  Mishna  to  give  an  effective  idea  of  the  detail 
the  ceremoniousness,  the  minuteness  of  the  points  discussed  by  the  scribes. 
A  slight  reference  to  discussions  on  the  Sabbath  will  give  some 
idea  of  all  this.     Thus  we  find  that  thirty-nine  particular  kinds     on  the 
of  work   were   specially   forbidden    on    the   Sabbath,    including    Sabbatl1- 
making  or  untying  a  knot,  writing  two  letters,  sewing  two  stitches,  etc. 


656  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


But  each  of  these  was  made  the  subject  of  elaborate  discussion  and  regula- 
tion. For  instance,  no  burden  might  be  carried  from  one  tenement  to 
another,  and  it  was  decided  by  the  scribes  that  it  was  desecration  of  the 
Sabbath  to  carry  as  much  food  as  was  equal  in  weight  to  a  dried  fig,  or  as 
much  honey  as  could  be  put  upon  a  wound,  ink  enough  to  write  two 
letters,  etc.  So  rigidly  was  Sabbath  observance  kept  up,  that  the  Romans 
found  it  necessary  to  exempt  the  Jews  from  military  service.  Even  more 
minute  regulations  were  devised  about  cleanness  and  uncleanness,  and  the 
Purity  and  removal  of  the  latter.  Notwithstanding  the  completeness  of  the 
impurity.  Old  Testament  regulations,  the  Mishna  contains  no  fewer  than 
twelve  treatises  on  the  subject,  discussing  the  manner  in  which  impurity  is 
contracted,  how  it  may  be  transferred,  what  utensils  or  objects  may  become 
unclean,  and  how  they  may  be  purified.  The  air  in  an  unclean  vessel  is 
declared  unclean ;  a  minute  classification  distinguishes  between  vessels 
which  may  and  those  which  cannot  become  unclean.  The  correct  mode 
of  pouring  water  on  the  hands,  and  the  proper  modes  of  cleansing  of  cups, 
pots,  and  dishes,  were  as  zealously  discussed  as  if  the  whole  religious 
character  would  be  vitiated  by  failure  in  one  particular ;  and  this,  in  fact, 
was  openly  stated. 

The  Mishna  is  the  core  of  the  Talmud,  the  last  and  more  elaborate 
collection  and  amplification  of  the  Traditions  of  the  Jewish  doctors.  It 
is  impossible  to  say  how  far  the  earliest  traditional  explanations 
'  of  the  Jewish  law  go  back ;  but  the  Mishna  consists  mainly  of 
the  meditations  and  decisions  of  learned  rabbis  from  B.C.  50  to  a.d.  150, 
the  name  of  each  rabbi  being  carefully  given.  To  this  is  added,  in  the 
Mishna  and  Talmud,  the  Gemara  or  oldest  commentary  on  the  Mishna,  the 
Gemara.  discussions  on  the  Mishna  of  Palestinian  or  Babylonian  Jewish 
doctors.  In  both  the  Palestinian  and  the  Babylonian  Talmuds  the  cor- 
rectness and  the  meaning  and  interpretation  of  the  Mishna  are  discussed, 
introducing  incidentally  references  to  all  other  knowledge  then  possessed. 
The  discussions  in  the  Palestinian  Talmud  are  comparatively  simple  and 
brief,  but  there  is  mixed  with  them  much  valuable  information  on  history, 
geography,  and  archaeology ;  while  the  Babylonian  Talmud  is  long-winded 
and  subtle,  and,  while  much  longer  than  the  other,  contains  far  less  of  outside 
knowledge.  The  Jews  have  always  given  a  higher  value  to  the  Mishna 
than  to  the  Gemara,  ranking  it  scarcely  below  the  Old  Testament ;  for  they 
believe  that  much  of  it  comes  by  an  unbroken  chain  of  tradition  from 
Moses,  who  is  believed  to  have  received  it  direct  from  God.  The  Talmud 
was  put  together  in  the  fifth  century  a.d. 

A  very  vexed  question  is  the  extent  ot  the  influence  of  the  Talmud 
upon  Christianity,  and  the  converse.  Some  would  even  make  out  that 
Tha  Talmud  Christianity  owes  many  of  its  leading  ideas  to  the  Talmud.     If 

and       it  were  so,  why  was  Christianity  received  with  such  hostility? 

'  If  it  spoke  merely  the  language  of  the  accepted  teachers  of  the 

Jews,  why  was  it  not  received  with  acclamation  ?     We  will  quote  the  claim 

made  by  one  of  the  most  ardent  Talmudists,  Emanuel  Deutsch  :  "Such  terms 


JUDAISM  AFTER    THE  PROPHETS. 


657 


as  Redemption,  Baptism,  Grace,  Faith,  Salvation,  Regeneration,  Son  of  Man, 
Son  of  God,  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  were  not,  as  we  are  apt  to  think,  invented 
by  Christianity,  but  were  household  words  of  Talmudical  Judaism.  No  less 
loud  and  bitter  in  the  Talmud  are  the  protests  against  lip-serving,  against 
making  the  law  a  burden  to  the  people,  against  "  laws  that  hang  on  hairs," 
against  Priests  and  Pharisees.  That  grand  dictum,  "  Do  unto  others  as 
thou  wouldst  be  done  by,"  is  quoted  by  Hillel,  at  whose  death  Jesus  was  ten 
3>-ears  of  age,  not  as  anything  new,  but  as  an  old  and  well-known  dictum, 
that  comprised  the  whole  Law."  "While  not  denying  or  concealing  the  vast 
amount  of  idle  legend  and  allegory  contained  in  the  Haggadah  or  legendary 
portion  of  the  commentary,  Mr.  Deutsch  claims  that  it  is  the  source  of 
much  that  is  most  remarkable  in  the  greatest  poets.     He  extracts  a  meta- 


FOREIGN    JEWISH    BETH    HAMIDBASH    (HOUSE    OF    LEARNINCi)    IN    THE    EAST    END    OF    LONDON. 

physical  philosophy  from  parts  of  it,  describing  the  gradual  development  of 
the  Cosmos  by  successive  catastrophes,  out  of  an  original  created  substance. 
Miracles  were  primevally  ordained,  and  "  created,"  and  do  not  disturb  the 
pre-established  harmony  of  things.  The  soul  is  also  held  to  be  pre-existent. 
The  Resurrection  and  Immortality  are  definitely  taught.  The  righteous 
continue  to  develop  their  best  faculties  in  the  next  world :  "  For  the 
righteous  there  is  no  rest,  neither  in  this  world  nor  in  the  next,  for  they 
go,  say  the  Scriptures,  from  host  to  host,  from  striving  to  striving ;  and 
they  will  see  God  in  Zion."  As  regards  eternal  punishment,  the  Talmud 
does  not  teach  it,  but  says  that  idolaters,  apostates,  and  traitors  will  be 
punished  for  "  generations  upon  generations."  There  is  "  only  two  fingers' 
breadth  between  Hell  and  Heaven  "  ;  the  repentant  sinner  will  be  admitted 

u  u 


658  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

to  the  latter  as  soon  as  he  repents.  "  In  the  next  world  there  will  be  no 
eating,  no  drinking,  no  love,  and  no  labour,  no  envy,  no  hatred,  no  contest. 
The  righteous  will  sit  with  crowns  on  their  beads,  glorying  in  the  splendour 
of  God's  majesty." 

A  few  quotations  from  the  clioicest  passages  of  the  Talmud  will  still 
further  illustrate  its  highest  nights.  "  Be  thou  the  cursed,  not  he  who 
Gems  of  the  curses.  Be  of  them  that  are  persecuted,  not  of  them  that  perse- 
Taimud.  cute."  "He  who  sacrifices  a  whole  offering,  shall  be  rewarded 
for  a  whole  offering ;  he  who  offers  a  burnt  offering,  shall  have  the  reward 
of  a  burnt  offering';  he  who  offers  humility  unto  God  and  man,  shall  be 
rewarded  with  a  reward  as  if  he  had  offered  all  the  sacrifices  in  the  world." 
'•  Even  when  the  gates  of  heaven  are  shut  to  prayer,  they  are  open  to 
tears."  "  "When  the  righteous  dies,  it  is  the  earth  that  loses.  The  lost  jewel 
will  always  be  a  jewel ;  but  the  possessor  who  has  lost  it,  well  may  he  weep." 
"  Even  the  most  righteous  shall  not  attain  to  so  high  a  place  in  heaven 
as  the  truly  repentant."  "  The  dying  benediction  of  a  sage  to  his  disciples 
was  :  I  pray  for  you  that  the  fear  of  Heaven  may  be  as  strong  upon  you 
as  the  fear  of  man.  You  avoid  sin  before  the  face  of  the  latter  ;  avoid  it 
before  the  face  of  the  All-seeing."  "  Love  your  wife  like  yourself,  honour 
her  more  than  yourself."  "  It  is  woman  alone  through  whom  God's 
blessings  are  vouchsafed  to  a  house.  She  teaches  the  children,  speeds  the 
husband  to  the  place  of  worship  and  instruction,  welcomes  him  when  he 
returns,  keeps  the  house  godly  and  pure,  and  God's  blessing  rests  upon  all 
these  things.  He  who  marries  for  money,  his  children  shall  be  a  curse  to 
him."  "  The  house  that  does  not  open  to  the  poor  shall  open  to  the 
physician.  Even  the  birds  in  the  air  despise  the  miser.  He  who  gives 
charity  in  general  is  greater  than  Moses  himself."  "  Let  the  honour  of  thy 
neighbour  be  to  thee  like  thine  own.  Rather  be  thrown  into  a  fiery  furnace 
than  bring  any  one  to  public  shame."  "  He  who  humiliates  himself  will  be 
lifted  up ;  he  who  raises  himself  up  will  be  humiliated.  Whosoever  runs 
after  greatness,  greatness  runs  away  from  him ;  he  who  runs  from  great- 
ness, greatness  follows  him."  "  Whosoever  does  not  persecute  them  that 
persecute  him,  whoever  takes  an  offence  in  silence,  he  who  does  good 
because  of  love,  he  who  is  cheerful  under  his  sufferings — they  are  the 
friends  of  God,  and  of  them  the  Scripture  says,  "  and  they  shall  shine  forth 
as  does  the  sun  at  noonday." 

Granting  that  these  extracts  are  correctly  translated,  we  have  no  proof 

that  any  of  them  date  back  as  early  as  the  time  of  Christ.     In  any  case  the 

unsatis-     book  has  nad  nothing  like  the  effect  of  the  New  Testament ;  and 

factory     this  is  intelligible  when  we  realise  the  mass  of  puerile  arguments, 

silly  and  indecent  stories,  impossible  notions  and  petty  details  that 

the  Talmud  contains.    The  selection  of  the  editor  or  editors,  equally  with  the 

minds  of  the  scribes  who  are  responsible  for  many  of  its  passages,  was  greatly 

at  fault,    Archdeacon  Farrar,  in  his  "  Life  of  Christ,"  says,  "  Anything  more 

utterly  unhistorical  than  the  Talmud  cannot  be  conceived.     It  is  probable 

that  no  human  writings  ever  confounded  names,   dates,  and  facts  with  a 


JUDAISM  AFTER    THE  PROPHETS.  659 

more  absolute  indifference."  In  reading  it  we  can  understand  the  point  of 
the  saying  of  Jesus,  that  the  scribes  had  made  the  law  of  no  effect  through 
their  traditions. 

The  Pharisees  were  the  party  who,  without  necessarily  being  scribes, 
devoted  themselves  with  fanatic  ardour  to  the  observance  of  all  the 
minutest  particulars  of  the  Mosaic  law  and  of  the  traditions,  which  -n^ 
gradually  became  more  binding  even  than  the  law.  The  term  pliarisees. 
means  "  one  who  is  separated ;  "  and  the  Pharisees  undoubtedly  formed  a 
distinctive  order  of  people,  devoted  to  the  observance  of  the  Levitical  laws 
and  the  tradition.  It  would  appear  that  every  one  wishing  to  be  recognised 
as  a  Pharisee  had  to  promise  before  three  others  that  he  would  pay  full  tithes 
on  everything,  and  eat  nothing  that  had  not  been  tithed,  and  that  he  would 
scrupulously  observe  all  the  laws  of  ceremonial  purity.  Thus,  practically, 
Pharisaism  was  one  great  system  of  "  taboo,"  by  which  the  members  made 
themselves  a  sacred  caste.  When  it  is  realised  that  the  full  tithes  meant, 
at  least,  a  double  tithe,  and  that  the  ceremonial  laws  of  Leviticus  and  the 
Mishna  involved  the  most  burdensome  restrictions  and  brought  a  man 
into  continual  danger  of  contracting  ceremonial  impurity  ;  that  every  one 
who  did  not  obey  these  laws  was  reckoned  as  lost,  we  can  see  the  force  of 
the  denunciations  contained  in  Matthew  xxiii.  Pharisees  might  not  become 
the  guests  of  a  non-Pharisee,  nor  receive  him  as  a  guest,  nor  buy  or  sell  from 
or  to  him.  Including,  as  they  did,  a  very  large  proportion  (six  thousand)  of 
the  leading  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ,  it  is  evident  that  they  were  then  the 
orthodox  Jewish  party  by  whose  standard  Jesus  was  mainly  judged.  They 
were  also  the  popular  party,  for  they  held  high  the  position  and  responsi- 
bilities of  every  member  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  disdained  any  compro- 
mise with  the  foreign  ruler.  They  taught  that  every  man  might  become  a 
true  member  of  the  priesthood,  though  not  belonging  to  the  priestly  caste, 
by  studying  and  conforming  to  the  law.  They  considered  themselves  the 
guardians  of  the  law  and  the  customs  of  the  Jews,  and  believed  that  they 
would  be  protected  as  a  peculiar  people  through  all  dangers.  But  while  they 
imposed  strict  rules,  and  severely  condemned  their  infraction,  they  had 
devised  many  plans  for  evading  those  which  they  found  inconvenient,  and 
they  made  many  of  their  observances  occasions  for  public  display  of  their 
righteousness  or  ostentatious  claim  to  the  highest  regard  of  the  common 
people.  They  were  generally  to  be  recognised  by  the  sacred  tassels  upon 
their  garments,  and  the  wearing  of  little  rolls  (phylacteries)  inscribed  with 
words  from  the  law  on  the  arm  or  forehead  and  neck,  and  by  their  public 
demonstrations  of  praying  in  the  streets.  The  wearing  of  these  phylacteries 
being  supposed  to  be  enjoined  in  Exodus  xiii.  9-16,  they  became  in  time 
regarded  as  most  valuable,  protecting  the  wearers  from  evil  thoughts. 

A  few  principal  beliefs  of  the  Pharisees  may  be  mentioned.     According 
to  Josephus,  they  held  that  every  soul  is  imperishable  ;  but  that  the  souls  of 
good  men  only  pass  over  into  another  body,  while  the  souls  of    principal 
bad  men  are  chastised  by  eternal  punishment.     But  that  they      keiieis. 
believed  in  an3'thing  like  the  Oriental  transmigration  of  souls,  cannot  be 


66o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


proved.  Rather,  from  references  in  the  New  Testament,  they  appear  to 
have  believed  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  a  future  judgment.  The 
Mishna  which  they  upheld,  states  that  "  he  who  says  that  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead  is  not  to  be  inferred  from  the  law,  has  no  part  in  the  world  to 
come."  They  believed  in  angels  and  spirits,  and  in  the  powerful  influence 
of  fate  and  Divine  providence  ;  yet  "  some  things  depend  on  the  will  of  man 
as  to  whether  they  are  done  or  not."  Their  eagerness  to  secure  proselytes 
to  their  views  may  be  judged  from  the  expression  of  Jesus,  that  they  would 
"  compass  sea  and  land  "  to  make  one  proselyte.  Within  their  ranks  was 
to  be  found  much  sensuality,  greed,  and  selfishness.  They  contemned  the 
common  and  degraded  elasses  of  people,  and  shunned  any  communication 
with  them,  and  hence  they  were  especially  subject  to  the  censure  of  Jesus. 

The  great  opponents  of  the  Pharisees  were  the  Sadducees,  who  chiefly 
consisted  of  the  more  influential  and  wealthy  priestly  families,  especially 
The  those  from  which  the  high  priest  had  been  chosen  for  many  years 
sadducees.  "before  the  time  of  Christ.  They  clung  to  the  ancient  privileges 
of  their  order,  and  to  the  legal  observances  of  the  law,  while  they  rejected 
the  Mishna  and  the  decisions  of  the  scribes.  Consistently  with  this,  they  re- 
jected the  doctrines  of  the  resurrection  and  of  future  retribution,  which  are 
not  found  distinctly  in  the  Pentateuch  ;  they  disbelieved  in  angels  and  spirits  ; 
and  they  held  that  man's  conduct  is  entirely  in  his  own  power,  not  coerced 
by  fate  or  Providence,  and  that  man  is  the  cause  of  his  own  prosperity  and 
adversity.  They,  however,  conformed  largely  to  the  views  of  the  majority 
as  formulated  by  the  Pharisees,  especially  in  the  matter  of  sacrifices  and 
ritual,  while  they  did  not  conceal  their  indifference  to  many  of  the  obser- 
vances which  yet,  as  chief  priests,  they  carried  out.  They  were  considerably 
imbued  with  Greek  culture,  and,  in  the  main,  upheld  the  Roman  power. 
Consequently,  when  the  Romans  destroyed  Jerusalem  and  the  whole  Jewish 
State,  their  influence  fell,  never  to  rise  again,  for  it  had  within  it  no  seeds  of 
hope  or  of  growth. 

The  Essenes  were  a  remarkable  body  of  ascetics  who  became  numerous 
in  the  century  before  Christ,  and  who  endeavoured  to  fulfil  the  injunctions 
The  Essenes  °^  ^e  ^aw  ^v  withdrawal  from  the  world,  celibacy  and  austerity 
of  life.  They  resembled  the  monastic  orders  of  Christians  and 
Buddhists  rather  than  a  sectarian  party.  In  their  strict  regard  for  the  law, 
and  their  extreme  care  for  ceremonial  purity,  they  were  like  the  Pharisees, 
only  aiming  at  carrying  out  their  views  to  an  extreme  degree  by  forming 
separate  communities  with  meals  in  common,  community  of  goods,  and  a 
long  novitiate.  They  wore  white  garments  like  the  priests,  bathed  before 
meals  and  at  other  times,  repudiated  marriage  as  a  state  of  less  purity  than 
celibacy,  and  in  all  things  sought  to  live  a  simple  natural  life.  They  held 
no  slaves,  swore  no  oaths,  did  not  anoint  themselves  with  oil,  and  only  used 
the  simplest  food  and  drink.  They  carried  on  no  trade,  but  worked  on  the 
land  and  at  handicrafts  for  the  common  benefit.  One  of  the  most  striking 
distinctions  between  them  and  the  rest  of  the  Jews  was  their  giving  up  of 
animal  sacrifices,  though  they  still  sent  incense  to  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 


JUDAISM  AFTER   THE  PROPHETS. 


66 1 


It  is  said  that  they  even  turned  towards  the  sun  when  praying-,  as  emble- 
matic of  the  Divine  light,  a  very  un-Jewish  custom,  and  that  other  points 
showed  religious  regard  for  the  sun.  Various  students  and  divines  have 
traced  several  features  of  the  Essenes  to  Buddhism,  Zoroastrianism,  and  the 
Greek  philosophy  of  Pythagoras.  The  two  latter  seem  especially  to  pre- 
sent points  of  contact,  and  neither  influence  is  historically  impossible. 

The  houses  in  which  the  Essenes  lived  were  under  the  control  of  a 
president,  whom  the  members  were  bound  to  obey.  A  candidate  received 
at  entrance  a  pickaxe,  an  apron,  and  a  white  garment,  and  underwent  a 
year's  probation,  after  which  he  was  admitted  to  the  baths  ;  then  two  more 
years'  probation  followed,  and  he  was  admitted  to  the  common  meals,  first 
taking  a  tremendous  oath  binding  him  to  entire  openness  towards  the  mem- 
bers, and  secrecy  towards  non-members. 

Meanwhile  there  was  al- 
ready a  preparation  for  that  dis- 
persion which,  after  Dispersion 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  of  the  Jews- 
became  the  principal  fact  about 
the  Jews.  The  process,  which 
had  begun  with  the  captivity, 
was  greatly  favoured  under 
Alexander  the  Great's  succes- 
sors, important  privileges  being 
granted  to  the  Jews  in  such 
cities  as  Alexandria  and  Antioch. 
Even  in  the  second  century  B.C. 
it  was  said  that  every  land  and 
sea  was  filled  with  the  Jews. 
In  the  time  of  Pompey  many 
settled  at  Rome,  and  were 
granted  Roman  citizenship.  In 
Caligula's  reign  they  made  a 
grand  stand  against  the  em- 
peror-worship, which  it  was  attempted  to  force  on  them,  undergoing 
frightful  troubles  in  consequence.  In  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius 
they  began  to  be  persecuted,  while  the  reign  of  Claudius  at  its  outset  was 
marked  by  an  edict  of  toleration  in  their  favour.  Yet  later  he  prohibited 
their  assemblies.  They  were  often  subsequently  persecuted,  but  they  in- 
creased notwithstanding — a  history  which  has  practically  characterised 
them  almost  ever  since.  They  united  into  distinct  communities  wherever 
they  were,  cherishing  their  ancient  faith,  and  maintaining  such  of  its 
observances  as  were  still  possible  ;  and  they  gradually  acquired  a  recognised 
standing,  and  were  allowed  to  be  governed  by  their  own  laws  throughout 
the  Roman  empire.  Even  the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship  were  conferred 
upon  them  in  a  considerable  number  of  the  towns  of  Asia  Minor  and  Syria. 
They  built  synagogues  in  most  of  them,  using  Greek  very  largely  in  their 


3IENASSEH    BEN    ISRAEL.       (See  p.  668.) 


662  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

services.  Tribute  was  sent  to  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  as  long  as  it  existed. 
Everywhere  they  may  be  considered  to  have  paved  the  way  for  Christianity 
by  their  worship  without  images  and  by  their  strict  observance  of  the  Sab- 
bath, while  their  limitations  as  to  food  were  a  standing  protest  against  the 
prevailing  un  discriminating  indulgence.  Many  proselytes  were  made,  and 
no  doubt  would  long  have  continued  to  be  added,  if  Christianity  had  not 
obtained  the  ascendant,  and  displayed  greater  attractions. 

When,  in  the  fourth  century,  Christianity  became  the  official  religion 
of  the  Roman  empire,  the  humiliation  of  the  Jews  began.  With  an  interval 
of  favour  in  the  reign  of  Julian  the  Apostate,  they  gradually  became  a 
downtrodden  people.  We  cannot  detail  the  successive  steps  of  the  history, 
which  simply  show,  in  relation  to  our  subject,  the  persistence  of  religious 
faith  among  a  persecuted  people.  We  must  assume  a  general  knowledge  of 
their  circumstances  in  successive  ages,  and  pass  on  to  quote  the  confession 
of  faith  drawn  up  in  the  11th  century  by  Moses  Maimonides,  perhaps  the 
greatest  of  the  mediaeval  Jews,  often  called  the  second  Moses. 

This  remarkable  man  was  born  at  Cordova,  in  Spain,  in  1135,  his  father 
being  a  Jewish  judge  and  commentator.  The  youth,  besides  Hebrew  and 
Greek,  studied  all  the  Arabic  learning  of  their  palmy  day  under 
Averroes  and  Ibn-Thofeil.  Under  the  Moslems  of  Spain  the 
Jews  enjoyed  full  liberty,  and  rivalled  the  Arabs  in  learning.  During  a 
reactionary  period  in  the  middle  of  the  century,  when  Jews  were  severely 
persecuted,  Maimonides  and  his  family  outwardly  professed  Mahometanism ; 
later  he  travelled  widely,  and  at  last  settled  at  Fostat  (Egypt)  as  a  physician. 
But  he  found  time  to  write  a  great  commentary  on  the  Mishna,  made  public 
in  1168  under  the  title,  "  The  Book  of  Light,"  and  designed  to  simplify 
and  explain  the  traditional  law.  In  one  part  of  this  work  he  included  the 
confession  of  faith  mentioned  above,  which,  somewhat  abbreviated,  is  as 
follows  : — 

1.  "I  believe,  with  a  perfect  faith  "  (these  words  are  repeated  before 
all  the  sections),  "  that  God  is  the  Creator  (whose  name  be  blessed),  Governor, 
The  creed  of  and  Maker  of  all  creatures  ;  and  that  He  hath  wrought  all  things, 
Maimonides.  worketh,  and  shall  work  for  ever.  2.  That  the  Creator  is  one ; 
and  that  such  a  unity  as  is  in  Him  can  be  found  in  none  other ;  and  that 
He  alone  hath  been  our  God,  is,  and  for  ever  shall  be.  3.  That  He  is  not 
corporeal,  not  to  be  comprehended  with  any  bodily  properties  ;  and  that 
there  is  no  bodily  essence  that  can  be  likened  unto  Him.  4.  That  the 
Creator  is  the  first  and  last ;  that  nothing  was  before  Him,  and  that  He  shall 
abide  the  last  for  ever.  5.  That  the  Creator  is  to  be  worshipped,  and  none 
else.  6.  That  all  the  words  of  the  prophets  are  true.  7.  That  the  pro- 
phecies of  Moses,  our  master  (may  he  rest  in  peace  !),  were  true ;  that  he 
was  the  father  and  chief  of  all  wise  men  that  lived  before  him,  or  ever  shall 
live  after  him.  8.  That  all  the  law  which  at  this  day  is  found  in  our  hands 
was  delivered  by  God  Himself  to  our  master,  Moses.  9.  That  the  same  law 
is  never  to  be  changed,  nor  any  other  to  be  given  us  of  God.  10.  That  God 
understandeth  all  the  works  and  thoughts  of  men,  as  it  is  written  in  the 


JUDAISM  AFTER    THE  PROPHETS. 


663 


prophets ;  He  fasliionetli  their  hearts  alike,  He  understandeth  all  their 
works.  11.  That  God  will  recompense  good  to  them  that  keep  His  com- 
mandments, and  will  pnnish  them  who  transgress  them.  12.  That  the 
Messiah  is  yet  to  come  ;  and  although  He  retard  His  coming,  yet  will  I  wait 
for  Him  till  He  come.  13.  That  the  dead  shall  be  restored  to  life  when  it 
shall  seem  fit  unto  God,  the  Creator,  whose  name  be  blessed  and  memory 
celebrated  without  end.     Amen." 

In   1170-80  Maimonides  wrote  a  still    more  extended   work,  entitled 
"  Deuteronomy,  Second   Law,"  really  a  cyclopaedia  of  every  sort  of  Old 


MOSES    MENDELSSOHN. 


Later  works. 


Testament  and  Jewish  literature,  sometimes  described  as  a  new  Talmud. 
In  it  he  brought  the  rabbinical  codes  within  a  moderate  compass, 
and  introduced  philosophy  and  ethics  of  a  type  little  understood 
by  the  Jews  before  his  time.  From  this  time  he  held,  unofficially,  a  sort 
of  spiritual  headship  among  his  people,  while  at  the  same  time  his  fame  as 
a  doctor  brought  him  a  large  and  important  practice.  He,  however,  was 
able  to  complete  a  third  great  book,  "  The  Guide  of  the  Perplexed,"  designed 
to  reclaim  those  who  were  sceptical  about  a  future  world,  the  destiny  of 
man,  and  revelation.  In  it  he  made  a  bold  endeavour  to  reconcile  the  con- 
flicts between  religion  and  philosophy,  and  he  may  almost  be  counted  the 
first  of  the  rationalists.     He  showed  that  the  sensuous  descriptions  of  the 


664  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Deity  and  His  actions  in  the  Old  Testament  must  be  taken  in  a  spiritual 
and  figurative  sense.  He  further  expounded  a  rational  natural  religion, 
proved  the  existence,  unity,  and  spirituality  of  God,  and  the  excellence  of 
the  Divine  law,  and  discussed  free-will,  the  opposition  of  good  and  evil,  and 
the  questions  relating  to  the  Divine  providence  and  omniscience.  As  was 
to  be  expected,  such  a  work  provoked  much  opposition,  and  led  to  great  con- 
troversy between  religion  and  science,  and  between  the  literal  Talmudists 
and  his  own  followers.  Finally,  about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century  the 
Christians  burned  all  Maimonides'  books,  which  led  to  a  reconciliation 
among  the  Jewish  hostile  parties.  Maimonides  died  on  December  13th, 
1204,  and  was  greatly  mourned.  To  him  all  Jewish  religious  writers  since 
his  date  are  greatly  indebted. 

Maimonides  was  a  strong  believer  in  the  Old  Testament  as  a  Divine 

revelation,  but  held  that  it  must  be  explicable  in  a  rational  manner.     He 

h  ,.  f     believed  that  it  was  not  enough  to  keep  the  law  in  practice,  but 

that  its  study  was  a  religious  duty.  He  believed  firmly  in  the 
creation  of  matter  out  of  nothing,  and  in  the  providential  guidance  of  the 
world.  He  held  that  man's  will  was  free,  but  that  providence  ruled  the 
destinies  of  men  and  of  nations  in  a  certain  broad  manner.  Physical  laws 
must  be  studied,  and  man  must  adapt  his  life  and  action  to  them.  Only  the 
soul  is  immortal,  he  taught ;  and  virtue  is  rewarded  by  happiness  in  the 
world  to  come.  "  Do  not,"  he  says,  "  allow  thyself  to  be  persuaded  by  fools 
that  God  first  determines  who  shall  be  righteous  and  who  wicked.  He  who 
sins  has  only  himself  to  blame  for  it,  and  he  can  do  nothing  better  than 
speedily  to  change  his  course.  God's  omnipotence  has  bestowed  freedom  on 
man,  and  His  omniscience  foreknows  man's  choice  without  guiding  it.  We 
should  not  choose  the  good,  like  children  and  ignorant  people,  from  motives 
of  reward  or  punishment,  but  we  should  do  good  for  its  own  sake,  and  from 
love  to  God ;  still  retribution  does  await  the  immortal  soul  in  the  future 
world." 

For  a  long  time  the  Jews  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  under  Moorish  rule, 
enjoyed  complete  freedom  and  equality ;  and  their  progress  in  culture  and 

original  work  was  great.     While  in  the  middle  ages  the  Christians 
Spain  and   were   persecuting  the  Jews  almost  everywhere,  and  sometimes 

burning  them  while  they  sang  hymns  as  though  going  to  a  wed- 
ding, in  Spain  they  were  in  a  state  of  prosperity  till  the  middle  of  the 
14th  century.  Then  followed  persecutions  and  many  cruel  outrages  and 
martyrdoms.  Finally,  in  1492,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain  ordered  the 
expulsion,  within  four  months,  of  all  who  refused  to  become  Christians,  at 
the  same  time  forbidding  them  to  take  either  gold  or  silver  out  of  the 
country.  Many  then  professed  Christianity  ;  but  several  hundred  thousands 
left  the  country,  enduring  the  greatest  privations,  and  many  dying  in  their 
journeys.  In  1495  King  Emanuel  of  Portugal  ordered  the  Jews  to  leave 
his  kingdom,  but  commanded  that  their  children  under  fourteen  should  be 
taken  from  their  mothers  and  brought  up  as  Christians.  "  Agony  drove  the 
Jewish  mothers  into  madness ;  they  destroyed  the  children  with  their  own 


JUDAISM  AFTER    THE   PROPHETS. 


665 


hands,  and  threw  them  into  wells  and  rivers,  to  prevent  them  from  falling 
into  the  hands  of  their  persecutors." 

The  intensity  and  cruelty  of  the  persecutions  which  they  suffered  was 
perhaps  the  salvation  of  the  Jews  as  a  separate  nationality;  although  it 
cannot  be  proved  that  their  peculiar  faith  and  rites  would  not  have 
preserved  them  largely  as  a  pure  race.     Everywhere  cut  off  from  PersIndU°n 
the  rest  of  the  population,  limited  as  to  trades  and  places  of  resi-    isolation- 
dence,  forbidden  to  employ  Christian  servants  or  to  become  members  of 
trade  guilds,  the  Jews  grew  more  and  more  conservative  and  peculiar  :  and 
their  talents,  concentrated  by  isolation,  furnished  at  last  an  ever-widening 


BEVIS  MARKS  SYNAGOGUE,  LONDON. 

stream  of  original  genius  to  the  nations  in  which  they  lived.  Spinoza,  the 
Humboldts,  the  Mendelssohns,  Heine,  Neander,  Meyerbeer,  the  Disraelis,  are 
a  few  of  the  remarkable  geniuses  who  have  sprung  from  modern  Judaism. 
Yet  the  dawn  of  the  modern  period  was  preceded  by  an  age  of  degradation 
and  mental  inferiority  which  needed  the  work  of  vigorous  reformers  to 
rouse  it  into  life. 

The  most  important  name  in  the  history  of  modern  Jewish  elevation  and 
reform  is  that  of  Moses  Mendelssohn  (1729-1786),  grandfather  of  the  great 
composer.  The  son  of  a  copier  of  Biblical  writings  on  parchment,  Moses 
young  Mendelssohn,  born  at  Dessau  in  Germany,  was  early  in-  Mendelssohn, 
spired  by  the  reading  of  Maimonides'  "  Guide  of  the  Perplexed."  After  a 
wide  general  education,  he  set  before  himself  the  improvement  of  the  moral 


666  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

and  social  condition  of  his  people.  While  obeying  in  the  letter  the  Oral 
Law,  Mendelssohn  brought  into  the  study  of  religion  all  the  knowledge  and 
philosophy  of  his  time ;  and  the  effect  of  his  writings  was  to  destroy  the 
authority  of  the  Talmud  and  the  rabbinical  writers  among  those  who 
listened  to  him.  His  essay,  entitled  "  Phsedo,  or  the  Immortality  of  the 
Soul,"  attempted  to  lay  down  a  new  basis  for  that  doctrine.  His  attitude 
towards  Christianity  was  so  liberal  that  many  of  his  co-religionists  began  to 
look  upon  him  as  secretly  a  Christian  himself.  In  his  "Morning  Hours"  he 
discussed  the  existence  of  God,  refuting  pantheism,  and  especially  Spinoza's 
views.  He  also  published  German  translations  and  commentaries  on 
several  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  notably  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Psalms. 
In  regard  to  what  we  may  call  Church  government,  his  ideas  were  remark- 
ably liberal ;  all  religion,  according  to  him,  being  an  affair  of  the  heart,  it 
should  not  be  under  any  control,  either  of  State,  Church,  or  synagogue.  At 
the  same  time  he  insisted  that  "  the  law  of  Moses  was  not  a  law  of  faith, 
but  merely  of  statutes  and  prohibitions."  Religion,  he  taught,  should  be 
propagated  purely  by  conviction,  and  should  never  attempt  to  uphold  it- 
self by  authority.  He  recommended  his  people  to  take  an  example  of 
charity  from  Christians,  and  love  and  bear  with  each  other,  that  they  might 
be  themselves  loved  and  tolerated  by  others.  It  followed  that  his  influence 
in  promoting  the  idea  of  the  religious  equality  of  all  persons  in  the  eye  of  the 
State  has  been  very  great.  His  life  and  writings  benefited  both  Jews  and 
Christians,  and  started  new  schools  of  thought  in  philosophy  and  religious 
criticism  among  the  Jews.  His  epitaph,  written  by  Ramler,  runs  thus  : 
"  True  to  the  religion  of  his  forefathers,  wise  as  Socrates,  teaching  immor- 
tality, and  becoming  immortal  like  Socrates."  The  modern  Jews  have  a 
saying  that  "  from  Moses  (the  lawgiver)  to  Moses  (Maimonides),  and  Moses 
(Mendelssohn),  no  one  hath  arisen  like  Moses." 

One  of  the  reforms  which  followed  Mendelssohn's  labours  was  the  revival 
of  the  obsolete  office  of  synagogue  preacher  ;  at  the  same  time  the  long 

prayers    and    sacred   poems   of  the    liturgy   were   considerably 
Reforms  .  ~*' 

retrenched.     Some  congregations  remained   conservative,  while 

new  or  reformed  synagogues  were  founded,  in  which  modern  innovations 
were  practised.  Numerous  theological  seminaries  as  well  as  schools  were 
established,  and  gradually  general  culture  as  well  as  Hebrew  learning  be- 
came much  extended  among  the  Jews. 

In  1790-1  the  whole  of  the  French  Jews  were  admitted  to  equal  rights 
of  citizenship  with  the  French  people.  One  of  the  unique  things  the 
Na  oi  onand^mPeror  Napoleon  did,  was  to  summon  a  meeting  of  the  Sanhe- 
tne  French  drim,  formally  elected  by  the  synagogues  of  France  and  Italy. 
It  sat  in  1807,  and  formulated  statutes  which  were  regarded  as 
binding  by  the  congregations  which  sent  delegates.  Its  principal  decisions 
were  :  (1)  That  polygamy  is  forbidden ;  (2)  That  divorce  is  permissible  to 
Jews  after  legal  divorce  by  the  civil  authority  ;  (3)  That  no  Jew  may 
perform  the  ceremony  of  marriage  until  legal  forms  have  been  fulfilled ; 
and  intermarriages  with  Christians  are  recognised,  though  they  cannot  be 


JUDAISM  AFTER   THE  PROPHETS. 


667 


performed  with  Jewish  ceremonies ;  (4)  That  acts  of  justice  and  charity  are 
enjoined  towards  all  mankind,  of  whatever  religion,  who  recognise  the 
Creator;  (5)  That  Jewish  natives  of  France  shall  obey  the  laws  of  the 
land,  and  treat  it  as  their  native  country;  and  they  are  dispensed  from 


WEST    LONDON    SYNAGOGUE,    UPPEK    BERKELEY    SQUAKE. 

ceremonial  observances  while  serving  in  the  army;  (6)  That  Jews  shall 
train  their  children  to  useful  employments,  renounce  objectionable  callings, 
and  in  every  way  try  to  gain  their  neighbours'  good-will ;  (7)  That  interest 
shall  not  be  taken  where  money  is  lent  for  the  support  .of  a  family,  but 
only  in  commercial  undertakings  and  at   legal   rates ;   (8)   That   the   last 


668  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

article,  and  the  texts  of  Scripture  on  the  subject,  apply  equally  between 
Jews  and  their  fellow-citizens ;  and  usury  is  altogether  forbidden. 

The  emperor  at  the  close  of  the  session  established  a  legal  organisation 
for  French- Jews.  Every  two  thousand  Jews  were  formed  into  a  synagogue, 
and  its  consistory  was  to  consist  of  one  chief  rabbi,  two  rabbis,  and  three 
lay  householders.  The  central  consistory  of  Paris  received  power  to  depose 
the  rabbis,  and  the  duties  of  the  rabbis  were  defined.  They  were  to  publish 
the  decrees  of  the  Sanhedrim,  to  inculcate  obedience  to  the  State  laws,  and 
to  pray  in  the  synagogues  for  the  emperor  and  his  family.  Since  1831  the 
Jewish  rabbis  have  been  paid  by  the  French  State. 

After  the  Norman  conquest  Jews  settled  in  England  in  considerable 
numbers,  and  gradually  became  most  important  aids  in  the  financial 
The  Jews  in  arrangements  of  kings  and  nobles.  In  1290,  however,  they 
England.  were  expelled,  and  did  not  return  in  any  number  till  about  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  They  were  not  formally  allowed  to  settle 
in  this  country  again  until  1657,  when  Manasseh  ben  Israel,  a  rabbi  from 
Amsterdam,  obtained  a  decision  from  Cromwell's  Council  of  State  in  their 
favour.  The  modern  history  of  the  emancipation  of  the  Jews  from  civil 
and  religious  disabilities  is  well-known.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  be- 
tween sixty  and  seventy  thousand  Jews  in  England,  of  whom  over  forty 
thousand  are  in  London,  chiefly  belonging  to  the  Ashkenazim,  or  Grerman- 
Polish  section.  The  Sephardim,  or  Spanish-Portuguese  families,  do  not 
increase  in  number.  The  Ashkenazim  have  fourteen  synagogues  and' 
nineteen  minor  synagogues,  with  a  chief  rabbi ;  the  Sephardim  have  two 
synagogues,  with  an-  independent  chief  rabbi.  These  two  differ  somewhat 
in  their  pronunciation  of  Hebrew,  and  in  several  minor  matters  of  ritual. 
They  have  no  distinctions  of  seats  in  their  synagogues,  nor  lines  of  demar- 
cation in  their  cemeteries.  There  is  a  still  more  interesting  body,  repre- 
sented by  one  synagogue  only,  that  of  the  Reformed  British  Jews,  Upper 
Berkeley  Street,  Portman  Square,  a  body  founded  in  1841  in  consequence 
of  a  conviction  of  the  necessity  for  modifying  the  Jewish  service  to  suit 
modern  ideas.  Services  are  held  at  later  hours,  such  as  10.30  instead  of  at 
7  and  7.30 ;  an  improved  and  shortened  ritual  is  used,  the  best  portions  of 
the  Portuguese  and  German  liturgies  being  blended.  Singing  is  intro- 
duced ;  but  no  service,  except  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  exceeds  two  hours 
and  a  half.  Sermons  in  English  are  given  every  Sabbath  and  holy  day  at 
morning  service.  Numerous  services  on  holy  days  not  appointed  by  Scrip- 
ture, are  given  up,  and  only  one  day  of  each  of  the  great  festivals  is  observed. 
They  do  not  acknowledge  the  authority  of  the  oral  law  nor  that  of  the  chief 
rabbi.     There  are  similar  congregations  at  Manchester  and  Bradford. 

The  Jews  are  most  numerous  in  Austria  (1£  million),  where  they  are 
now  comparatively  free   and  well    treated ;    and   in   Russia   (2?  millions), 
Jews  in      where  they  are  more  harshly  treated  than  in  any  other  country, 
various  coun-  They  number  200,000  in  Roumania,  many  being  descendants  of 
Spanish  Jews ;  and  among  them  are  many  farmers  and  handi- 
craftsmen.    They  are  numerous  in  Constantinople  and  in  Asiatic  Turkey ; 


JUDAISM  AFTER    THE   PROPHETS. 


669 


there  are  25,000  Jews  in  Smyrna  and  30,000  in  Bagdad.  There  are  15,000 
in  Jerusalem,  mainly  occupied  in  studying  the  Talmud,  being  supported  by 
their  brethren  throughout  the  world.  The  Jerusalem  Jews,  who  include  all 
branches  of  the  stock,  by  no  means  all  dress  alike.  The  Sephardim  wear 
ordinary  Eastern  garb,  the  Russian  and  Polish  Jews  have  long  silk  or  cloth 
gowns  and  fur  caps,  while  the  Germans  retain  their  national  garb  of  a  cen- 
tury ago  with  a  flat  wideawake  hat.  There  are  several  hundred  thousand 
Jews  in  Morocco  and  Tripoli,  who  in  some  parts  even  lead  a  nomadic  life. 
In  the  United  States  they  are  numerous  and  rich,  and  have  many  fine 
synagogues.  Some  of  them  observe  the  Sabbath  on  Sunday,  others  use 
English  prayers  and  have  disused  Hebrew,  and  many  are  lax  in  their  ritual. 


GREAT    SYNAGOGUE,    DDKE'S    PLACE,    ALDGATE. 

"We  must  briefly  notice  the  Beni  Israel  of  Bombay,  about  five  thousand 
in  number,  chiefly  artisans,  who  say  that  they  descend  from  a  ship's  com- 
pany of  passengers  wrecked  on  that  coast  more  than  a  thousand  The 
years  ago  They  are  strict  observers  of  the  Sabbath,  observe  Beni  Israel, 
the  great  Jewish  festivals,  and  refrain  from  unclean  fish  or  flesh  ;  and  they 
have  a  markedly  Jewish  type  of  face.  They  have  leaders  who  act  as  high 
priests  as  well  as  civil  leaders.  The  Beni  Israel  speak  Marathi ;  few  know 
Hebrew.     They  seldom  intermarry  with  ordinary  Jews. 

[Ewald:  "History  of  Israel,"  vols.  5-8.  Schiirer :  "  Jewish  people  in  the  time  of  Christ"  (T.  &  T. 
Clark).  Hershon :  "Genesis  according  to  the  Talmud."  "The  Palestinian  Talmud,"  translated 
into  French  by  M  Schwab.  "  Literary  Remains  of  Emanuel  Deutsch."  M'Clintock  and  Strong  : 
"  Cyclopaedia  of  Theological  and  Ecclesiastical  Literature."] 


'Jim. 


JEWISH    WEDDING.       UNDER   THE    "  CHUPAH." 


CHAPTER    VI. 


iflotimt  3fim'9f)  $.ftual«— CIk  Harattrs  antr  Samaritans;. 

Synagogue  government— Chief  rabbi— Other  officials— The  ruler— Arrangement  of  synagogue- 
Costume  during  service— Fringes— Phylacteries-  Form  of  daily  services — The  Shema  and  bless- 
ings—Sabbath services— Reading  the  law— Sabbath  observance— New  moons— The  New  Year 
feast— Days  of  repentance— Day  of  atonement— Feast  of  tabernacles— Other  feasts— The  Pass- 
over—Feast of  Pentecost— Fasts— Children— Marriage— The  Mezuzah— Divorce  — Siokness,  death 
and  burial— The  Kabbalah— The  Zohar— The  Karaites— Their  view  of  Jesus  Christ— The  Samari- 
tans— Early  history— Samaritan  Pentateuch— Liturgy— Principal  beliefs— Fasts,  Sabbaths,  etc. 

WE  will  now  review  some  of  the  principal  events  and  ceremonies  among 
the  modern  Jews,1  with  special  relation  to  the  British  Jews.  Each 
synagogue  constitutes  a  distinct  community,  independent  except  in  a  few 
synagogue  particulars,  in  which  all  are  related  to  a  central  authority,  corn- 
government,  posed  of  the  Chief  Rabbi  and  three  members  eminent  for  learn- 
ing and  piety,  nominated  by  him  and  approved  by  the  majority  of  the  syna- 
gogues. These  constitute  the  House  of  Judgment,  and  meet  twice  a  week 
to  settle  all  religious,  social,  and  civil  questions  brought  before  them.  His 
colleagues  cannot  act  without  the  Chief  Rabbi  ;  they  act  for  life  unless  they 

,  „  ^,  betray  their  trust.    The  title  of  Chief  Rabbi  must  be  conferred  bv 
Chief  Rabbi.  •  n  •  ■ 

a  meeting  of  at  least  three  chief  rabbis  ;  and  thus  in  most  cases 

it  is  decided  by  foreign  Jews  ;  but  the  synagogues  vote  for  the  candidates  in 

proportion  to  the  money  they  have  subscribed  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Chief 

Rabbi.     His  duties  are  to  perform  all  marriages  of  London  Jews,  to  lecture 

once  a  month  at  the  great  synagogue,  Duke's  Place,  Aldgate;  to  superintend 


1  John  Mills  :  "  The  British  Jews. 


Ginsburg:  Articles  in  "  Kitto's  Cyclopaedia." 
670 


MODERN  JEWISH  RITUAL.  671 

all  the  shochet,  or  killers  of  animals  for  food,  to  visit  the  Jewish  schools  and 

colleges,  etc.,  and  to  exercise  a  general  jurisdiction  over  all  the  synagogues 

in  his  province.     In  England  there  is  a  rabbi  at  Manchester  appointed  by 

the  Chief  Rabbi,  but  no  other  person  in  England  has  this  high  title.    One  of 

the  strangest  things  in  the  history  of  the  Jews  is  the  decayed  condition  of 

the  yriesthood,  who,  since  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  have 

had  no  special  and  exclusive  functions,  the  sacrifices  being  no  longer  offered. 

It  does  not  even  appear  to  be  necessary  that  the  Chief  Rabbi  should  be  of 

priestly  descent.     The  Levites,  too,  are  in  many  cases  able  to  trace  their 

descent   from   the   tribe  of  Levi,    but   they   no   longer   have  any   special 

duties. 

The  Sophers,  or  "  Writers,"  are  skilled  writers  of  Hebrew,  who  prepare 

scrolls  of  the  law,  and  various  documents  connected  with  Jewish  ceremonies 

and  rites.     The  Shochet  are  killers  of  animals  suitable  for  Jews  _.  ,  , 

Other  officials. 

to  eat,  and  are  definitely  appointed  after  examination  by  three 

rabbis.     The  office  is  generally  held  by  the  Reader  of  the  synagogue,  unless 

the  Jews  are  numerous  in  a  town.     He  is  also  the  circumciser,  except  where 

there  are  many  Jews,  when  a  special  official  is  appointed. 

The  Reader  is  the  minister  of  the  synagogue :  there  are  generally  a 

senior  and  a  junior  Reader  for  considerable  congregations.    He  has  to  read  the 

liturgy  and  to  attend  marriages  and  funerals  of  members.     His  ___   „ 

. C,J       .  .  .  1         The  Reader, 

duties,  with  that  of  the  clerk,  are  minutely  specified  and  rather 

onerous.  Elections  of  Readers  are  made  by  the  congregation,  after  due 
nomination  and  selection  of  candidates  by  the  committee.  Candidates  for 
the  office  may  be  of  any  nation  or  congregation,  most  of  the  readers  in 
England  being  German  or  Polish  Jews.  The  congregation  have  consider- 
able power  over  matters  concerning  them  in  general  or  members  in  particular, 
having  the  right  to  attend  meetings,  in  which  everything  is  decided  by  the 
vote  of  the  majority. 

The  synagogue  (commonly  called  schid,  from  the  German  schule,  by  the 
Ashkenazim)  is  more  formally  termed  "  Beth  Haknesseth  "  (house  of  the 
assembly)  in  documents.  The  interior  of  the  building  is  divided  Arrangement 
into  two  parts,  the  floor  with  open  seats  for  males,  the  gallery  (withof  synas°&ue- 
lattice- work  in  front)  for  females,  who  are  not  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
congregation  and  may  not  join  in  the  service.  At  the  east  end  of  the  build- 
ing is  the  Ark,  a  large  wooden  chest  contained  in  a  specially  decorated 
receptacle,  richly  veiled.  In  this  the  Law  is  kept,  wrapped  in  a  tentlike 
cover,  and  the  ceremony  of  taking  it  out  for  each  service  is  very  important. 
It  is  written  on  vellum  about  two  feet  wide,  and  of  sufficient  length  to  con- 
tain the  entire  Pentateuch,  written  in  columns.  Each  end  is  fastened  to  a 
roller,  round  one  of  which  it  is  wound  as  it  is  read,  while  it  is  correspondingly 
unwound  from  the  other.  The  writing  is  without  vowel  points,  and  is 
therefore  difficult  to  read  ;*  the  Reader  is  expected  to  refresh  his  memory 
the  evening  before  the  service.  The  reading  desk  is  a  kind  of  raised  seat  on 
which  the  Reader  stands,  surrounded  by  all  the  officers  of  the  congregation, 
seated.     The  seats  nearer  to  the  Ark  are  the  more  honourable,  and  are 


672  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

correspondingly  expensive.     At  the  west  end  of  the  synagogue  a  lamp  is 
kept  always  burning,  to  represent  the  Shechinah  of  the  old  Temple. 

Jewish  services  are  unlike  those  of  Christians  and  most  other  religious 
bodies  in  requiring  the  wearing  of  hats  throughout,  and  in  kneeling  forming 
costume  110  part  of  the  ritual,  except  on  the  first  two  days  of  their  year 
during:  service.  an(j  011  the  Day  of  Atonement.  The  males  wear  a  special  scarf 
with  fringes,  known  as  talith,  which  is  a  smaller  outer  representative  of  the 
eg  "arbang  kanphoth  "  worn  underneath  the  outer  dress.  It  has 
four  corners,  with  fringes  attached  to  each,  usually  of  eight 
threads  nine  inches  long,  arranged  in  a  peculiar  way.  The  under  garment 
which  it  represents  was  formerly  the  outer  one  worn  by  Jews  at  all  times, 
but  transferred  beneath  in  times  of  persecution.  It  is  about  three  feet  long 
and  one  foot  wide,  with  a  hole  in  the  centre  sufficient  to  let  it  pass  over  the 
head,  so  that  part  falls  in  front  and  part  behind.  The  necessity  for  wearing 
such  a  garment  is  based  on  Numbers  xv.  37-41.  The  fringes  are  so  arranged 
and  knotted  that  they  constitute  a  perfect  symbol  of  the  entire  Law ;  and 
the  rabbis  have  even  said  that  the  law  about  fringes  is  as  important  as  all 
the  rest  put  together.  More  than  one  instance  of  anxiety  to  touch  the 
fringes  (rendered  "  hem  "  in  the  Authorised  Version)  of  Jesus's  garment  is 
recorded  in  the  Gospels  ;  and  He  rebuked  the  Pharisees  for  enlarging  their 
fringes  in  the  idea  that  they  thereby  served  God  better. 

The  phylacteries,  or  tephillin,  are  another  important  part  of  a  Jew's 
service-costume.  They  are  small  square  boxes  of  parchment  in  which  are 
Ph  1  t  '  placed  four  slips  of  parchment  an  inch  wide  and  eight  inches 
long,  containing  four  extracts  from  Exodus  (xiii.  2-10,  11-16)  and 
Deuteronomy  (vi.  4-9,  13-21)  carefully  written  in  Hebrew,  the  writing 
folded  inside.  In  the  lid  of  the  box  is  fixed  a  leather  thong,  about  two 
yards  long,  for  binding  the  phylactery  round  the  head  and  arm.  One  of 
these  is  bound  round  the  forehead  of  every  male  Jew  above  thirteen  years 
old,  and  another  on  the  left  arm,  at  morning  prayer,  whether  in  the  syna- 
gogue or  at  home,  except  on  sabbaths  and  on  festivals.  While  putting  them 
on,  the  pious  Jew  repeats  several  forms  of  benediction.  It  was  these  phylac- 
teries which  the  Pharisees,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  wore  of  unusual  size  that 
they  might  be  conspicuous  at  a  distance,  indicating  that  they  were  at 
prayer  or  engaged  in  religious  meditation.  Maimonides  says  :  "  The  sacred 
influence  of  the  phylacteries  is  very  great ;  for  as  long  as  one  wears  them 
on  his  head  and  arm  he  is  obliged  to  be  meek,  God-fearing,  must  not  suffer 
himself  to  be  carried  away  by  laughter  or  idle  talk,  nor  indulge  in  evil 
thoughts  ;  but  must  turn  his  attention  to  the  words  of  truth  and  uprightness." 
Devout  Jews  are  expected  to  observe  a  very  onerous  amount  of  ritual 
and  prayer ;  but  the  prescribed  service  consists  entirely  of  reading  and 
Form  of  daily  singing  prayers  and  portions  of  Scripture,  without  any  comment, 
services.  Such  sermons  and  lectures  as  are  given  are  outside  the  ordinary 
routine.  The  daily  service  ought  properly  to  be  gone  through  three  times 
a  day — morning,  afternoon,  and  evening— at  least  privately.  The  morning 
service,  as  soon  as  may  be  after  dawn  (usually  about  7  or  7.30),  is  the  most 


MODERN  JE  WISH  RITUAL. 


673 


important  and  lengthy.  There  are  special  ceremonies  and  recitals  on  enter- 
ing the  synagogue,  and  putting  on  the  fringed  scarf  and  the  phylacteries. 
The  service  proper  begins  with  the  Shema,  including  Deut.  vi.  4-0,  xi- 
13-21,  and  Num.  xv.  37-41  ;  beginning,  "  Hear,  0  Israel :  the  The  Shema 
Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord  :  and  thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  and  blessings, 
with  all  thine  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  might."  This 
may  be  called  a  clear  monotheistic  creed.  It  is  followed  by  a  series  ot 
eighteen  (really  nineteen)  benedictions,  believed  to  have  been  composed  by 
Ezra  and  the  members 
of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue up  to  the  time 
of  the  Roman  ascend- 
ency in  Palestine.  It 
may  be  confidently  be- 
lieved that  Jesus  and 
the  apostles  used  these 
prayers  and  benedic- 
tions, or  some  of  them, 
when  they  worshipped 
in  the  synagogues. 
They  range  through  a 
very  striking  series  of 
praises  of  God,  prayers 
for  mercy  and  forgive- 
ness, for  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  the  Israel- 
itish  kingdom,  and  for 
well-being  and  guid- 
ance. One  of  them, 
believed  by  many  to 
have  been  added  in 
Christian  times,  prays 
for  the  destruction  of 
apostates.  Other 
prayers  and  psalms 
may  be  interspersed 
in  the  service,  which 
lasts   an    hour   and    a  removing  scrolls  of  the  law  fuou  the  ark — 

half.      The    afternoon  WEST  L0ND0N  synagogue. 

service,  before  sunset,  is  held  continuously  with  the  evening  service,  be- 
ginning at  sunset.  The  services  are  similar  to  that  of  the  morning,  but 
shorter.  On  Mondays  and  Thursdays,  certain  penitential  prayers  and 
portions  of  the  Law  are  added,  and  on  these  days  some  Jews  fast. 

The  Sabbath  services  of  the  Jews  are  four  :  the  first  about  sunset  on 
Friday,  the  ordinary  service  having  some  special  psalms  and  prayers  added 
to  it  as  a  reception  of  the  Sabbath.     The  principal  morning  service  is  at  a 

x  x 


674  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

later  hour  than  on  other  mornings,  about  8.30,  or  even  so  late  as  10.30  in 
sabbath  reformed  congregations.  The  daily  service  is  first  gone  through  ; 
services.  next  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Torah  or  Pentateuch  is  read, 
the  whole  being  so  divided  as  to  be  gone  through  once  a  year.  This  is  followed 
by  a  selection  from  the  prophetical  writings ;  and  the  whole  concludes  with 
prayers  and  portions  of  the  Law  relating  to  the  former  Temple  sacrifices. 

The  Reading  of  the  Law  is  a  ceremony  of  great  import  in  Jewish 
eyes.  Several  officials  are  designated  to  assist  in  it,  and  these  offices  are 
Reading  the  eaSerty  sought  and  paid  for  by  devout  Jews,  considerable  sums 
Law.  being  often  given  in  order  to  gain  the  honour.  A  special  person 
is  deputed  to  go  up  with  the  Reader  to  the  ark,  and  carry  the  scroll  to  the 
reading  desk ;  and  seven  persons  are  called  up  to  stand  one  by  one  by  the 
side  of  the  reader,  as  each  of  the  seven  sections,  into  which  the  Law  for  the 
day  is  divided,  is  read.  When  the  ark  is  opened,  and  when  the  scroll  is 
taken  out,  special  portions  of  the  Law  are  recited  by  the  congregation. 
There  are  also  special  introductions  by  the  Reader  and  attendants  at  each 
stage,  and  responses  by  the  congregation.  The  reading  of  the  Prophets  is 
accompanied  by  similar,  though  less  elaborate  forms.  The  Sabbath  after- 
noon service  is  nearly  like  that  of  ordinary  days,  and  is  separate  from  the 
Sabbath  evening  service,  when,  in  addition  to  prayers  like  the  daily  service, 
certain  psalms  are  read.  A  slight  amount  of  music  is  introduced  into  the 
services  ;  the  Reader  reads  with  a  certain  special  musical  intonation  having 
sixteen  different  accents,  constituting  a  sort  of  formal  cantillation.  Melodies, 
some  ancient,  some  more  modern,  are  also  sung  by  the  Reader  and  congre- 
gation, or  by  a  special  choir. 

The  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  among  strict  Jews,  is  very  much  the 
same  as  it  always  has  been.  It  is  marked  by  cessation  from  ordinary  work, 
sabbath  bathing  and  other  special  preparations  preceding  its  commence- 
observance.  ment.  The  women  often  do  not  attend  the  synagogue  services, 
but  repeat  prayers  at  home.  At  the  Friday  evening  meal  the  children  ask 
the  father's  blessing,  and  all  then  join  in  a  Sabbath  hymn,  referring  to  the 
ministering  angels,  who  are  believed  to  visit  and  remain  in  the  dwelling 
throughout  the  Sabbath.  After  this  a  part  of  the  thirty-first  chapter  of 
Proverbs  is  read  as  a  lesson  to  the  female  portion  of  the  family.  The 
Sabbath  is  then  consecrated  by  blessing  the  specially  prepared  bread  and 
wine.  Two  oblong  loaves  of  fine  flour  are  baked  by  the  mistress  and  placed 
upon  the  table,  to  commemorate  the  double  portion  of  manna  gathered  in 
the  wilderness  on  Fridays  for  the  Sabbaths.  One  of  the  loaves  is  broken 
and  distributed  by  the  master,  with  a  blessing.  The  Sabbath  morning 
service  should  be  attended  before  any  meal  is  taken,  and  then  not  until  the 
special  "  sanctification  of  the  Sabbath  "  has  been  said,  including  the  fourth 
commandment.  There  are  numerous  other  formal  ceremonies ;  but  beyond 
their  observance  and  refraining  from  prohibited  actions,  which  is  only  kept 
up  by  the  stricter  Jews,  it  is  the  rule  to  spend  the  day  in  various  forms  of 
pleasure  and  recreation.  Non-Jewish  servants  are  usually  engaged  to  do 
things  which  Jews  must  not  do  on  the  Sabbath. 


MODE  RN  JE  WISH  RITUAL.  6  7  5 

The  numerous  feasts  and  fasts  of  the  Jewish  calendar  are  kept  with  a 
varying  degree  of  strictness,  the  great  days  being  most  observed.  The  first 
day  of  every  lunar  month  is  marked  by  several  additions  to  the 
ordinary  services,  praying  for  blessings  for  the  month.  Some 
Jews  hold  a  special  meeting  for  the  salutation  of  the  moon,  sometimes  be- 
tween the  third  and  fifteenth  of  the  month  ;  the  face  of  the  moon  being 
looked  upon  as  a  Shechinah,  or  symbol  of  the  Divine  glory.  The  first  month 
of  the  civil  year,  Tisri,  answering  nearly  to  our  October,  is  believed  to  be 
that  in  which  the  world  was  created,  and  in  which  the  destiny  The  New 
of  all  persons  was  settled  by  God.  The  first  and  second  days  are  YearFast- 
therefore  kept  much  like  a  Sabbath,  with  additional  prayers  and  passages  of 
Scripture.  After  the  first  service,  all  salute  each  other  with  "  May  you  be 
writ  to  a  good  year."  At  the  first  evening  meal  the  master  of  the  house 
cuts  up  a  sweet  apple  and  divides  it  between  those  present ;  each  then  dips 
his  piece  in  a  cup  of  honey  and  eats  it,  saying,  "  To  a  good  year  and  a  sweet 
one."  After  the  morning  service  there  is  the  ceremony  of  blowing  the  rani's 
horn  as  a  proclamation  to  all  men  to  repent,  and  as  a  reminder  of  the 
giving  of  the  Law,  and  of  the  great  day  of  coming  judgment.  Special  pre- 
paration for  blowing  the  horn  is  needed,  and  a  special  prayer  is  offered 
before  it  is  blown.  Various  readings  and  prayers,  with  an  address  by  the 
rabbi  or  reader,  are  interspersed  with  the  blowing  of  the  horn.  The  full 
service  lasts  about  six  hours.  The  second  day  is  kept  with  equal  strictness ; 
only  slightly  different  extracts  from  the  Law  and  the  prophets  are  read. 

The  first  ten  days  of  the  month  are  days  of  repentance  and  confession 
of  sins,  which,  it  is  said,  can  arrest  the  evil  decrees  which  fate  would  other- 
wise register.  Such  repentance,  to  bring  a  happy  year,  must  Days  of 
take  place  before  sunset  on  the  Day  of  Atonement.  On  the  ninth  RePentance- 
day,  after  breakfast,  fowls  are  killed  by  heads  of  families,  as  representing 
atoning  sacrifices.  After  the  synagogue  service  visits  are  paid  to  the  burial 
grounds,  to  invoke  the  intercession  of  the  dead  on  the  next  day.  The 
congregation  return  to  the  synagogue  in  the  afternoon  and,  after  services, 
the  more  devout  subject  themselves  to  the  "  whip  of  correction  "  from  one 
another,  "  forty  stripes  save  one  "  being  given  with  a  leather  thong.  They 
then  return  home  for  their  last  meal  before  the  great  Fast  Day.  Every 
member  of  the  family  is  required  to  be  reconciled  if  at  variance,  and 
children  ask  forgiveness  of  their  parents,  who  bless  and  pray  for  them. 

The  evening  service  which  follows  in  the  synagogue  ushers  in  the  great 
Day  of  Atonement  (Yom  Kippur)..  It  begins  with  a  form  of  absolution  for 
all  rash  or  unfulfilled  vows,  oaths,  etc.  A  three  hours'  service  Day  of 
follows.  Next  morning  service  recommences  about  six  o'clock  Atonement- 
and  lasts  till  the  evening,  no  meal  being  taken  during  the  twenty-four 
hours.  Appropriate  prayers  are  followed  by  the  reading  of  portions  of  the 
Law.  Next  follow  the  portions  of  the  Law  relating  to  the  sacrifices ; 
after  which  the  priests,  after  ablution,  pronounce  the  blessing  from 
Numbers  vi.  23-27  (see  illustration,  p.  653),  standing  in  a  row  in  front 
of    the   ark,    covering   their   heads   and    faces   with   their   scarves.     Next 


676  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

follows  the  afternoon  service,  very  full ;  and  finally  comes  the  great  con- 
cluding prayer  (Nengilah,  a  closing  or  bolting),  indicating  that  the  time  of 
repentance  is  over  and  the  destiny  of  each  is  fixed.  The  trumpet  is  then 
blown,  and  the  service  proper  closes  with  the  words,  "  Next  year  we  shall 
be  in  Jerusalem."  But  another  half-hour  of  prayer  follows,  and  the  fast  is 
over  at  about  six  o'clock.  This  day's  service  is  attended  by  very  many 
Jews  who  do  not  keep  the  other  festivals  or  even  attend  the  Sabbath  ser- 
vices. The  Jewish  Free  School  is  used  to  accommodate  the  overflow  audi- 
ences. Many  wear  only  stockings  or  cloth  boots  on  their  feet  during  the 
service  ;  no  leather  nor  any  gold  ornaments  may  be  worn. 

On  the  fifteenth  of  the  same  month  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Succoth) 
begins  ;  booths,  or  representatives  of  them,  having  been  previously  prepared 
Feast  of  either  within  or  outside  the  houses.  The  Feast  is  celebrated  with 
Tabernacles.  Speciai  prayers  and  references  to  the  occasion.  There  is  a  special 
ceremony  with  branches  of  palm,  myrtle,  and  willow,  held  in  the  hand,  and 
waved  about  by  the  Reader  during  the  synagogue  service  while  the  Hallel 
is  being  sung.  Near  the  end  of  the  afternoon  service,  the  officers  take  a 
scroll  of  the  Law  out  of  the  ark  and  march  in  procession — the  Law  being 
carried  in  front — round  the  reading-desk,  and  holding  the  branches  in  their 
right  hands.  At  every  meal  during  the  feast  the  account  of  dwelling  in 
booths  from  Leviticus  xxiii.  has  to  be  repeated.  On  the  seventh  day  (the 
Great  Hosanna)  every  one,  male  and  female,  attends  the  synagogue  with 
branches  of  willow  ;  and  seven  ■scrolls  of  the  Law  are  carried  round  the  desk 
in  procession  seven  times,  hymns  and  prayers  being  sung  meanwhile. 
After  prayers  every  one  beats  the  leaves  off  his  willow  branches,  it  being  a 
good  omen  if  they  fall  off  easily.  The  eighth  day  is  kept  as  a  special  feast, 
like  the  first  two  days.  The  ninth  day  is  that  on  which  the  last  and  the 
first  sections  of  the  Law  are  read,  and  it  is  kept  as  a  feast  termed  "  the 
rejoicing  of  the  Law."  There  are  processions  again,  in  which  it  is  a  great 
honour  to  join,  and  after  service  special  festivities  take  place  in  honour  of 
the  law. 

In  the  third  month,  on  the  25th  and  following  days,  the  feast  of  dedi- 
cation is  held,  in  memory  of  the  renewed  dedication  of  the  Temple  at  Jeru- 
salem by  Mattathias  after  its  pollution  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
other  eas  s.  ^  ^^  ^  ^ie  fourth  month  commemorates  the  beginning  of  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  as  the  starting-point  of  the  calamities 
of  Israel.  The  feast  of  Purim  is  held  on  the  14th  and  15th  of  the  sixth 
month,  Adar,  to  celebrate  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  as  recorded  in  the 
Book  of  Esther,  the  previous  day  (13th)  being  kept  as  "  the  fast  of  Esther." 
At  the  first  service  of  the  feast,  on  the  evening  of  the  13th,  the  Book  of 
Esther  is  read  from  a  special  scroll,  and  whenever  the  name  of  Haman  is 
read  the  congregation  stamp  on  the  floor,  and  say,  "  Let  his  name  be  blotted 
out."  The  names  of  Haman  and  his  sons  are  read  very  rapidly  to  signify 
their  sudden  destruction.  These  days  are  kept  as  special  occasions  of  merry- 
making. 

The  Passover  falls  in  the  seventh  month  (Nisan),  the    Sabbath  pre- 


MODERN  JE  WISH  RITUAL. 


677 


ceding  it  being  called  the  Great  Sabbath,  when  the  Rabbi  expounds  the  laws 

and  duties  pertaining  to  the  festival.     During  the  eight  days  no  ^  _ 

^  °  .  e>  o  j  The  Passover. 

leavened  bread-  or  fermented  wine  is  drunk.  The  bread  used  is 
in  the  form  of  large  thin  wheaten  cakes  of  circular  shape,  and  it  is  baked 
for  all  the  United  Kingdom  under  the  special  superintendence  of  the  Chief 
Rabbi  and  a  staff  of  watchers,  who  carefully  prevent  all  chance  of  fermenta- 
tion. The  wine  used  in  the  ceremonies  is  also  carefully  prepared  under 
Jewish  supervision.  Some  substitutes,  a  cheap  raisin  wine,  rum,  French 
brandy,  etc.,  are  also  used.  On  the  Passover  eve  the  houses  are  searched  for 
leaven,  and  everything  is  cleansed.  The  firstborn  are  expected  to  fast  on 
this  day.  The  Passover  feast  is  celebrated  in  the  family  on  the  evening  of 
the  first  day.     Certain  cakes  called  Israelite,  Levite  and  Kohen,  a  shankbone 


POTTING    ON    PHYLACTERIES. 


PHYLACTERIES,    AS    WORN    IN    THE 
GARB    OF    PRAYEB. 


of  lamb,  an  egg  roasted  in  hot  ashes,  some  lettuce  and  other  herbs,  some  salt 
water  and  vinegar  (in  memory  of  the  Red  Sea),  and  some  almonds,  apples, 
etc.  (mixed  up  like  lime  to  commemorate  the  bricks  and  mortar  of  Egypt), 
are  placed  on  the  table.  Every  one  at  table  (including  every  Jewish  ser- 
vant) drinks  four  glasses  or  cups  of  wine,  and  special  blessings  are  said  with 
each.  Each  article  of  food  is  distributed  with  special  reference  to  the  events 
commemorated,  as  "  This  is  the  bread  of  affliction,  which  our  ancestors  ate 
in  the  land  of  Egypt."  A  cup  of  wine  is  set  for  the  prophet  Elijah  (or 
Elias)  who  is  always  expected  to  appear  as  the  forerunner  of  the  Messiah. 
After  filling  the  last  cup  of  wine,  the  Hallel  is  repeated,  together  with  an 
account  of  the  mighty  deeds  done  at  midnight  and  on  the  days  of  Passover. 
After  the  fourth  cup  of  wine,  the  Paschal  hymn  is  sung  with  great  joy,  in- 


678  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

eluding  frequent  repetitions  and  variations  of  such  phrases  as  "  The 
Illustrious  One  builds  his  house  soon,"  with  many  names  of  God — as  the 
Hallowed,  the  Powerful,  the  Strong  One,  the  Redeemer,  the  Just  One.  The 
next  evening  is  spent  in  a  very  similar  way.  Special  portions  of  Scripture 
are  read  at  the  public  services,  with  Rabbinical  and  Kabbalistic  poems. 

The  Feast  of  Pentecost  takes  place  on  the  ninth  month,  or  the  fiftieth 
day  from  the  second  Passover  day.  It  commemorates  the  giving  of  the 
Feast  of  Law  on  Mount  Sinai.  The  synagogues  are  decked  with  flowers, 
Pentecost.  anci  ^g  nouses  with  flowers  and  fragrant  herbs,  as  a  reminder  of 
the  open  country  in  which  the  Law  was  given.  There  are  special  addresses 
and  forms  of  sanctification  extolling  the  blessings  given  to  the  Jews  in  the 
Law,  and  on  the  second  day  the  Book  of  Ruth  is  read  through. 

A  fast  is  kept  in  the  month  of  January,  on  the  day  when  Moses  is 
supposed  to  have  broken  the  tables  of  the  Law,  and  when  Jerusalem  was 
Fasts  destroyed  the  second  time.  In  the  eleventh  month  is  a  strict 
fast  in  memory  of  the  destruction  of  the  first  and  second  Temples, 
and  the  Book  of  Lamentations  and  mournful  prayers  are  read  in  the 
synagogue  service.  At  the  morning  service  even  the  fringes  and  phylac- 
teries are  laid  aside. 

A  few  particulars  remain  to  be  given  about  the  domestic  regulations  of 
the  Jews.  Circumcision  of  male  children  on  the  eighth  to  the  twelfth  day 
after  birth  is  regularly  performed  with  a  religious  ceremony,  a  Hebrew 
name,  for  religious  use,  being  then  given.  The  firstborn  child  of  a  mother, 
if  a  male,  is  "redeemed"  when  thirty  days  old,  by  a  ceremonial  offering  of 
him  to  a  priest,  and  the  payment  of  a  few  shillings  to  the  priest. 

The  first  religious  instruction  given  to  a  Jewish  child,  to   be  repeated 

immediately  after  waking  in  the  morning,  is  the  following:  "I  acknowledge 

before  Thee,  the  living  and  everlasting  King,  that  Thou  hast 
Children.  _ 

returned  my  soul  to  me,  in  Thy  great  mercy  and  faithfulness." 

He  is  very  early  dressed  in  the  four-cornered  scarf  with  the  fringes  already 
alluded  to,  and  instructed  in  its  significance.  Children  are  entirely  under 
the  control  of  their  parents  or  guardians,  till  the  thirteenth  year  has  been 
completed.  A  boy  then  becomes  "  Bar  Mitsvah,"  "  a  son  of  command- 
ment," and  is  expected  to  take  up  full  personal  religious  duties.  He  is 
called  to  the  desk  to  read  a  portion  of  the  Law  on  the  first  Sabbath  after  his 
attaining  his  thirteenth  year,  and  he  now  begins  to  wear  the  phylacteries. 

Marriage  is  often  arranged  by  go-betweens  or  match-makers.  Formal 
betrothal  precedes  marriage  by  six  or  twelve  months  or  more  ;  and  on  the 
.  Friday  evening  before  the  wedding  the  Reader  refers  to  it  in  a 
chanted  address.  Fasting  on  the  wedding  morning  is  most  ap- 
proved, the  service  taking  place  in  the  afternoon  at  the  synagogue.  Ten. 
adult  persons  must  be  present.  A  canopy  (chupah)  of  silk  or  velvet,  about 
two  yards  square,  is  erected  in  the  middle  of  the  synagogue,  supported  by 
four  long  poles  ;  under  it  the  bride  and  bridegroom  are  led  by  their  friends. 
(See  p.  670.)  The  Rabbi  takes  a  glass  of  wine,  pronounces  an  appropriate 
wedding  blessing,  and  gives  the  wine  to  the  bride  and  bridegroom,  who 


MODERN  JE  WISH  RITUA  L.  679 

taste  it,  and  then  the  bridegroom,  putting  a  ring  on  the  bride's  finger,  says 
in  Hebrew  :  "  Behold  thou  art  betrothed  to  me  with  this  ring,  according  to 
the  rites  of  Moses  and  Israel."  The  marriage  contract  (in  Aramaic)  is  read 
aloud  by  the  Rabbi,  after  which  the  "Reader,  taking  another  glass  of  wine, 
pronounces  a  blessing,  and  hands  the  wine  to  the  bride  and  bridegroom,  who 
taste  it.  An  empty  glass  is  then  laid  on  the  floor,  the  bridegroom  stamps 
upon  it  and  breaks  it,  all  present  cry  out  "  Mezal  Tov,"  ("  Good  Luck,")  and 
the  ceremony  is  concluded. 

One  of  the  earliest  duties  of  a  Jew,  after  setting  up  a  house  for  himself, 
is  to  prepare  a  "  Mezuzah,"  literally,  "door-post,"  in  order  to  fulfil  the  re- 
quirement in  Deut.  vi.  4-9,  and  xi.  13-21,  to  write  the  law  on  his 
cloor-post  and  on  his  gate.  A  tin  case  or  glass  tube,  is  provided, 
in  which  a  piece  of  vellum  is  placed,  with  the  above  passages  written  in 
Hebrew.  On  the  outer  side  is  written  the  word  "  Shaddai,"  one  of  the 
names  of  God,  and  a  hole  is  left  in  the  case,  opposite  to  this  word,  so  that  it 
can  be  seen  by  any  one  passing.  This  case  is  nailed  in  a  slanting  position 
on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  door-post  by  the  master  of  the  house.  De- 
vout Jews  kiss  the  Mezuzah  before  going  to  their  daily  work. 

Divorce  is  performed  by  the  husband  giving  the  wife  a  formal  "  bill  of 

divorcement,"  and  can  only  be  granted  for  serious  causes.     It  is  pronounced 

in  the  presence  of  ten  witnesses  besides  the  parties.     A  divorced 

Divorcs. 
woman  ma}T  not    marry  again  within   ninety  days.     A  bill   of 

divorcement  conditional  on  the  husband's   non-return  from  foreign  parts 

within  three  or  more  3Tears,  is  also  sometimes  given. 

"When  a  Jew  becomes  very  ill,  there  are  many  prayers  and  confessions 

which  he  is  expected  to  repeat ;   and  he  is  urged  to  ask  pardon  of  any  one 

he  may  have  injured.     There  is  a  special  form  of  public  thanks-    Sickness 

giving  on  recovering  from  illness.     When  death  is  imminent,  the  Death,  and 
&         &  y        .  .  '  Burial, 

sick  man  blesses  his  children,  placing  his  hands  on  the  head  of 

each,  and  repeating  such  passages  as  Gen.  xlviii.  20 ;  Num.  vi.  2-4,  26  ;  Isa. 
xi.  2  ;  and  he  exhorts  them  to  persevere  in  their  fathers'  faith,  and  to  observe 
the  usual  mourning  ceremonies.  The  Burial  Society  of  the  synagogue  being 
notified,  send  four  members  to  watch  in  the  sick  room  day  and  night,  and 
remain  until  the  body  is  placed  in  the  coffin.  Various  prayers  are  chanted 
by  them  ;  and  finally,  when  the  sick  man  is  at  the  point  of  death,  several 
passages  are  repeated  solemnly  several  times,  such  as  "  Blessed  be  the  name 
of  His  glorious  kingdom  for  ever  and  ever,"  "  The  Lord  is  the  only  God," 
and  "  Hear,  0  Israel,  the  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord."  The  last  words  "  one 
Lord  "  are  to  be  said  at  the  moment  of  death.  After  a  few  minutes,  all 
make  a  small  rent  in  one  of  their  garments,  saying,  "  Blessed  art  Thou,  0 
Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  universe,  the  righteous  Judge."  Another  de- 
claration is  made  in  an  hour  after  death,  including  the  phrase,  "  Dust  thou 
art,  and  unto  dust  thou  shalt  return."  There  are  many  interesting  points 
in  regard  to  purification  of  the  body  and  preparation  for  the  funeral,  which 
we  cannot  detail.  Very  simple  deal  coffins  are  used  for  both  rich  and  poor 
alike.     The  corpse  is  dressed  in  a  complete  set  of  linen  garments,  including 


68o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

the  fringed  scarf.  The  funeral  is  conducted  with  simple  but  extremely 
appropriate  ceremonies.  Seven  days'  mourning  is  enjoined  after  a  funeral, 
during  which  the  mourners  must  do  no  work  at  all,  nor  take  any  amuse- 
ment. They  are  comforted  by  the  visits  of  friends,  who  bring  them  "  meals 
of  condolence,"  consisting  of  hard-boiled  eggs  and  bread.  For  thirty  days 
afterwards  no  enjoyments  or  recreations  must  be  taken  ;  and  pleasures  are 
greatly  restricted  for  twelve  months.  There  is  a  special  prayer  for  the  dead 
(Kaddish),  or  rather  a  form  of  praise  to  God,  which  should  be  said  morning 
and  evening  by  a  devout  son  for  eleven  months  after  the  death  of  a  parent. 

The  Kabbalah  is  a  celebrated  system  of  theosophy,  which,  arising 
among  the  Jews  in  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  centuries,  has  since  exercised 
The  an  important  influence  among  both  Jews  and  Christians.  It  is  a 
Kabbaiaii.  doctrine  received  by  oral  tradition,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
handed  down  from  the  times  of  the  first  man.  It  regards  God  as  a  Being 
above  everything,  even  above  being  and  thinking.  He  is  called  En  Soph, 
"without  end,"  "  boundless,"  and  is  absolute  and  incomprehensible.  The 
world  is  created  through  the  medium  of  ten  intelligences  or  Sephiroth,  one, 
which  was  eternally  existent  in  the  En  Soph,  becoming  distinct  as  an 
emanation  of  the  Deity.  From  this  emanated  the  second,  from  the  second 
the  third,  and  so  on  ;  and  these  ten  form  a  complete  unity  with  the  En 
Soph,  and  are  infinite  and  perfect  when  He  imparts  His  fulness  to  them, 
and  finite  and  imperfect  when  it  is  withdrawn.  Their  finite  side  is  essen- 
tial, being  that  by  which  they  can  come  into  relation  with  the  human, 
and  they  may  even  assume  a  bodily  form.  The  ten  Sephiroth  are  divided 
into  three  groups  of  three  Sephiroth  each,  operating  respectively  upon  the 
world  of  intellect,  of  souls,  and  of  matter.  Sephira  1  is  called  the  inscrut- 
able height,  2  the  creative  wisdom,  3  the  conceiving  intellect.  From  1 
the  divine  power  proceeds,  from  2  the  angels  and  the  Old  Testament,  from 
3  the  prophetic  inspiration.  Sephira  10,  called  kingdom,  denotes  Provi- 
dence, protecting  the  Jews  in  all  their  wanderings.  These  Sephiroth 
created  the  lower  world,  everything  in  which  has  its  prototype  in  the  upper 
world  ;  they  uphold  it,  and  convey  to  it  the  Divine  mercies  through  twelve 
channels.  The  transmission  of  the  Divine  mercies  can  be  hastened  by 
prayer,  sacrifices,  and  religious  observances  ;  and  it  has  been  given  to  the 
Jewish  people  to  obtain  these  blessings  for  the  whole  world.  All  human 
souls  pre-exist  in  the  world  of  the  Sephiroth,  and  must  become  incarnated  in 
human  bodies  and  undergo  probation.  If  they  remain  pure,  they  reascend  to 
the  world  of  the  Sephiroth  ;  but  if  not,  they  must  inhabit  bodies  again  and 
again  till  they  are  purified.  The  redemption  of  Israel  cannot  take  place  till 
all  the  pre-existent  souls  have  been  born  on  earth  and  have  been  purified. 
The  soul  of  the  Messiah  is  to  be  the  last  born,  "  at  the  end  of  the  days." 
The  great  interest  of  this  system  is,  that  by  it  all  Biblical  anthropo- 
morphisms are  explained  as  describing  the  Sephiroth,  and  that  all  the 
Jewish  ritual  and  law  is  raised  in  spiritual  significance.  There  is  much 
resemblance  between  it  and  Neo-Platonism.  We  have  given  but  a  mere 
sketch  of  this  complex  system,  which  is  said  to  be  discoverable  in  veiled 


MODERN  JEWISH  RITUAL. 


681 


language  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  only  by  most  fanciful  and  arbitrary 
methods.  The  arrangement  of  triads  was  made,  even  in  the  Zohar.  to  ex- 
plain the  Trinity,  the  Messiah  and  His  atonement ;  and  this  has  persuaded 
many  Kabbalists  to  become  Christians.  Treatises  have  been  written  to 
prove  the  truth  of  Christianity  from  the  Kabbalistic  doctrines.  Pico  de 
Mirandola,  late  in  the  fifteenth  century,  maintained  in  Rome  that  "no 
science  yields  greater  proof  of  the  divinity  of  Christ  than  magic  and  the 
Kabbala ;  "  and  he  convinced  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  of  its  importance  as  a  help 


rr 


& 


1,7 1 , 


1  s-  J  V 


t  Las   J  'l^* 


: 


4 


I   '7  ] 


PASSOVEB   EVE. 


in  the  diffusion  of  Christianity,  so  that  he  set  students  to  translate  the 
Kabbalistic  writings  into  Latin.  Not  only  Pope  Leo  X.,  but  many  early 
reformers  were  fascinated  by  the  Kabbalistic  doctrine  as  set  forth  by  John 
Reuchlin. 

The  Zohar  ("  Light ")  is  as  a  Bible  to  the  Kabbalists.     It  is  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Pentateuch,   written  in  Aramaic,  assuming   to 
be  written  by  Rabbi  Simon  ben  Yochi,  about  70-110  a.d.,  but 
really  a  thirteenth  century  composition.     (See  Ginsburg,  "  The  Kabbalah 


The  Zohar. 


682  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

its  Doctrines,  Development,  and  Literature,"  1805  ;  also  in  Encyclojjcedia 
Britannica).  It  contains,  as  well  as  a  commentary,  a  number  of  separate 
treatises,  with  such  titles  as  "  The  Mansions  and  Abodes,"  "  The  Secret  of 
Secrets,"  dealing  with  physiognomy  and  psychology,  "  The  Faithful  Shep- 
herd," etc.  It  will  be  evident  that  the  Kabbala  has  something  in  common 
with  the  Hindu  and  Buddhist  philosophies ;  and  its  very  fancifulness  gives 
it  much  fascination.  It  is  another  example  of  the  irresistible  fascination 
of  speculations  about  the  unseen. 

We  must  here  give  a  brief  separate  notice  of  the  Karaites,1  one  of  the 

most  distinctive  sects  of  the  Jews,  marked  by  their  rejection  of  the  oral  law, 

or  tradition,  and  their  guidance  only  by  the  text  of  the  Old  Tes- 

The  Karaites  . 

tament.  They  appear  to  have  originated  after  the  publication  of 
the  Talmud,  and  they  represent  a  spirit  of  reform  and  reversion  to  a  simpler 
faith  and  observances.  Their  first  notable  man,  Ahnan  ben  David,  arose 
in  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  and,  having  been  rejected  from  the 
post  of  chief  patriarch  of  the  exiled  Jews  in  Bagdad  on  account  of  his 
views,  he  formed  a  congregation  of  his  own  at  Jerusalem.  He  gained  a 
large  number  of  adherents,  and  spread  his  faith,  by  messengers  and  letters, 
through  a  large  part  of  Asia  and  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean. 
His  main  tenets  were  the  supreme  authority  of  the  Law,  and  the  worthless- 
ness  of  everything  in  the  Talmud  or  other  writings  that  was  contrary  to 
the  Law  of  Moses.  He  died  in  765,  leaving  behind  him  very  many  ad- 
herents ;  and  his  sect  grew  till  the  fourteenth  century,  after  which  they 
were  largely  eclipsed.  The  present  number  of  Karaites  is  very  uncertain. 
There  are  many  in  the  Crimea  and  in  Asia,  and  some  would  reckon  among 
them  the  Reformed  Jewish  congregations  in  Western  Europe.  They  appear 
to  have  been  influenced  to  some  considerable  extent  by  Mohammedanism, 
laying  much  stress  on  prayers,  fasting,  and  pilgrimages  to  Hebron  (as  a 
tribute  to  Abraham).  They  make  the  heads  of  their  phylacteries  round 
instead  of  square,  and,  among  other  things,  extend  the  prohibition  of 
marriage  to  the  remotest  degree  of  affinity.  They  believe  in  the  unity  of 
God  the  Creator,  in  Moses  His  prophet,  in  the  perfection  of  his  Law,  in  the 
resurrection  and  day  of  judgment,  in  retribution  according  to  human  doings, 
in  the  chastisement  by  God  of  the  Jews,  and  in  hoping  for  salvation  by  the 
Messiah,  the  Son  of  David.  They  accept  the  teachings  of  the  Talmud, 
where  they  are  purely  explanatory,  without  adding  to  or  altering  the  sense, 
but  they  give  no  credit  to  its  fanciful  explanations  and  allegories.  They 
believe  that  the  Messiah  will  issue  from  themselves. 

The  attitude  of  Ahnan  towards  Jesus  is  worthy  of  note.  He  said  that 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  "  a  very  wise,  just,  holy,  and  Gocl-fearing  Man,  who 
Their  view  of  did  not  at  all  wish  to  be  recognised  as  a  prophet,  but  simply  de- 
Jesus  Christ.  srred  to  uphold  the  Law  of  Moses  and  do  away  with  the  com- 
mandments of  men."  He  therefore  condemned  the  Jews  for  having  dealt 
with  Jesus  as  an  impostor,  and  for  having  put  Him  to  death. 

The  Samaritans  are  another  community  claiming  to  be  Jews,  and  now 

1  From  Hebrew  Karaim,  readers— i.e.,  observers — of  the  written  Law. 


MODERN'  JE  WISH  RITUAL. 


683 


reduced  to  fewer  than  two  hundred  persons,  living  at  Nablous,  the  ancient 
Shechem,  in  the  centre  of  Palestine.     Historically  they  are  im-        The 
portant  for  the  circumstances  of  their  origin,  several  features  in  Samantane- 
their  history  and  worship,  and  their  preservation  of  very   ancient  manu- 
scripts of  the  Pentateuch  and  other  sacred  books,  and  of  several  interesting 
traditions.     They  originated  after  the  depopulation  of  central  Palestine  by 
the  Assj^rians  in  the  eighth  century  B.C.,  and  their  replacement       Early 
by  various  colonists  from  Babylonia.     It  appears  probable  that     history- 
some  Israelites,  perhaps  only  of  the  poorest  class,  were  left  behind,  and 
mingled  with  the  settlers.     The  latter  set  up  their  own  idolatrous  worship  ; 
but  being  attacked  by  lions, 
they  regarded  their  ravages 
as  a  warning  that  they  ought 
to   worship  the  God   of   the 
land.      They    informed    the 
king  of  Assyria  of  this,  and 
he  sent  back  to  them  one  of 
the    captive    priests    of    Je- 
hovah, who  settled  at  Bethel, 
and  taught  them  to  worship 
the  God  of  Israel  (2  Kings 
xvii.).     By  the  time  of  Ezra 
it    would    appear    that    the 
worship  of   Jehovah  was   in 
the    ascendant     among     the 
Samaritans,  and  they  desired 
to    join    the   returned    Jews 
in  rebuilding  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem.       This    privilege 
being  refused,  the  Samaritans 
became    actively    hostile     to 
the  Jews  ;    and  they  appear 
thenceforward    to    have    re- 
presented themselves  as  the 
true  followers  of  Moses,  and 
Gerizim  (near  Shechem)  as  the  sanctuary  appointed  by  God.     The  site  was 
sacred  by  many  associations  of  Israelitish  history.     A  temple  was  built  there 
by  the  Samaritans  about  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  was  the 
centre  of  a  considerable  worship  till  it  was  destroyed  by  John  Hyrcanus  in 
B.C.  129.    After  this  still  more  bitter  enmity  reigned  between  the  Samaritans 
and  the  Jews.     The  Samaritans  killed  Galilean  pilgrims  to  Jerusalem,  and 
once  even  polluted  the  Temple  on  the  eve  of  the  Passover.     Thus  we  can 
better  realise  the  point  of  the  parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan,  a  good  deed 
done  to  a  Jew  by  his  direst  hereditary  enemy,  when  his  own  people  passed 
him  by.     For  a  long  time  the  Samaritans  continued  their  cruelties  to  the 
Jews,   and  later  transferred  their  hatred  to  the  Christians.     Their  latest 


JEWISH    BURIAL. 


684  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

rising  against  them,  in  the  Emperor  Justinian's  reign  (a.d.  529),  led  to  a 
destructive  campaign  which  almost  obliterated  them.  Many  shared  in  the 
dispersion  of  the  Jews ;  and  we  read  of  synagogues  of  the  Samaritans  in 
various  places.  Little  more  was  heard  of  them  until  towards  the  close  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  renowned  scholar,  Joseph  Scaliger,  ad- 
dressed the  Samaritan  congregations  of  Nablous  and  Cairo  ;  and  after  his 
time  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  and  other  literature  gradually  became  known 
in  the  West,  and  copies  of  many  of  the  manuscripts  reached  Europe. 

It  is  mentioned  by  early  Christian  Fathers  that  the  Samaritans  claimed 
to  possess  a  very  early  form  of  the  Pentateuch,  written  in  a  peculiarly 
Samaritan  modified  Hebrew  writing,  with  special  marks  or  signs.  The 
Pentateuch,  oldest  manuscript,  which  may  date  from  the  fourth  century  a.d., 
but  is  probably  based  on  original  copies  dating  from  the  time  of  Ezra,  is 
the  present  sacred  roll  of  the  Samaritans,  written  on  twenty-one  skins  of 
unequal  size,  but  now  in  a  bad  state  of  preservation  and  only  partially 
legible.  A  note  upon  it  states  that  it  was  made  by  Abishua,  son  of  Phinehas, 
grandson  of  Aaron,  on  Mount  Gerizim,  in  the  thirteenth  year  after  the 
Israelites  had  taken  possession  of  the  land.  It  shows  marks  of  an  earlier 
dialect  of  Hebrew  than  our  present  Hebrew  Old  Testament,  with  certain 
variations  which  are  reproduced  in  the  Septuagint.  Consequently  many 
scholars  believe  that  the  Septuagint  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  were 
derived  from  Jewish  manuscripts  which  greatly  resembled  each  other,1  but 
differed  slightly  from  our  present  Hebrew  Pentateuch.  There  are  certain 
factors  in  the  Samaritan  copies  which  appear  to  be  due  to  purposive 
alteration  by  the  Samaritans,  to  add  dignity  to  the  patriarchs  or  to  add 
to  the  glory  of  the  Creator,  to  introduce  Mount  Gerizim,  to  support  mono- 
theism, or  to  remove  anthropomorphism.  Thus,  wherever  God  Himself  is 
represented  as  speaking  directly  to  men,  "the  angel  of  God,"  is  substituted. 
There  is  also  a  Samaritan  version  of  the  Pentateuch,  probably  made  in  the 
first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  in  a  sort  of  Aramaic  which  approaches 
Arabic ;  the  names  Elohim  and  Jehovah  are  usually  changed  to  angel. 
Various  anthropomorphisms  are  altered.  This  Samaritan  translation  is 
remarkable  for  the  number  of  glosses  which  it  contains,  making  it  practi- 
cally a  Targum. 

The  Samaritans  have  also  a  considerable  liturgy,  consisting  chiefly  of 
hymns  and  prayers  for  Sabbaths  and  feast-days,  and  prayers  for  special 
occasions.     One  of  the  litanies  ends  thus  : 

"  Lord,  for  the  sake  of  the  three  perfect  ones  ;  for  the  sake 
of  Joseph,  the  interpreter  of  dreams ;  for  the  sake  of  Moses,  chief  of  the 
prophets ;  for  the  sake  of  the  priests,  the  masters  of  the  priests  ;  for  the  sake 
of  the  Torah,  most  sacred  of  books  ;  for  the  sake  of  Mount  Gerizim,  the 
everlasting  hill ;  for  the  sake  of  the  hosts  of  angels ;  destroy  the  enemies 
and  foes ;  receive  our  prayers,  0  Everlasting.  Deliver  us  from  these 
troubles ;  open  to  us  the  treasures  of  heaven." 

1  See  J.  "W.  Nutt,  "  Fragments  of  a  Samaritan  Targum,  with  a  Sketch  of  Samaritan 
History.  Dogma,  and  Literature." 


MODERN  JE  WISH  RITUAL. 


685 


Among  the  principal  "beliefs  of  the  Samaritans  may  be  mentioned  the 
belief  in  one  God,  in  Moses  as  His  one  messenger  and  prophet,    Principal 
in  the  perfection  and  completeness  of  the  Law,  that  Gerizim  is     beliefs, 
the  abode  of  God  on  earth,  the  home  of  eternal  life,  that  over  it  is  Paradise ; 


ANCIENT    MANUSCKIPT    OF    SA3IA1UTAN    PENTATEUCH. 


and  that  there  will  come  a  day  of  retribution,  when  the  righteous  will  rise 
again,  and  false  prophets  and  their  followers  will  be  cast  into  fire.  They 
believe  also  in  angels  and  astrology.     They  believe  in  a  coining  Messiah  or 


686 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


"  Restorer,"  to  whom  all  people  will  submit,  and  the  beginning  of  whose 
name  will  be  M.  He  will  establish  the  Tabernacle  on  Mount  Gerizim,  and 
will  live  110  years  on  earth. 

At  the  present  day  the  Samaritans  observe  seven  feasts  a  year,  the 
Passover  being  that  kept  with  most  solemnity.1  The  Sabbath  is  strictly 
Feasts,  kept,  and  also  the  years  of  jubilee  and  release.  The  senior  priest 
sabbaths,  etc.may  nominate  any  male  member  of  his  family  to  the  priesthood, 
if  at  least  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  having  uncut  hair.  Tithes  and 
presents  every  half-year  support  the  two  priests.  They  never  take  off  their 
turban;  and  when  they  remove  the  roll  of  the  Law  from  the  ark,  they  place 
a  cloth  (talith)  round  their  head.  When  a  man's  wife  proves  barren,  he  is 
permitted  to  take  a  second.  On  the  whole,  Jewish  customs  are  strictly 
followed.  At  the  Passover  time  they  literally  encamp  on  Mount  Gerizim 
for  a  week,  and  slay,  roast,  and  eat  the  lambs  with  their  loins  girt,  and  with 
staves  in  their  hands,  observing  the  minutest  details  of  the  ritual  of  the 
Pentateuch.  They  keep  the  Fast  of  the  Atonement  in  the  most  rigid 
manner,  remaining  in  their  synagogue  all  the  twenty-four  hours  without 
eating,  drinking,  or  smoking,  the  priests  and  people  reciting  the  whole 
Pentateuch,  intermingled  with  prayers  and  confessions  of  faith.  If  they 
have  not  a  very  strong  Israelitish  element  in  them,  their  Judaic  religion 
and  the  rigid  conservatism  with  which  they  have  maintained  it,  are  among 
the  most  remarkable  religious  phenomena  in  the  world. 

1  See  Stanley,  "  Jewish  Church,"  and  Mills,  "  Three  Months'  Residence  in  Nablous." 


r-tm 

i  3  i 


mm  m 


VIHW    OF    MOUEltN    JERUSALEM. 


TEJIPEE    OF    JEKUSALEM    (RESTORED). 


BOOK  VI. 

THE   CHRISTIAN   RELIGION. 


CHAPTER  I. 
€\)t  Jfountifr  oi  Cfjifettantty. 

Divergent  views— Facts  well-known— Contrast  between  Jesus  and  other  teachers— Originality  in 
His  teaching— In  His  character  and  mode  of  life — A  new  ideal  of  love— Power  of  the  unseen— 
The  Divine  Father— Influence  of  future  life— Faith  required— Forgiveness  of  sins— The  demand 
for  truth— Law  of  kindness— His  relation  to  God  the  Father— His  relation  to  mankind— The 
special  affection  He  inspired— His  treatment  of  women  and  of  children— His  limitations  —  Miracles 
— Salvation  from  sin— Liberation  from  lower  nature— Purpose  of  His  life  and  death— The  society 
He  founded— The  sacraments — His  mode  of  teaching — The  gnomic  form— The  concrete  and  prac- 
tical— His  parables— His  predictions— His  Passion — The  resurrection— St.  Paul's  testimony. 

IN  attempting  to  portray  in  some  fashion  the  foundation  and  history  of 
Christianity,  the  writer  reaches  the  most  critical  and  difficult  portion 
of  his  task ;  first,  because  of  the  numberless  important  facts  and  questions 
which  cannot  be  dealt  with  in  a  limited  space ;  secondly,  on  Divergent 
account  of  the  vital  relation  the  facts  described  have  to  the  beliefs  views, 
and  conduct  of  multitudes  of  persons ;  and  thirdly,  because  of  the  contro- 
versies which  encircle  so  many  incidents  or  general  questions  relating 
especially  to  the  early  history  of  Christianity.  The  author  must  repeat 
that  no  dogmatic  conclusions  are  here  enforced.  Those  facts  and  views 
which  appear  most  salient,  must  of  course  be  selected  ;  but  when  facts  are 
in  dispute,  most  stress  will  be  laid  on  those  which  are  agreed  upon  by 
numerous  opposing  schools  of  thought,  the  object  being  to  present  as  im- 

687 


688  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


partial  a  narrative  as  possible;  only  the  writer  claims  that  dogmatic  opinions 
shall  not  be  imputed  to  him  which  he  does  not  express.  The  divergences 
of  views  among  those  who  hold  what  may  be  termed  orthodox  opinions 
about  the  "  inspiration  "  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  might  be 
quoted  to  show  that  one  man's  orthodoxy  is  another  man's  heterodoxy;  and 
that  unless  we  take  refuge  in  a  so-called  "  infallible  "  Church,  there  is  no 
better  course  than  to  allow  each  inquirer  to  hold  the  opinions  he  judges 
most  reasonable  without  stigma,  and  to  seek  to  know  and  to  hold  fast 
matters  of  fundamental  import  as  regards  conduct,  without  quarrelling  and 
quibbling  about  matters  of  opinion,  which,  however,  should  be  temperately 
discussed  in  their  proper  place. 

It  is  fortunately  unnecessary  to  recount  the  main  facts  in  the  life  of 
Christ,  since  it  can  scarcely  be  expected  that  the  book  will  have  any  readers 

Facts  wen  wno  d°  not  know  them  ;  and,  moreover,  to  deal  with  them  even 
known.  [n  a  meagre  fashion  would  require  far  more  space  than  we  have 
at  command.  Inasmuch  as  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament 
supply  nearly  all  the  facts  known,  and  since  the  substantial  truth  of  their 
testimony  is  unimpeached  by  any  adequate  counter-evidence,  while  it  has 
stood  the  test  of  time  and  destructive  criticism,  on  the  whole  with  singular 
success,  we  shall  assume  a  general  assent  to  the  New  Testament  narrative. 
It  may  be  added,  that  those  portions  which  are  most  objected  to  by  critics, 
are  those  which  concern  unseen  or  supernatural  powers  and  effects,  and  as 
to  which  there  can  be  no  actual  objective  proof  nowadays.  All  the  narra- 
tives, where  they  deal  with  supernatural  things,  can  be  argued  about  at 
length,  may  be  made  and  have  been  made  the  subject  of  endless  irritating 
controversy,  without  in  the  slightest  degree  settling  the  questions  involved. 
The  human  mind  either  places  itself  in  subjection  to  an  infallible  Church, 
to  the  authority  of  those  learned  in  such  subjects,  or  it  receives  what  com- 
mends itself  to  its  inner  consciousness  as  probable  or  possible ;  or  even,  to 
adopt  a  famous  phrase,  it  believes  because  it  is  impossible  ;  for  "  the  things 
impossible  with  man  are  possible  with  God."  We  shall  confine  ourselves 
here  for  the  most  part  to  facts  and  aspects  of  teaching,  and  the  results  they 
have  had. 

We  can  perhaps  more  readily  place  ourselves  in  the  position  of  those 
who  saw  Jesus  at  the  commencement  of  His  mission,  after  having  contem- 
contrast  be-  plated  the  other  great  founders  of  religion.     A  large  proportion 

tand1otnerS  °f  these  have  belonged  rather  to  the  upper  or  dominant  classes ; 
teachers.  Jesus  was  born  in  no  superior  station,  came  from  no  important 
centre,  had  not  studied  under  any  notable  teacher, — and  this  was  all-import- 
ant in  his  day, — and  followed  one  of  the  occupations  demanding  least  skill, 
in  a  small  town.  His  coming  forward  to  teach  in  itself  constituted  a  most 
striking  innovation,  and  could  only  have  been  justified  and  tolerated  by 
reason  of  the  great  novelty  of  His  teaching,  and,  as  many  believe,  by  reason 
of  the  clear  evidence  supplied  by  the  miracles  He  wrought.  Those  who  do 
not  accept  such  miracles  as  that  at  the  wedding  at  Cana  in  their  obvious 

sense,  are  compelled  to  attach  yet  greater  importance  to  the  force,  novelty, 


THE  FOUNDER    OF  CHRISTIANITY.  689 

and  convincing  power  of  the  teaching  with  which  Jesus  commenced  His 
ministry.  To  the  writer,  the  mental  and  spiritual  miracles  wrought  by 
Christ  are  more  astonishing  than  any  physical  miracles  could  be  ;  but  unless 
we  deny  the  essential  truth  of  the  Gospels,  we  must  believe  that  "  signs  and 
wonders,"  no  less  than  moral  teaching,  had  a  part  in  the  impression  pro- 
duced by  Him.  It  appears  very  doubtful  if  anything  but  the  combina- 
tion of  these  two  elements  could  have  overcome,  to  the  extent  they  did, 
the  presumption  that  is  so  strong  against  all  innovators ;  but  there  are  not 
a  few  who  put  down  the  success  of  Christ's  teaching  to  its  inherent  merits, 
apart  from  miraculous  aid. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  originality  or  the  reverse  of  Christ's 
teaching.  Attempts  have  been  made,  in  some  cases  with  success,  to  find 
parallels  to  portions  of  His  teaching  in  the  maxims  of  other  Qri  . 
peoples,  in  the  teaching  of  other  religious  founders  or  philosophers  Christ's  teach- 
before  His  time.  If  it  be  true,  or  if  it  were  true,  that  much  of 
His  teaching  had  come  into  the  world  piecemeal  before,  it  would  only  be 
in  accord  with  the  principle  of  evolution  that  is  now  found  to  have  been  work- 
ing in  so  many  spheres.  That  which  was  before  spoken  "  by  divers  portions 
and  in  divers  manners,"  was  gathered  up  and  consummated  in  the  Founder 
of  Christianity.  But  we  are  by  no  means  to  take  this  as  in  any  way  de- 
tracting from  His  originality :  it  simply  proves  Him  to  be  in  accord  with 
the  system  of  the  course  of  events  of  the  world,  and  to  come  at  the  right 
moment  in  the  world's  history,  in  a  truly  natural  relation  to  what  pre- 
ceded. To  have  spoken  words  utterly  new,  ideas  for  which  the  ground 
had  in  no  way  been  prepared,  would  have  involved  His  instant  death  or 
banishment  from  among  men.  All  who  have  realised  the  intense  aversion 
of  primitive  or  even  civilised  mankind  to  what  is  wholly  new  and  uncom- 
prehended,  will  see  that  this  must  be  the  case.  Every  true  evolution,  every 
evolution  which  is  to  last,  proceeds  upon  prepared  material,  and  passes 
through  natural  stages.  Those  whose  bias  is  against  seeing  what  is  called 
supernatural  in  human  affairs,  may  gain  confidence  in  Christianity  by  con- 
sidering and  realising  the  naturalness  of  the  stages  of  its  evolution,  while 
those  who  prefer  to  look  at  everything  as  the  direct  act  of  a  Creator  or 
Heavenly  Spirit,  need  not  quarrel  with  the  naturalists  who  seek  to  discern 
the  steps  of  the  working,  while  acknowledging  their  inability  to  penetrate 
behind  the  veil  which  hides  the  mystery  of  the  First  Cause. 

But  Christ  was  original,  first  and  most  completely,  in  His  character  and 
in  the  tenor  of  His  life.  He  not  merely  taught,  but  He  exemplified  a  new 
spirit  of  action  which,  though  we  speak  of  it  by  the  name  of  0riginality  in 
"  love,"  requires  the  adjective  "  Christian,"  and  many  explanatory  character  ani 
words,  such  as  sympathy,  brotherhood,  charity,  to  represent  it 
at  all  adequately.  In  one  aspect  it  depends  upon  the  raising  of  mankind  to  a 
position  of  brotherhood  as  being  all  the  children  of  one  Father  God  ;  but 
the  very  conception  of  brotherhood  was  raised  and  widened  and  intensified, 
in  showing  this  fully.  Not  merely  the  mutual  attachment  sometimes  seen 
between  brothers  in  ancient  society,  not  the  loving  affection  of  a  David  and 

Y    Y 


690  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Jonathan,  of  a  Damon  and  Pythias,  capable  of  dying  for  one  another, 
a  new  ideal  of  anc^  loving  each  other  as  tenderly  as  man  can  love  woman,  but 
love.  something  beyond  all  this,  was  the  brotherhood  which  Jesus 
exemplified  and  taught.  Mutual  affection  could  be  inspired  by  mutual 
appreciation  of  good  qualities,  clannish  regard  by  community  of  kindred, 
associations,  habits,  interests,  etc.  ;  but  Jesus  showed  an  unheard-of  affec- 
tion to  those  most  unlike  Him,  most  distant  from  Him  in  habits  and  associ- 
ations, even  to  those  of  evil  life  and  conduct.  It  is  in  these  features  that 
He  established  a  new  ideal,  and  has  had  a  vast  number  of  imitators  and 
followers,  inspired  by  His  teaching  and  example.  A  new  type  and  kind  of 
affection  was  added  to  the  repertory  of  human  character.  "  A  new  com- 
mandment give  I  unto  you,"  He  said,  "  that  ye  love  one  another,  even  as  I 
have  loved  you  " — a  love  which  could  survive  ingratitude,  evil  conduct,  and 
repudiation  of  Him,  and  could  work  to  an  extreme  for  the  reclamation  of  the 
erring.  This  was  a  love  shown,  not  merely  to  those  who  had  once  received 
His  teaching,  or  shown  Him  regard,  but  spontaneously  tendered  to  those  who 
had  done  nothing  to  deserve  it,  to  all  those  who  had  in  them  any  germ  of 
good.  "  And  who  has  not  ?  "  said  Jesus ;  for  He  asserted  that  the  Father 
of  all  did  not  will  that  any  one  should  perish  ;  but  that  whosoever  would 
have  everlasting  life,  on  such  conditions  as  alone  could  make  it  a  boon,  might 
have  it,  and  might  receive  a  spirit  which  would  elevate  their  character  and 
enable  them  to  do  the  will  of  their  Heavenly  Father. 

It  has  been  seen  how  great  was  and  is  the  power  of  the  Invisible  in 
other  religions.  In  some  ways  that  influence  has  been  injurious,  when  it 
Power  of  the  nas  peopled  the  unseen  with  demons  and  malignant  spirits,  and 
unseen,  converted  decease!  relatives  into  beings  to  be  carefully  pro- 
pitiated, buried,  and  sacrificed  to,  lest  they  should  do  harm  to  their  sur- 
vivors. The  doctrine  that  no  calamity  happens  except  as  consequence  of 
offences  against  deities  who  must  be  propitiated  by  ceremonies,  charms,  and 
sacrifices,  has  worked  great  ill;  and  what  has  been  termed  devil-worship 
may  be  afterwards  seen  to  have  invaded  even  Christian  Churches. 

In  some  religions,  however,  there  has  been  considerable  elevating 
influence  in  the  conceptions  of  the  Unseen  and  of  the  Supreme  Being  ;  but 
nowhere  had  these  attained  the  grandeur,  the  purity,  and  the  ennobling 
power  seen  in  Judaism.  But  all  this  was  raised  to  an  immeasurable  degree 
The  Divine  Dy  Jesus  in  His  picture  of  God  as  the  Father — unseen,  yet  ever 
Father.  watching  the  actions  of  His  children,  considering,  not  the  out- 
ward act  only,  but  the  inward  motive,  the  strength  of  effort,  the  difficulties 
overcome  by  each  one.  Other  religions  have  attained,  in  their  loftiest 
examples,  to  a  high  regard  of  control  over  the  thoughts  ;  some  of  the 
Psalms,  as  the  103rd,  represent  God  as  a  Father,  pitying  His  children, 
remembering  their  frailty  and  imperfections,  and  tenderly  regarding  those 
that  fear  Him ;  but  none  had  gone  so  far  to  bring  the  Father  and  His 
children  generally  into  intimate  relationship,  or  to  make  men  realise  a 
constantly  present  Father,  who  was  persistently  kind  in  giving  many  bless- 
ings even  to  the  evil  and  the  unthankful. 


THE   FOUNDER    OF  CHRISTIANITY.  691 

But  in  another  direction  Jesus  exalted  greatly  the  ideal  of  the 
supreme  Being  by  His  teaching  about  immortality  and  the  dispensation 
of  future  happiness  and  punishment.  We  have  seen  that  the  influence  of 
conception  of  future  existence  after  death,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  Future  Life- 
of  a  distribution  of  rewards  and  punishments  according  to  conduct  or  to  the 
way  in  which  gods  and  deceased  relatives  had  been  propitiated,  was  com- 
mon among  many  peoples.  We  have  seen,  too,  that  the  Jews,  apparently 
slow  in  arriving  at  a  full  conception  of  it,  had  certainly  attained  a  very 
definite  belief  in  later  times.  So  that  Jesus,  in  bringing  a  future  life  into 
prominence,  was  not  so  much  revealing  a  new  idea  as  tending  to  confirm 
it  as  a  human  tenet  by  lending  to  it  the  enormous  sanction  of  His  charac- 
ter, persuasiveness,  and  credentials.  He  largely  dwarfed  the  predominant 
influence  of  events  in  this  life,  whether  favourable  or  painful,  by  bringing 
into  prominence  the  future  judgment  and  redress  of  temporal  inequalities. 
The  descriptions  of  the  Great  Assize  and  the  Last  Judgment  have  im- 
pressed themselves,  one  would  say,  indelibly  upon  the  imagination  of 
mankind,  although  as  to  the  extent  to  which  a  perfect  picture  can  have 
been  conveyed,  or  intended  to  be  conveyed,  in  a  narration  addressed  to 
a  local  audience  in  an  Oriental  country,  there  may  be  great  diversity 
of  opinion.  In  any  case,  the  belief  that  a  future  judgment  is  to  take  place, 
at  which  the  condition  of  men  will  be  determined  according  to  con- 
duct in  this  life,  has  undoubtedly  exercised  an  enormous  influence,  both 
in  producing  converts  to  Christianity  and  in  elevating  their  moral  tone  ; 
on  the  other  hand,  abuses  and  detriment  to  morals  have  arisen  where  men 
have  come  to  believe  that  repentance  could  readily  be  made,  or  absolution 
granted  by  priests  for  sins  wilfully  committed.  But  this  is  outside  the 
teaching  of  Christ,  which  raised  a  mighty  ideal  and  invisible  bar  or 
judgment-seat  in  each  man's  conscience,  saying,  "  You  may  be  honourable 
and  honoured  before  the  world,  you  may  appear  fair  and  pure  to  men, 
but  unless  the  inward  motive  and  conduct  be  right,  you  have  to  fear  a 
just  Judge  hereafter,  whose  judgment  will  have  the  utmost  influence  on  a 
state  of  existence  from  which  you  cannot  escape." 

It  may  be  said  that  faith  was  not  a  teaching  of  Jesus  by  which  He  was 
distinguished  from  many  other  religious  teachers ;  for  they  have  require  1 
their  pupils  to  believe  in  their  teaching  and  doctrines,  and  to       Faltn 
practise  them.     But  in  one  respect  His  teaching  about  faith  had    "quired, 
a  peculiarity.     Salvation,  forgiveness,  or  the  special  boon  needed,  could  hi 
obtained   by  faith  without   special  works  in    most   cases.     The  cure  was 
mental  or  spiritual  alone,  and  did  not  require  payment  to  the  teacher,  going 
through  a  ceremony,   joining  an  order,   a  daily  rite  of  purification,  etc., 
though,  of  course,  the  loss  of  faith  implied  loss  of  the  state  produced  by 
faith.     And  there  was  one  of  these  states  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
peace  of  the  convert,  in  producing  which  by  an  act  of  faith,  Christ  effected 
a  more  astonishing  revolution  than  Buddha  by  receiving  converts  Forgiveness 
into  his  Order  by  his  simple  formula ;    for  Christ  left  His  con-     of  sins- 
verts  in  the  world  for  the  most  part,  telling  them  they  would  have  tribula- 


692  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

tion  there,  but  the  consciousness  of  the  forgiveness  of  their  sins,  through 
their  faith  in  this  assurance,  was  to  support  them ;  they  were  to  be  at  ease, 
for  He  had  overcome  the  world,  and  was  superior  to  it.  That  consciousness 
of  sin  which  had  gradually  become  so  intense  in  the  ancient  world,  con- 
currently with  increased  licentiousness  and  decay  in  nearly  all  religions, 
had  from  Him  the  only  remedy  which  could  relieve  the  soul  from  the  load 
of  guilt — its  abolition,  or  the  abolition  of  its  paralysing  weight,  when  faith 
in  His  teaching  about  Himself  and  about  God  had  purified  and  elevated 
the  character  so  as  to  start  it  effectually  on  a  higher  course  of  life. 

In  another  direction,  where  originality  was  not  so  apparent  in  the 

teaching,  it  yet  did  inestimable  service.     It  may  be  said  that  all  Nature 

The  demand  tends  to  establish  truth ;  for  the  thing  that  only  pretends  to  be 

for  truth.  ^hat  which  ft  is  notj  cannot  last ;  and  men  in  conflict  with  reality 
and  actual  force,  cannot  but  succumb.  Christ  not  only  sanctioned  the 
Mosaic  command  not  to  bear  false  witness,  but  He  carried  the  domain  of 
truth  into  the  most  inward  thought,  everywhere  where  the  world  cannot 
follow  us.  Perhaps  this  does  not  go  beyond  the  Psalmist's  "  Thou  desirest 
truth  in  the  inward  parts  "  ;  but  in  practice  the  spiritual  nature  of  Christ's 
action  went  beyond  that  of  His  most  exacting  predecessor.  He,  it  may  be 
said,  established  the  demand,  the  ideal  of  inward  truth  and  purity,  in  a 
position  beyond  which  it  cannot  be  carried  :  for  what  can  be  truer  than 
absolute  truth ?  It  is,  indeed,  the  fundamental  element  towards  progress; 
and  though  man's  nature  is  destined  to  ascend  through  illusions  to  the 
truth,  the  progress,  if  any,  must  be  towards  absolute  truth  in  all  directions. 
A  perfect  ideal  has  been  set  up,  the  race  is  started  on  the  road  ;  if  it  do 
not  pursue  it  unceasingly,  it  will  die  out.  And  thus  scientific  investigation 
—even  the  severest  critical  study  of  the  New  Testament  and  Christianity 
in  modern  times,  which  alone  have  possessed  certain  methods  and  powers 
and  resources  of  inquiry — may  take  its  stand  firmly,  as  fulfilling  Christ's 
own  requirement,  emphasised  by  St.  Paul  in  the  words,  "Prove  all  things :  " 
"  We  can  do  nothing  against  the  truth,  but  for  the  truth."  No  criticism  by 
reasonable  methods,  with  a  pure  desire  to  attain  truth,  is  to  be  discoun- 
tenanced by  a  true  follower  of  Christ ;  and  bias  and  unconscious  desire 
and  tendency  to  support  preconceived  notions  or  the  interests  of  party,  are 
not  restricted  either  to  the  apologists  or  to  the  opponents  of  Christianity. 

By  many  precepts  of  varying  colour,  Christ  discountenanced  revenge 

and  substituted   a  supreme  law  of  kindness.     Our  fellow-men  are  to   be 

Taw  of      treated  as  a  loving   Father  would   treat   his  loved  and  erring 

kindness,  children  ;  our  neighbour  is  whoever  is  in  need  of  our  help,  and 
whom  we  can  really  help ;  we  are  to  put  ourselves  in  our  neighbours'  or 
enemies'  place,  and  do  to  them  what  we  would  be  glad  to  have  done  to  us 
in  like  case.  These  precepts,  as  recorded,  were  given  broadly  by  Jesus, 
without  a  full  analysis  of  circumstances  and  instances,  that  being  left  to 
individual  men  to  work  out  for  themselves ;  and  herein,  as  He  showed  the 
same  love  Himself,  He  created  it  in  others,  and  taught  men  to  "love  their 
enemies,  to  do  good  to  them  that  hate  them."     Who  will  say  that  the 


THE  FOUNDER    OF  CHRISTIANITY. 


693 


world  is  not  the  richer,  that  human  character  is  not  more  noble,  for  the 

instances  in  which  this  ideal  has  been  literally  followed  ? 

One  of  the  most  potent  influences  of  the  life  of  Jesus  is  expressed  in 

His  saying,  "  He  who  hath  seen  Me  hath  seen  the  Father."     This  is  to 

be  understood,  not  as  contradicting  the  assertion,  "  No  man  can  „, 

see  My  face  and  live,"'  but  as  indicating  what  Christians  believe  to  God  the 

Father 
to  be  true,  that  in   His  person  Jesus  revealed  and  exemplified 

the  nature  of  the  Divine  Father  of  all  mankind  in  a  way  which  no  other 


"ECl'E    HOMO"    (AFTKB   GUIDo). 

man  and  no  other  revelation  have  done.  And  this  may  be  taken  in  a  sense 
not  always  thought  of.  If  there  be  a  Creator,  He  must  be  greater  than  all. 
Every  true  and  noble  ideal  must  be  but  a  partial  showing  forth  of  that 
which  is  in  Him. 

A  study  of  the  various  descriptions  which  Jesus  gave  of  Himself  shows 
that  He  had  a  clear  consciousness,  amounting  to  absolute  certainty.  His  relation 
of  unity  of  will  and    spirit  with   the  supreme  Father.      At  the  *° mankind- 
same  time  He  represented  Himself  as  specially  related  to  all  mankind,  as 


694  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


being  "  the  Son  of  man,"  the  representative  of  mankind,  born  to  enfranchise 
them,  to  teach  them  how  to  attain  unity  with  God,  and  to  redeem  them 
from  evil  and  the  power  of  evil.  Some  statements  attributed  to  Him  are 
by  some  critics  questioned  as  not  being  genuine,  others  are  supposed  to  be 
coloured  by  the  narrator's  mind;  but  that  He  believed  and  represented  Him- 
self to  be  in  a  special  and  unique  sense  both  Son  of  God  and  Son  of  man 
there  is  no  reasonable  ground  for  doubting.  Moreover  we  cannot  doubt 
that  the  evidence  of  His  life  and  character,  His  words  and  works,  was  suffi- 
cient to  convert  many  apathetic  or  hostile  persons  into  ardent  believers  and 
followers.  Those  who  regard  these  beliefs  as  delusions  have  a  heavy  task 
in  explaining  their  relation  to  a  sincere  character  like  that  of  Jesus,  or  in 
explaining  how  a  false  belief  could  generate  so  mighty  a  force  as  Christi- 
anity. Much  more  in  accord  with  scientific  truth  is  it  to  say,  that  Christi- 
anity succeeded  by- virtue  of  the  truth  that  was  in  it,  however  much  error 
became  mingled  with  it ;  and  he  who  can  separate  the  beliefs  of  and  about 
Jesus  as  to  His  divine  nature  from  His  moral  teaching,  and  show  how  the 
latter  alone  could  have  produced  such  results,  will  have  accomplished  more 
than  has  yet  been  done.  Has  any  lofty  moral  teaching  alone  regenerated 
and  elevated  a  large  portion  of  mankind  ?  Could  anything  not  accredited 
as  a  revelation  persuade  people  that  God  was  not  merely  a  distant  powerful 
Governor,  but  also  a  loving  Father?  Could  any  revelation  convincingly 
persuade  men  of  the  latter  teaching,  unless  it  was  exemplified  in  the  perfect 
life  of  One  who  as  man  believed  and  realised  the  Fatherhood  of  God,  and 
who  could  generate  a  conviction  that  He  was  so  intimately  in  union  with 
God  that  He  could  reveal  the  mind  and  nature  of  that  Father. 

As  a  human  being,  Jesus  inspired  the  most  powerful  affection  in  a  large 
number  of  people  that  had  ever  been  known,  an  affection  which  in  many 

The  special  disciples  became  stronger  than  all  the  ties  of  kindred,  and  that 

aTnstijxedHe  t0°  m  Persons  whose  affection  for  kindred  was  unusually  strong. 
"What  could  have  inspired  such  affection  except  the  realisation 
that  in  Jesus  a  greater  love  than  any  man  had  previously  shown  claimed 
their  admiration  and  won  their  hearts  ?  And  this  affection  was  manifested 
m  all  kinds  of  human  conditions  and  relations,  excepting  that  of  marriage, 
wherein  men  and  women  have  simply  to  rise,  in  their  true  spiritual  unions,  to 
the  degree  of  love  and  helpfulness  which  Jesus  manifested  for  all  mankind. 
In  physical  weakness,  in  joys  and  sorrows,  Jesus  showed  Himself  not  merely 
sympathetic  with  others,  but  intensely  desirous  of  sympathy,  craving  such 
brotherly  sympathy  from  His  beloved  friends  as  He  gave  them  lavishly 
ms  treatment  Himself.     Towards  women  He  was  so  tender,  so  considerate,  so 

of  women,  charitable  that  He  raised  an  ideal  of  helpfulness  and  tenderness 
towards  the  most  degraded  of  the  sex  such  as  no  Christian  people  has  ever 
yet  fully  exemplified,  but  which  must  be  practically  realised  before  any 
people  can  be  said  to  be  Christlike.  And  when  He  spoke  of  the  marriage 
union,  it  was  in  words  v/hich  made  no  distinction  of  subjection  between 
the  parties. 

Towards  children  Jesus  was  exceptionally  and  specially  tender.     Few 


THE   FOUNDER    OF  CHRISTIANITY.  695 

records  of  other  religions  show  any  particular  bias  towards  children ;  but 
Jesus  on  all  occasions  spoke  of  and  to  them  with  special  apprecia-  Alld  of 
tion,  and,  indeed,  raised  out  of  them  and  their  innocent  simplicity  children, 
an  ideal  of  the  Christ-like  spirit  which  has  had  an  enormous  influence  in 
moulding  the  characters  of  Christians.  "  To  become  as  a  little  child,"  in 
simplicitj'",  in  reverence,  in  acceptance  of  and  compliance  with  the  paternal 
will,  in  reliance  upon  the  fatherly  blessing  and  good-will,  has  been  engraved 
upon  the  hearts  of  multitudes  as  the  ideal,  the  test,  the  goal  beyond  which, 
in  its  fullest  realisation,  Christian  life  could  not  pass,  but  towards  which  it 
must  ever  unrestingly  press.  This  is  one  of  Christ's  phrases  which  con- 
tains within  it  the  elements  of  transcendent  discipline,  just  like  those  other 
phrases  :  "  as  I  have  loved  you,"  "  the  baptism  I  am  baptised  with,"  "  it  is 
M37  meat  and  My  drink  to  do  the  will  of  My  Father." 

A  matter  of  the  utmost  importance  may  here  be  referred  to.  At  one 
time  the  belief  in  the  Divinity  of  Christ  had  so  intensely  impressed  itself  011 
a  large  part  of  Christendom  that  it  obscured  His  true  manhood.  His  voluntary 
At  the  present  day  Christ's  humanity  is  ver}'  generally  and  fully  limitations, 
realised,  and  attention  is  widely  given  to  the  question  what  limitation  that 
manhood  involved.  There  is  emphatic  testimony  in  the  New  Testament  to 
the  fact  of  the  existence  of  many  ordinary  human  limitations ;  and  in  the 
view  of  Pauline  theology  this  took  place  by  a  voluntary  renunciation  or 
"  emptying  "  (kenosis)  on  the  part  of  the  Son  of  God.  But  what  this  in- 
volved and  how  far  it  extended,  while  no  human  being  seems  competent  to 
pronounce,  many  have  taken  in  hand  to  discuss.  All  such  theorising  must 
be  doubtful,  and  it  is  often  carried  to  just  that  point  which  the  theorist 
needs  to  explain  his  own  particular  theory  of  inspiration  or  of  the  fallibility 
or  infallibility  of  Jesus  as  a  human  being.  We  will  merely  suggest  that  a 
humanity  which,  in  regard  to  mere  human  knowledge,  gave  Jesus  a  nature 
out  of  touch  with  the  intellectual  grade  reached  by  the  men  by  whom  He 
was  surrounded,  would  have  caused  Him  to  be  regarded  as  a  madman.  The 
insight  His  pure  nature  displayed  into  spiritual  things,  into  the  invisible 
things  of  God,  was  sufficient  to  cause  His  teaching  to  be  received  in  most 
cases  as  an  idle  tale  ;  and  if  to  that  spiritual  insight  the  knowledge  which 
has  only  been  attained  in  late  years  had  been  superadded,  it  would  surely 
have  been  impossible  for  Him  to  gain  any  hearing  at  all.  It  seems  most 
reasonable  that  in  things  of  merely  human  learning  the  Messiah  should 
only  have  the  ordinary  equipment  of  humanity,1  while  as  a  pure  soul  (leav- 
ing out  of  consideration  the  question  of  His  divine  nature)  He  should  see 
indefinitely  farther  into  the  meaning  of  nature  and  its  underlying  realities 
than  any  human  being  had  previously  penetrated. 

That  Jesus  worked  miracles,  or  at  least  professed  or  appeared  to  do  so, 
is  evident  on  the  face  of  the  New  Testament  narratives.     Those    Miracles 
who  have  imagined  a  Divine  and  yet  non-miraculous  Jesus  have 
to  perform  extraordinary  operations  upon  the  narratives  or  invent  equally 

1  This  gives  a  keynote  by  which  many  explain  the  accord  of  Jesus's  expressions 
about  Satan,  demonology,  demoniac  possession,  etc.,  with  current  opinions. 


696  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


strange  hypotheses  to  make  out  a  case.  Even  those  who  regard  Christ  as 
simply  a  human  teacher,  may  readily  admit  the  working  of  many  signs  and 
wonders  as  due  to  His  extraordinary  will  power,  and  the  physical  and  moral 
effect  of  His  unique  personality.  What  many  scientific  men  refuse  to  admit 
is,  that  any  miracle  can  have  been  worked  by  Him  which  contravened,  sus- 
pended, or  neutralised  physical  laws,  or  which  broke  through  the  established 
order  of  nature.  To  the  faith  of  most  Christians  even  such  an  apparent 
breach  of  continuity  presents  no  stumbling-block,  for  that  Power  which 
established  the  order  could  surely  provide  also  for  the  exceptional  occasions 
when  "  miracle  "  was  needed  in  order  to  establish  some  fact  or  produce 
some  belief.  A  view  which  would  reconcile  the  scientific  with  the  Christian 
attitude  is,  that  a  character  so  intensely  in  accord  with  the  Divine  power  in 
moral  and  spiritual  questions  as  that  of  Jesus,  may  also  be  supposed  to  have 
a  deep  insight  into  the  springs  of  physical  nature  and  the  influence  of  mind 
on  matter  ;  and  that  it  involves  no  greater  stretch  of  probability  that  He 
should  work  physical  miracles  by  or  in  virtue  of  the  deeper  laws  of  the  uni- 
verse, than  that  He  should  work  moral  miracles  by  virtue  of  a  similar  in- 
sight into  mental  and  moral  laws.  It  was  His  mission  to  endeavour  to  heal 
all  the  evils  He  saw,  to  restore  mankind  to  mental,  moral,  and  physical 
sanity  and  reasonableness,  to  elevate  their  entire  nature,  so  that  they  might 
realise  a  right  relationship  to  God.  What  wonder  that  He  should  have 
benefited  their  bodies  as  well  as  their  souls  ?  Often  He  used  what  we  call 
appropriate  "  means  "  ;  at  other  times  we  have  no  record  of  anything  but 
will-power,  or  prayer  to  God,  preceding  cure  or  miracle.  Behind  these 
records  we  cannot  penetrate.  Those  who  can  find  their  full  aspirations  after 
goodness  and  the  Divine  satisfied  without  the  necessity  of  believing  in 
miracle,  have  a  difficult  task  to  eliminate  the  miraculous  from  the  New 
Testament  without  destroying  the  historical  credibility  of  the  other  portions. 
The  majority  of  Christians  will  not  cease  to  believe  in  the  miracles  of  Jesus 
because  they  are  told  that  they  could  not  have  been  ;  they  believe  that  the 
fallibility  of  man  has  not  yet  generated  infallibility  in  the  scientific  man  ; 
and  they  find  it  easier  to  believe  in  a  miraculous  Christ  than  in  the  mar- 
vellous growth  and  general  beneficence  of  Christianity  upon  a  fabric  of 
delusion. 

To  give  relief  from  bodily  disease  was,  however,  but  a  minor  aim  of 
the  Son  of  man.     His  deep  impulse  and  desire  to  deliver  men  from  the  evils 

Salvation   which  degraded  their  conduct  and  thought,  was  ever  prominent. 

from  sin.  fty  a  muititude  of  methods  He  sought  to  make  men  realise  their 
state  of  alienation  from  God,  their  need  of  reconciliation,  of  purification,  of 
forgiveness.  The  realisation  of  the  truth  about  themselves  was  the  first, 
the  greatest  step  to  rectification,  to  amendment.  Often  it  was  accomplished 
by  a  very  short  interview,  almost  by  a  look  on  the  pure  face  which  by  con- 
trast revealed  the  impurity  elsewhere.  At  other  times  arguments  were 
needed.  Sometimes  the  light  of  truth  was  successfully  resisted  ;  but  every 
seeker  after  truth  gained  ready  access  to  Him  and  abundant  and  suitable 
teaching.     Every  man  and  woman  found  an  intelligible  condition  at  the 


607 


698  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

gate  of  the  new  life,  the  "  kingdom  of  heaven,"  as  Jesus  called  it.  Some 
test  was  imposed,  varying  greatly  with  circumstances — such  as  a  belief  in 
the  forgiveness  of  sins,  a  belief  that  a  cure  would  be  accomplished,  an  act 
of  practical  beneficence,  an  act  of  renunciation,  etc. — rarely  anything  like 
a  belief  in  a  lengthy  or  a  complete  creed  ;  but  compliance  with  the  test 
secured  Jesus's  assurance  of  pardon  or  blessing.  As  far  as  can  be  judged 
from  the  narratives,  the  new  state  of  deliverance  from  evil  passions  or  from 
sin  was  to  be  evidenced  by  "  works  meet  for  repentance,"  a  continual  ad- 
vance in  well-doing,  a  continual  practice  of  those  good  deeds  which  He 
taught. 

It  was  this  passionate  desire  to  free  mankind  from  the  chains  of  the 
lower  nature,  from  the  pains  due  to  antagonism  to  or  ignorance  of  God, 
Liberation  tnat  gave  Jesus  His  most  binding  influence  on  men.  A  man  who 
from  lower  had  no  selfish  aim,  no  personal  object  to  gain,  but  who  cared 
supremely  to  know  and  to  relieve  the  troubles  of  those  whom  He 
met— this  was  the  man  whom  the  common  people  heard  gladly,  and  whom 
the}'-  would  have  forcibly  made  a  king.  AVhen  He  made  demands  upon 
them  which  seemed  irksome  about  the  pure  and  holy  life  they  were  to  lead, 
or  taught  them  doctrines  which  were  difficult  for  them  to  comprehend  or 
believe,  many  shrank  back  ;  but  the  germ  of  faith  remained  in  many,  which 
later  events  quickened  into  vigorous  life,  and  which  soon  made  the  founda- 
tions of  Christianity  broad  and  strong.  At  first  inclined  to  accept  Him  as 
the  long-looked-for  Messiah  who  was  to  restore  the  temporal  kingdom  to 
Judaea,  the  people  afterwards  turned  against  Him  because  He  refused  to  lead 
a  national  movement ;  but  when  His  death  and  the  subsequent  events  were 
felt  and  reflected  upon,  they  realised  and  never  doubted  that  He  was  the 
true  Messiah  of  the  Jews,  a  belief  which  the  antagonism  of  the  mass  of  the 
Jews  themselves  has  no  weight  in  weakening. 

His  intimate  disciples — a  body  of  men  admirably  chosen  as  witnesses 
of  His  actions  and  as  propagators  of  His  teaching — had  no  lack  of  teaching 
The  purpose  wnich  indicated  to  them  the  part  which  His  life  and  death  were 
anddiS  tt  t0  ^a^  *n  ra^nS  mankind  to  a  condition  of  freedom  from  sin 
and  conscious  accord  with  God.  We  have  various  forms  of  this 
teaching  handed  down  to  us,  such  as  that  He  came  to  seek  and  save  the 
lost,  that  belief  on  Him  was  to  secure  salvation  and  heaven,  that  He 
gave  His  blood  for  the  life  of  the  world,  that  His  going  away  secured  the 
Holy  Spirit  as  a  continual  comforter  for  His  disciples  ;  but  there  is  nothing 
which  definitely  gives  any  one  of  the  theoretic  statements  drawn  up  later 
by  theologians.  The  precise  mechanism  of  salvation  by  Himself  Christ 
nowhere  expounds  —it  is  so  simple,  as  He  states  it,  as  hardly  to  need  any 
definition  ;  and  it  is  questionable  whether  all  the  discussion  which  has  taken 
place  about  the  "  atonement,"  "  justification,"  "  vicarious  suffering,"  "  sub- 
stitutional punishment,"  and  "  forgiveness,"  has  advanced  knowledge  at  all 
beyond  the  simple  statements  of  Christ  as  given  in  the  gospels. 

It  is  obvious  that  Christ  designed  to  found  a  society  which  should 
last  after  His  death,  and  that  He  chose  His  disciples  as  fitting  agents  for 


THE  FOUNDER    OF  CHRISTIANITY.  699 


establishing  and  continuing  that  society.  As  to  the  mode  in  which  that 
society  should  be  governed,  no  definite  regulations  were  given.  The  society 
The  object  of  His  servants  was  to  be  holiness,  beneficence,  and  He  founded, 
unity  of  spirit.  Most  of  the  details  bearing  on  the  conduct  of  His  servants 
were  given  specially  to  the  twelve  disciples,  but  they  have  been  adopted  by 
the  general  instinct  and  consent  of  the  majority  of  Christians ;  such  are  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  the  special  efficacy  of  united  prayer,  and  the  two  special 
observances  termed  Sacraments,  modes  of  consecration.  It  has  The 
been  previously  seen  that  most  religions  had  "  mysteries  "  and  sacraments, 
festivals.  The  highest  examples  of  these  are  the  Christian  initiation  cere- 
mony of  "  Baptism,"  and  the  Eucharist,  or  "  Supper  of  the  Lord,"  in  which 
His  death  is  perpetually  remembered  as  a  pledge  of  pardon,  a  bond  of 
union,  and  a  means  of  renewal  of  strength.  Of  the  Lord's  Supper  it  may 
be  remarked  that  nothing  like  transubstantiation  can  have  been  denoted 
by  it ;  for  the  bread  was  broken  and  given  in  the  presence  of  the  complete 
body  of  Jesus,  and  the  cup  of  wine  was  declared  to  be  the  new  covenant, 
or  the  blood  of  the  covenant,  when  as  yet  Christ's  blood  had  not  been  shed. 
The  ideas  of  magical  conversion  of  substance,  or  of  magical  efficacy  of  the 
material  of  the  supper,  find  no  support  in  the  earliest  accounts;  in  fact,  the}' 
seem  to  be  negatived  by  the  words,  "  This  do  in  remembrance  of  Me."  His 
blood  was  shed,  said  Christ,  for  many,  unto  remission  of  sins  ;  and  the  re- 
membrance of  that  supreme  act  of  sacrifice  is  ever  kept  fresh  in  the  heart  of 
His  followers  by  the  rite  which  He  instituted  on  the  eve  of  His  death. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  here  to  enlarge  upon  the  character  of  Christ's 
addresses  and  teaching.  Their  superiority  to  those  of  any  other  teacher  is 
well  established.  It  may  be  granted  that  the  most  striking  things  ms  mode  of 
He  said  have  been  preserved,  and  these  show  an  abundant  use  tearing- 
of  proverbs,  parables,  similitudes,  parallelism,  paradox,  and  even  hyperbole. 
"  The  gnomic  form,  in  which  each  thought  is  rounded  off  concisely,  The  gnomic 
leaving  no  cause  for  further  amplification,  and  thus  making  it  form- 
easy  for  the  memory  to  retain  it  .  .  .  readily  takes  the  form  of  Hebrew 
parallelism  (Matt.  vii.  2),  at  one  time  antithetical  (Luke  xiv.  11),  at  another 
carrying  forward  the  idea  on  a  parallel  line  (Matt.  x.  40),  and  yet  again  so 
presenting  one  part  as  an  illustration  of  the  other  (Mark  ii.  17)  that  in  order 
to  its  apprehension  it  is  essential  to  perceive  which  side  contains  the  real 
pith  of  the  idea.  A  gnome  is  enlivened  by  a  play  upon  words,  sometimes 
by  the  same  words  being  repeated  in  different  meanings  in  the  various  sec- 
tions (Matt.  x.  39),  at  others  by  different  phases  of  the  idea  being  placed  in 
relation  to  each  other  through  the  choice  of  a  consonant  expression  (Matt. 
x.  32).  A  special  peculiarity  in  the  gnomic  form,  however,  is  its  giving 
one  phase  of  an  idea  with  great  acuteness  and  force  without  adding  the 
necessary  precautions  for  its  proper  application  (Matt.  vii.  1) ;  it  does  not 
consider  the  inevitable  exceptions  (Matt.  x.  2-4),  nor  the  precise  circum- 
stances in  which  the  saying  holds  good,  and  which  we  can  only  guess  at 
(Matt.  xx.  16,  xxv.  29).  This  is  why  it  so  often  presents  an  appearance  of 
one-sidedness  (Matt.  vii.  7),  of  paradox  (John  ix.  39),  of  exaggeration  (Matt. 


7oo  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

xii.  30;  Mark  ix.  46),  and  even  of  contradiction  (comp.  John  v.  31  with  viii. 

14,  iii.  17  with  ix.  39).     Ont  of  these  apophthegms  are  formed  collections 

of  sayings  which  revolve  round  one  principal  idea  or  have  reference  to  one 

definite  object."  x 

In  true  adaptation  to  His  hearers'  capacities  and  modes  of  thinking, 

Jesus  was  everywhere  definite,  concrete,  practical  in  His  teaching.     These 

details,  of  which  the  most  unlearned  take  hold,  were  alwavs  used 
The  concrete  '  .  .         '  .  J 

and        by  Him  as  a  means  of  instruction.     His  imagery  in  most  cases 

deals  with  what  is  well  known  ;  His  metaphors  transfer  the 
sensuous  to  the  spiritual  sphere ;  He  connects  His  instruction  with  nature 
with  a  sure  touch  which  itself  testifies  to  a  deep  underlying  oneness  with 
nature  and  its  cause.  From  nature  He  teaches  God's  all-embracing  Provi- 
dence, and  the  symbolic  meaning  underlying  the  commonest  events.  Every 
circumstance  in  the  spiritual  life  is  shown  to  have  its  analogue  in  the  life  of 
sense,  in  the  phenomena  of  nature. 

In  His  parables  Jesus  gave  His  most  original  and  unique  form  of  instruc- 
tion.    Almost  every  circumstance  of  life  is  abundantly  illustrated  by  them. 

"  No  standing  or  relation  of  life  is  wanting.  They  are  all  there, 
'  the  builder  and  merchant,  the  general,  doctor,  baker  and  tailor, 
the  wine-drinker  and  cooper,  the  rich  man  and  the  beggar  before  his  door, 
the  creditor  and  his  debtor,  the  watchman  and  the  thief,  the  blind  man 
and  his  guide,  the  master  of  the  house  exhibiting  his  treasures,  the  mother 
in  her  sorest  need,  the  maidservant  carrying  the  lamp,  the  little  ones  who 
cast  the  crumbs  from  their  tables  to  the  dogs,  the  children  at  play  and 
the  sons  at  work,  the  free  son  and  the  purchased  slave,  the  servant  and 
the  labourer,  the  bridegroom  and  his  friends,  the  bride  and  her  maidens,  the 
honoured  guests  who  occupy  the  best  places  at  the  feast,  and  the  man  in 
rags  who  is  thrust  forth  "  (Weiss).  And  by  a  free  use  of  the  principle  of 
striking  contrast,  the  most  powerful  rhetorical  or  emotional  effects  are 
produced. 

That  Jesus  predicted  future  events  can  only  be  denied  by  those  who 
reject  the  narratives  in  the  gospels,  or  who  believe  that  they  represent  mis- 
His  predic-  understandings  of  what  He  said.  But  it  would  be  most  natural 
tions.  |or  any  one  yy-fao  believed  himself  to  be  a  prophet  to  refer  to 
future  events  ;  and  that  He  predicted  His  own  sufferings,  painful  death,  and 
resurrection  on  the  third  day  seems  to  us  most  certain.  It  was  not  merely 
a  vague  foreboding  of  coming  ill,  but  a  definite  consciousness  of  what  must 
inevitably  come,  that  inspired  His  numerous  references  to  these  events ;  and 
although  the  narratives  of  the  gospels  appear  to  obscure  several  points,  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple  was  definitely  predicted,  together 
with  certain  phenomena  attending  the  end  of  the  world  and  the  final  judg- 
ment of  mankind.  Many  claim  that  the  fulfilment  of  near  events  proves 
that  we  may  rely  on  what  He  foreshadowed  of  the  last  days.  Others  qualify 
this  by  saying,  that  of  such  transcendent  events  only  a  merely  approximate 
notion  can  be  given  by  any  verbal  description.  But  the  tremendous  picture 
1  Weiss,  "  Life  of  Christ,"  ii.  108.     (Clark's  Foreign  Theological  Library.) 


THE  FOUNDER   OF  CHRISTIANITY. 


7or 


of  the  great  assize  remains  as  a  most  potent  force,  ever  working  on  the 
religious  conscience  of  mankind. 

"When  we  come  to  speak  of  the  Passion  in  Gethsemane,  we  feel  how 
inadequate  all  discussion  of  it  must  be.     Who  but  the  Son  of  Man  could 
feel  the  burden  He  was  bearing  ?     With  entire  determination  to 
do  the  will  of  God,  the  human  frame  of  weakness  had  to  bear  the    ls   ass  on' 
consciousness  of  the  pain  involved,  the  mental  sorrow  for  the  Jews  who 
were  rejecting  Him,  for  the  sin  of  the  world.     With  as  much  certainty  as 


_ 


CHURCH    OF    THE    HOLY    SEPULCHRE,    JERUSALEM    (EXTERIOR). 

His  death  is  recorded,  there  is  narrated  His  prayer  for  relief  from  the  death 
that  was  coming.  Yet,  "  Not  what  I  will,  but  what  Thou  wilt."  The 
cruel  details  which  follow  are  intensified  by  fuller  knowledge  and  reflection 
respecting  them.  Bitter  taunts  of  enemies,  desertion  by  His  disciples  in 
the  hour  of  need,  prolonged  physical  torment  of  an  overwrought  and  sensi- 
tive nature,  a  lingering  painful  death  —  what  wonder  that  exhausted 
humanity,  left  as  man  to  bear  the  extremest  trial,  implored  God  as  having 
forsaken  Him  ?  Yet  even  at  this  crisis  He  pra}Ted  for  His  murderers,  and 
commended  His  soul  to  God :  and  His  demeanour  convinced  the  Roman 


7o2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

centurion  who  stood   by,  that  He  was  certainly  a   righteous   Man.     Few 
indeed  have  ever  impugned  that  testimony. 

The  Resurrection  of  Christ,  in  addition  to  the  actual  history  of  the 
triumphs  of  Christianity,  constitutes  an  element  essential  to  Christianity  as 
The  Resur-  hitherto  understood.  A  Christianity  without  a  resurrection  would 
rection.  "be  something  different ;  it  would  lack  that  which  constitutes  the 
supreme  stimulus  for  most  people  to  noble  action  or  patient  resignation,  the 
belief  that  a  reappearance  after  death  has  taken  place,  such  as  to  guarantee 
the  possibility  or  the  certainty  of  life  after  death.  If  no  resurrection  has 
taken  place,  Christians  may  well  adopt  the  words  of  St.  Paul :  then  is  their 
faith  void,  and  without  its  chief  support,  though  it  may  be  contended  that  the 
rightness  of  Christian  conduct  and  the  perfection  of  the  Christian  ideal  are 
independent  of  a  future  life  and  are  capable  of  being  realised  in  the  present. 
Without  discussing  so  complex  a  matter  as  the  evidence  for  the  resurrection, 
it  may  be  said  that  if  the  evidence  we  have  for  its  real  occurrence  cannot 
be  believed,  we  can  believe  no  remarkable  event  of  ancient  times  that  is 
not  proved  in  some  way  not  depending  on  human  testimony.  Perhaps  the 
most  cogent  of  all  is  the  testimony  of  St.  Paul,  who  wrote  nearest  to  the  events 
of  which  he  spoke,  as  to  the  numerous  occasions  on  which  Jesus  was 
st  Paul's  seerL  after  His  death.  He  was  imbued  with  the  most  exclusive 
testimony,  doctrines  of  the  Pharisees,  so  antagonistic  to  the  claims  of  Jesus ; 
he  was  a  most  bitter  persecutor  of  the  new  sect ;  he  was  educated  to  sift 
evidence  in  the  best  way  then  possible,  and  in  many  ways  he  showed 
capacity  in  that  art ;  yet,  when  we  cannot  but  believe  that  he  made  the 
most  careful  inquiries  possible  to  avoid  being  deceived,  he  records  a  num- 
ber and  a  variety  of  appearances  which  we  nust  take  as  being  the  most 
matured  belief,  founded  on  the  best  evidence  examined  by  one  of  the  acutest 
minds  of  the  age,  a  very  short  time  after  the  dates  at  which  they  occurred  ; 
and  this  belief,  with  other,  more  internal  influences,  sufficed  to  make  him 
the  most  devoted,  the  most  persevering,  the  most  successful  of  the  found- 
ers of  Christianity.  We  cannot  doubt  that  without  this  belief  St.  Paul 
would  have  regarded  his  faith  as  void,  his  hope  vain,  and  hence  we 
come  to  a  dilemma,  only  second  to  that  in  which  we  are  placed  by  the 
nature  of  Jesus — either  this  man  was  deluded  or  he  was  dishonest.  If 
he  was  either,  could  he  have  so  moved  the  minds  of  his  contemporaries  ? 
Of  those  who  answer  that  he  was  deluded,  we  may  ask,  Why  was  no  attempt 
ever  made  to  produce  the  dead  body  of  Jesus  after  His  burial?  Is  it  con- 
ceivable that  the  poor,  scattered,  insignificant  adherents  of  Jesus  could  have 
stolen  and  hidden  that  body  in  the  face  of  Roman  guards  and  a  Pharisaic 
majority,  so  that  all  trace  of  it  or  its  conveyance  should  have  vanished  ? 
Yet,  in  pursuance  of  our  plan  of  non-dogmatism,  we  must  leave  the  question 
to  be  determined  by  each  reader  for  himself.  We  may  note,  however, 
how  entirely  the  recorded  appearances  of  Jesus  accord  with  the  spiritual 
nature  of  Christianity,  in  strong  contrast  to  the  gross  and  coarse  character 
of  most  of  the  so-called  incarnations  of  Vishnu  and  other  Hindu  gods.  To 
quote  Dr.  Geikie,   "  Even  when  most  closely  touching  the  material   and 


THE   FOUNDER    OF  CHRISTIANITY. 


7°3 


earthly,  He  is  always  seen  speaking  and   acting  only  as  a  spirit — coming 

suddenly,  revealing  Himself  in  an  imperceptibly  increasing  completeness, 
which  culminates  at  last  in  some  unmistakable  sign,  and  presently  vanishing 
as  suddenly  as  He  appeared."  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  numerous  and 
varied  interpretations  are  possible,  and  have  been  put  forward,  as  to  what  it 
was  that  underlay  the  phenomena  seen  by  Christ's  disciples  after  His  death, 
and  that  in  going  beyond  the  assertion  that  essentially  the  same  Jesus — 
glorified  in  some  indefinable  way — appeared,  whom  they  had  known  before, 
and  proved  Himself  so  by  unmistakable  signs,  110  means  exist  of  deciding 


CHURCH    OF    THE    HOLY    SEPULCHHE,    JERUSALEM    (INTERIOR). 

between  rival  hypotheses.  The  Ascension  is  the  natural  culmination  of  the 
resurrection  appearances  ;  but  here  again,  if  we  travel  beyond  the  simple 
record,  we  enter  a  region  of  speculation  which  cannot  admit  of  proof. 

Here  we  must  leave  the  greatest  subject  in  the  world's  history,  having 
but  glanced  at  a  few  of  its  aspects  very  briefty.  Men  are  almost  all  agreed 
that  the  life  of  Jesus  was  one  of  pure  beneficence  and  sinlessness.  They 
are  less  agreed  as  the  deeper  meaning  and  effect  of  His  life,  and  still  less 
agreed  to  follow  His  example.  That  His  life  has  not  }Tet  won  all  its  triumphs 
may  be  seen  by  the  daily  increasing  influence  of  Christian  philanthropy  as 
a  principle  guiding  the  efforts  of  those  who  do  not  recognise  Jesus  as  Divine. 
The  ideals  of  citizenship,  of  care  for  the  poor,  weak,  and  sick,  owe  to  Him 


7°4 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


far  more  than  can  easily  be  gauged.     We  cannot  imagine  what  the  world 
would  have  been  without  Him. 

We  cannot  here  discuss  the  views  held  of  the  birth  and  the  person  of 
Christ.  Each  theological  school  has  its  own  standards  on  these  questions, 
and  every  man's  belief,  founded  upon  careful  investigation,  is  to  be  respected. 
We  would  suggest  that  the  importance  of  doctrines  about  Christ  is  less  than 
the  influence  of  His  words  and  life,  and  that  where  these  fail  to  amend  and 
elevate  life  and  character,  definitions,  dogmas,  and  doctrines  will  seldom 
avail. 


THE    CROWN    OF    THOI5NS. 


CHAPTER   IT. 

€\n  ff.t)M  Ce*tament. 

Origin  of  the  gospels— Probably  written  years  after  events— The  Pauline  epistles— Repetition  of  the 
sayings  and  doings  of  Jesus— Early  partial  narratives —Synoptic  gospels— Theories  of  their 
origin— Papias— Clement  of  Rome— Epistles  of  Ignatius,  Polycarp,  and  Barnabas— Justin  Martyr 
—Internal  evidences— Date  of  the  synoptic  gospels— The  Fourth  Gospel— Distinctions  of  style  — 
Doctrine  of  the  Logos— Early  testimonies— Internal  evidence— Acts  of  the  Apostles -Apocryphal 
gospels  and  Acts— Epistle  to  Hebrews— Epistles  of  Peter,  James  and  Jude— The  Revelation  — 
Manuscripts  of  New  Testament— Sinaitic  and  other  Manuscripts— Versions. 

TN  the  opinion  of  the  great  majority  of  Biblical  students  the  documents 
-1-  recording  the  life  of  Jesus'  proceeded  either  from  His  immediate  dis- 
ciples, or  from  those  who  learnt  the  facts  directly  from  them,  origin  of  the 
For  those  who  believe  in  the  entire  accuracy  of  every  word  of  £°speis. 
the  gospels  there  are  still  left  the  problems,  which  of  the  many  diversities  in 
the  existing  manuscripts  are  correct,  and  also  how  the  apparently  or  really 
contradictoiy  features  in  the  various  narratives  are  to  be  explained.  We 
can  here  only  take  a  brief  view  of  a  few  of  the  questions  surrounding  the 
growth  of  the  gospels  and  other  New  Testament  books. 

Two  circumstances  prevented  the  writing  of  lives  of  Christ  in  the  very 
earliest  period  after  His  death  ;  viz.,  the  facts  (1)  that  the  verbal  testimony 
of  those  who  had  seen  and  known  Him  was  attainable;  and  (2) 
that  owing  to  certain  of  His  expressions,  there  was  a  generalwritten  years 
expectation  of  His  early  second  coming  to  judge  the  world,  and  after  events- 
to  assume  the  rule  over  mankind.     When  the  death  of  many  had  thinned 
the  ranks  of  those  who  could  bear  personal  testimony,  and  when  the  lapse 
of  time  made  it  appear  that  Christ's  second  coming  might  be  deferred  to  a 
later  period,  the  need  for  records  began  to  be  felt.     But  before  this  period 
had  arrived,  a  series  of  letters,  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  were  al-  Tlie  Pauline 
ready  in  existence,  having  been  written  on  the  spur  of  particular     epistles, 
occasions,  which  are  for  the  most  part  specified.     Thus  1  Thessalonians  was 
written  in  a.d.  52  or  53,  on  the  return  of  Timothy,  whom  Paul  sent  from 
Athens  to  the  Thessalonian  Christians.     2  Thessalonians  followed  some  years 
later.     The  Epistles  to  the  Romans,  Corinthians,  and  Galatians  are  obviously 
written  soon  after  the  circumstances  related  in  them,  and  must  be  ascribed 
to  dates  about  a.d.  57  and  58.    Several  other  epistles  were  written  during  the 
apostle's  imprisonment  at  Rome.     The  so-called  Pastoral  Epistles  (Timothy, 
Titus)  are  those  on  whose  authenticity  most  doubt  has  been  thrown ;  for 
although  their  recognition  by  orthodox  Fathers  was  widespread  and  early, 
some  heretical  teachers,  such  as  Marcion,  rejected  them,  or  did  not  mention 
them.     They  have  some  peculiarities  of  phrases   and  words  which  do  not 
occur  in  the  other  Pauline  epistles ;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  harmonise  them 
with  the  narrative  in  the  Acts.     It  is  suggested  that  they  were  written 
after  St.  Paul's  release  from  imprisonment  at  Rome — a  release  of  which  there 


70o 


z  z 


7o6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

is  an  independent  tradition.  In  that  case  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  would  be 
already  written  before  their  date,  for  it  appears  probable  that  the  record  of 
the  apostolic  labours  was  written  during  St.  Paul's  imprisonment,  and  this 
affords  the  most  satisfactory  reason  for  the  sudden  ending  of  the  Acts — 
because  nothing  more  of  importance  had  then  happened.  Alread}7  before 
any  one  of  the  gospels,  as  we  have  them,  had  been  written,  the  Pauline 
epistles  were  in  existence,  and  many  confidently  assert  that  all  the  essentials 
of  the  character  and  teaching  of  Christ  can  be  put  together  from  these 
alone.1  Thus  we  certainly  have  some  documents  which  substantially,  in 
their  present  form,  have  come  down  to  us  from  the  apostolic  age,  when  the 
facts  and  persons  mentioned  were  known,  and  when  critics,  who  were  quite 
as  hostile  and  as  eager  to  destroy  at  that  time  as  now,  would  sharply 
examine  and  unsparingly  denounce  any  statements  known  to  be  untrue. 

"When  the  gospels  as  we  have  them  began  to  be  written,  the  narrations 
given  by  the  apostles  and  evangelists  had  already  long  been  current ;  and 
as  the  most  striking  sayings  of  Jesus  would  be  often  repeated, 
the  sayings  they  must  have  become  widely  and  generally  known.  Therefore 
and/esufS  °f  ^  *s  inconceivable  that  accounts  which  were  largely  at  variance 
with  the  apostles'  teaching  should  have  become  accepted.  It 
could  only  be  those  which  were  in  accord  with  them  that  gained  general 
acceptation  ;  and  when  we  find  early  Fathers  as  well  as  some  heretics 
quoting  phrases  from  and  referring  to  the  gospels  in  the  second  century, 
we  cannot  doubt  that  the  gospels  which  survived  them  were  genuine  pro- 
ducts of  the  apostles  or  their  immediate  hearers. 

Nothing  seems  more  likely  than  that  various  early  hearers  of  the 
apostles  should  have  written  down  what  they  had  heard  ;  and  this  is  indeed 
Early  partial  definitely  stated  in  the  preface  to  St.  Luke's  gospel,  which  reveals 
narratives,  ^o  us  its  own  genesis.  Out  of  fragmentary  or  partial  records, 
more  or  less  accurate,  as  well  as  by  personal  inquiry,  he  "  traced  the  course 
of  all  things  accurately  from  the  first,"  and  wrote  them  "  in  order."  And 
this  may  be  taken  as  the  process  of  construction  of  the  other  gospels,  with 
variations  dependent  upon  the  writer,  his  circumstances  and  his  opportuni- 
ties. 

It  is  evident  that  many  passages  are  narrated  substantially  in  the  same 

words,  though  often  in   a  different  order,  \>y  the  three  first  gospels,  which 

synoptic     are  consequently  termed  synoptic.     Their  accounts  of  the  life  of 

gospels.     JeslTs  are  very  similar,  even  to  their  recording  the  majority  of 

the  same  events  and  discourses.2     In  many  instances  they  use  precisely  the 

1  See  Eev.  Prof.  Beet,  "Epistles  to  Romans,  Corinthians  and  Ephesians  "  (Hodder 
and  Stoughton.) 

2  "  Of  a  total  of  1,071  verses,  Matthew  has  387  in  common  with  Mark  and  Luke,  130 
ii.  common  with  Mark,  184  in  common  with  Luke,  and  370  peculiar  to  himself.  Of 
.Mark's  662  verses.  40(5  are  common  to  all  three  synoptists,  145  common  to  Mark  and 
Matthew,  00  common  to  Mark  and  Luke,  and  51  (on  a  liberal  estimate)  peculiar  to  him- 
self. Luke  out  of  1,151  verses  shares  300  with  Matthew  and  Mark,  170  with  Matthew. 
11  with  Mark,  and  has  544  peculiarto  himself.  They  often  agree  in  a  remarkable  manner 
in  the  order  in  which  thev  give  the  events  they  relate  .  .  ." — Chambers's  Encyclo- 
pceclia,  vol.  v.,  1890;  art.  ''"Gospels." 


THE   NEW  TESTAMENT.  707 


same  words,  even  to  the  use  of  rare  words  or  expressions,  sometimes  quoting 
from  the  Old  Testament  in  a  form  different  from  either  the  Hebrew  or  the 
Septuagint. 

The  principal  hypotheses  on  which  it  is  sought  to  explain  the  facts  are 
three.  The  first  is  that  the  second  evangelist  (in  order  of  time)  borrowed 
from  the  first,  and  the  third  from  the  other  two.  Thus  Mark  has  Theories  of 
been  supposed  to  have  condensed  his  narrative  from  Matthew,  and  their  0Tigin- 
Luke  to  have  had  both  before  him  when  he  wrote.  The  second  hypotlu-sis 
is  that  of  a  primitive  written  gospel,  not  now  in  existence,  but  more  or  less 
traceable  in  the  words  and  passages  common  to  all  three  synoptists.  The 
third  is  that  there  was  a  common  oral  gospel,  generally  diffused  in  practically 
identical  terms,  of  which  each  evangelist  made  independent  use.  It  can  be 
shown  that  no  one  of  these  views  satisfactorily  explains  every  discrepancy 
or  difference.  Some  regard  a  combination  of  all  the  hypotheses  as  furnish- 
ing the  best  explanation.  In  fact,  there  is  a  tendency  to  consider  that  there 
were  two  primary  documents  :  that  from  which  St.  Mark  may  have  bor- 
rowed, and  another  described  as  the  "Logia," — sayings  or  discourses  of  Jesus. 

Here  we  may  quote  from  Papias,  bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia,  in 
the  first  half  of  the  second  century.  All  we  have  from  him  is  contained  in 
half-a-dozen  sentences  quoted  by  Eusebius  ;  but  their  meaning  Testimony  of 
has  been  unduly  strained,  and  also  very  insecure  inferences  have  Papias. 
been  drawn  from  what  he  does  not  say  in  these  sentences,  and  from  what  it  is 
thought  Eusebius  would  certainly  have  quoted  if  Papias  had  said  it.  Papias 
wrote  an  exposition  of  the  oracles  (or  discourses)  of  the  Lord,  and  in  the  frag- 
ments quoted  by  Eusebius  and  IrenEeus  we  find  the  earliest  extant  mention 
of  Matthew  and  Mark  as  evangelists.  He  says  :  "  If  I  met  anywhere  with 
any  one  who  had  been  a  follower  of  the  elders,  I  used  to  inquire  what  were 
the  declarations  of  the  elders  ;  what  was  said  by  Andrew,  by  Peter,  by 
Philip,  what  by  Thomas  or  James,  what  by  John  or  Matthew,  or  any  other 
of  the  disciples  of  our  Lord  ;  and  the  things  whicli  Aristion  and  the  elder 
(or  presbyter)  John,  the  disciples  of  the  Lord,  say ;  for  I  did  not  expect  to 
derive  so  much  benefit  from  the  contents  of  books  as  from  the  utterances  of 
a  living  and  abiding  voice."  On  the  authority  of  John  the  elder  (whether 
this  is  the  Apostle  John  or  not  cannot  be  decided),  Papias  writes  :  "  And 
this  also  the  elder  said  :  Mark,  having  become  the  interpreter  of  Peter,  wrote 
accurately  all  that  he  remembered  of  the  things  that  were  either  said  or  done 
by  Christ ;  but,  however,  not  in  order.  For  he  neither  heard  the  Lord,  nor 
followed  Him,  but  subsequently,  as  I  said,  Peter,  who  used  to  frame  his  teach- 
ing to  suit  immediate  wants,  but  not  as  making  a  connected  narrative  of  our 
Lord's  discourses.  So  Mark  committed  no  error  in  thus  writing  down  particu- 
lars just  as  he  remembered  them  ;  for  he  took  heed  to  one  thing,  to  omit  none 
of  the  things  that  he  had  heard,  and  to  state  nothing  falsely  in  his  narration 
of  them  .  .  .  Matthew  wrote  the  oracles  (or  discourses)  in  Hebrew,  and 
each  one  interpreted  them  as  he  could."  These  sentences  give  the  chief 
basis  for  the  belief  that  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew,  and  that  Mark's  gospel 
represented  the  teaching  of  Peter.     But  in  recent  times  some  incline  to 


70S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

think  that  a  primitive  Mark  and  a  primitive  book  of  discourses  are  here 
referred  to  ;  but  without  any  evidence  but  supposition. 

A  still  earlier  document  which  quotes,  though  not  with  absolute  pre- 
cision, from  our  gospels  or  from  tradition,  is  the  Epistle  of  Clement  of 
Clement  of  Rome,  addressed  to  the  Church  of  Corinth,  probably  as  early  as 
Rome.  A  D  9Q#  The  principal  passages  are  these :  "  Remember  the 
words  of  our  Lord  Jesus,  for  He  said,  '  "Woe  to  that  man  ;  it  were  better 
for  him  that  he  had  not  been  born  than  that  he  should  offend  one  of  My 
elect.  It  were  better  for  him  that  a  millstone  should  be  tied  about  his 
neck,  and  that  he  should  be  drowned  in  the  sea,  than  that  he  should  offend 
one  of  My  little  ones'"  (Clem.  Rom.  40).  "  Especially  remembering  the 
words  of  our  Lord  Jesus,  which  He  spake,  teaching  gentleness  and  long- 
suffering.  For  thus  He  said,  '  Be  ye  merciful,  that  ye  may  obtain  mercy ; 
forgive,  that  it  may  be  forgiven  to  you.  As  ye  do,  so  shall  it  be  done  unto 
you  ;  as  ye  give,  so  shall  it  be  given  unto  you  ;  as  ye  judge,  so  shall  ye  be 
judged  ;  as  ye  show  kindness,  so  shall  kindness  be  shown  unto  you  ;  with 
what  measure  ye  mete,  with  the  same  shall  it  be  measured  unto  you.'  ' 
"Whether  or  not  Clement  had  our  gospels  when  he  wrote  this,  he  had  docu- 
ments or  traditions  which  substantially  agree  with  them,  and  he  assumed 
(by  saying  '  Remember  ')  that  the  Church  he  was  addressing  had  similar 
sources  of  knowledge. 

Another  kind  of  testimony  to  the  early  existence  of  the  s}rnoptic 
gospels  is  found  in  the  Epistles  of  Ignatius,  second  bishop  of  Antioch  (a.d. 
Epistles  of  ^0  t°  107  about),  written  probably  in  the  first  years  of  the  second 
Ignatius,  century.  He  employs  the  words  of  Matthew  x.  16,  almost  verbatim, 
and  has  several  short  but  striking  phrases  peculiar  to  St.  Matthew  ;  but  all 
these  passages  are  mingled  with  the  writer's  own  words,  and  not  marked  as 
quotations.  The  authenticity  of  the  various  versions  of  Ignatius  is  doubted 
by  some,  though  their  early  date  renders  them  of  great  value  in  any  case. 
They  do  not  refer  to  any  common  or  authoritative  collection  of  books  of 
the  New  Testament,  but  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  are  prefaced  by 
"It  is  written."  There  are  frequent  references 1  to  Christ's  life,  including 
His  baptism,  crucifixion,  resurrection,  and  His  miraculous  incarnation. 
There  is  no  reference,  however,  to  any  written  records  of  the  nature  of  a 
gospel.  There  is,  however,  one  saying  of  Christ  quoted,  not  included  in 
our  gospels,  and  which  indicates  the  existence  of  oral  tradition.  Thus 
Ignatius  says  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Smyrnseans :  "  For  I  know  and  believe 
that  He  was  in  the  flesh  even  after  the  resurrection  ;  and  when  He  came  to 
Peter  and  his  company,  He  said  to  them,  '  Lay  hold  and  handle  Me,  and 
see  that  I  am  not  a  demon  (daimonion)  without  body,'  (or  '  an  incorporeal 
spirit ')."  The  writer  also  knows  several  of  the  Pauline  epistles,  for  he 
writes  to  the  Ephesians  that  the  Apostle  mentions  them  in  every  letter, 
but  he  does  not  quote  exactly  from  any  one. 

The  Epistle  of   Barnabas  (variously  dated  from  70  a.d.  to  120  a.d.), 
without  giving  a  precise  reference,  appears  to  quote  from  a  written  book  of 
1  See  Lightfoot's  great  work  on  "  The  Apostolic  Fathers." 


THE  NEW   TESTAMENT.  709 


the  New  Testament  thus :  "Let  us  beware,  lest  we  be  found,  as  it  is  written, 
many  called,  but  few  chosen.''  There  is  an  allusion  to  the  Ian-  TheEpistie 
guage  of  Matthew  ix.  13,  "I  came  not  to  call  the  righteous,  but of BarQabas- 
sinners  "  ;  and  there  is  a  saying  of  Christ  not  found  in  our  gospels  :  "  Even 
so,"  saith  He,  "  the}'  that  would  see  Me,  and  touch  My  kingdom,  must  take 
Me  through  persecution  and  suffering."  These  quotations  are  of  value  as 
showing  (1)  that  the  writer  was  acquainted  with  passages  found  in  St. 
Matthew,  and  (2)  that  he  knew  of  records  or  traditions  of  Christ  which  have 
not  come  clown  to  us.  Many  believe  the  epistle  not  to  be  genuine  because 
it  contains  numerous  mistakes  as  to  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Jews. 

The  Epistle  of  Polycarp  to  the  Philippians  (bishop  of  Smyrna,  born 
about  a.d.  70,  martyred  a.d.  155  or  156,  the  disciple  of  St.  John)  uses  New 
Testament  language  to  a  considerable  extent,  without  formal  Epistle  of 
quotations,  though  the  fact  of  St.  Paul  having  written  to  the  p°iycarp. 
Philippians  is  mentioned ;  and  his  quotations  include  passages  (twenty-two 
in  all)  from  Ephesians,  and  both  Epistles  to  Timothy,  as  well  as  other 
Epistles.  The  form  in  which  Polycarp  quotes  differs  considerably  from 
that  used  by  Clement,  and  probably  shows  that  in  his  time  there  was  not 
yet  an  accepted  canon  of  the  gospels. 

The  writings  of  Justin  Martyr  ("Apologies,  Dialogues  with  Trypho"), 
(a.d.  145-7),  contain  abundant  mention  of  written  accounts  of  the  Life  of 
Christ,  though  without  any  author's  name  being  assigned.  He  Justin 
speaks  of  the  "  Gospel  "  or  "  Gospels,"  the  memoirs  or  recollections  Martyr, 
of  the  apostles,  and  in  reference  to  St.  Mark's  Gospel,  the  recollections  of 
Peter.  He  quotes  largely  the  language  of  our  extant  gospels  and  epistles 
without  much  variation,  so  that  the  gospel  narrative  might  be  fairly  well 
reconstructed  from  them ;  and  he  says  that  in  his  clay  the  memoirs  of  the 
apostles  were  read  in  the  Church  service  as  well  as  the  prophetical  books. 
And  from  this  time  onward  there  is  full  testimony  to  the  existence  of  the 
first  three  gospels,  while  a  fourth  was  so  well  known  and  approved  by 
Irenseus,  writing  at  the  end  of  the  second  century,  that  he  was  convinced 
that  it  was  essential  that  there  should  be  four  and  only  four  gospels. 

"With  the  majority  of  readers  the  force  with  which  a  document  speaks 
to  them  personally  will  outweigh  proofs  from  external  sources,  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  force  of  the  words  of  Jesus  as  recorded  internal 
by  the  synoptic  gospels  is  such  that  with  most  persons  it  compels  Evidences, 
belief  in  their  genuineness.  Even  Eenan  speaks  of  the  "  naturalness,  the 
ineffable  truth,  the  matchless  charm  of  the  synoptic  discourses  ;  their  pro- 
foundly Hebrew  turn  ;  the  analogies  they  present  to  the  sayings  of  Jewish 
doctors  of  the  same  time  ;  their  perfect  harmony  with  the  scenery  of 
Galilee."  "  In  all  Christian  literature,"  says  Salmon  ("  Introduction  to  the 
New  Testament  "),  ':  there  is  nothing  like]them.  If,  instead  of  simply  report- 
ing these  discourses,  the  first  disciples  had  invented  them,  they  could  have 
invented  something  else  of  the  same  kind.  Actually,  it  is  a  little  surprising 
that  the  men  who  were  so  deeply  impressed  by  our  Lord's  teaching,  and 
who  so  fully  imbibed  the  spirit  of  it,  should  never  have  attempted  to  imitate 


7io  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


its  form.     In  point  of  style,  we  travel  into  a  new  country  when  we  pass 
from  the  s}'noptic  gospels  to  the  apostolic  epistles." 

As  to  the  date  of  the  synoptic  gospels,  probably  that   of  Mark   was 

written  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (a.d.  70),  and  possibly  considerably 

Date  of  the  ear^er-     He  omits  genealogies,  the  birth  and  infancy  of  Jesus,  and 

synoptic    His  appearances  after  the  resurrection.     The  last  twelve  verses 

are  not  found  in  the  two  oldest  Greek  manuscripts  and  in  some 

others,  and  are  rejected  by  many.     This  appendix  was  quoted  by  Irenseus  as 

early  as  a.d.  170,  showing  that  it  had  already  acquired  authority ;  but  in  the 

fourth  century  Eusebius  says  that  most  of  the  copies  in  his  time  omitted 

these  verses.     There  are  many  arguments  in  favour  of  Mark's  indebtedness 

to   St.  Peter ;    and  we  may  well  say  with  Renan  that  "  Mark  is  full  of 

minute  observations,  which,  without  any  doubt,  came  from  an  eye-witness. 

Nothing  forbids  us  to  think  this  eye-witness,  who  evidently  had  followed 

Jesus,  who  had  loved  Him,  and  looked  on  Him  very  close  at  hand,  and  wh® 

had  preserved  a  very  lively  image  of  Him,  was  the  Apostle  Peter  himself." 

Many  small  details  indicate  the  originality  of  the  narrative. 

There  are  strong  reasons — especially  the  abundant  testimony  of  the 
Fathers — for  believing  that  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  was  originally  written  in 
Hebrew.  Yet  the  Greek  work,  as  we  have  it,  appears  like  an  original,  not  a 
translation ;  there  are  many  explanations  of  Jewish  terms,  customs,  etc.,  as 
to  a  non-Jewish  people.  As  to  the  date  at  which  he  wrote,  we  find  in  the 
last  two  chapters  the  expression  "  even  to  this  day  "  twice  over,  signifying 
that  a  considerable  space  of  time  had  elapsed  since  the  events  recorded.  It 
is  implied  that  the  Jews  still  had  a  national  existence,  and  from  other 
indications  it  can  scarcely  have  been  written  much  before  a.d.  70. 

In  St.  Luke  there  are  numerous  signs  of  a  later  date,  possibly  at  least 
a.d.  80.  The  tradition  of  eye-witnesses  is  spoken  of  in  the  past  tense  ; 
the  attempts  of  "  many  "  to  furnish  gospel  narratives  are  mentioned  ;  there 
is  a  manifest  attempt  to  raise  the  style  of  such  records ;  Jesus  is  frequently 
referred  to  as  "the  Lord,"  etc.  But  if  we  accept  an  early  date  for  the  Acts, 
it  seems  to  involve  also  an  early  date  for  the  Third  Gospel. 

We  come  now  to  the  most  important  and  most  difficult  of  al]  New  Testa- 
ment questions — the  authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  together  with  that  of 
The  Fourth  the  Epistles  of  St.  John.  It  is  clear  from  numerous  coincidences 
Gospel.  0f  plirase  an(j  0f  Spirit  that  the  author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  also 
wrote  the  First  Epistle  of  St.  John.  The  earliest  writer  who  mentions  St. 
John  in  connection  with  a  quotation  from  the  Fourth  Gospel  is  Theophilus, 
bishop  of  Antioch,  who  wrote  about  a.d.  170-180.  He  quotes  from  John  i.  1-3, 
mentioning  the  Evangelist  as  one  of  the  men  inspired  by  the  Spirit  by  whom 
the  Holy  Scriptures  were  written.  The  Muratorian  fragment  (a.d.  170) 
names  the  Fourth  Gospel  as  by  John,  one  of  the  disciples.  It  states  that 
being  requested  by  his  fellow-disciples  and  bishops  to  write,  he  said  to  them 
"  Fast  with  me  three  days,  and  let  us  narrate  what  shall  have  been  revealed 
to  each  one  of  us.  The  same  night  it  was  revealed  to  Andrew,  one  of  the 
apostles,  that  John  should  describe  everything  in  his  own  name,  all  (the 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 


rest)  calling  the  past  to  mind  (or  revising)."  And  this  agrees  with  the 
confirmation  given  in  John  xxi.  24,  which  implies  something  approaching 
to  joint  authorship  or  some  kind  of  revision.  This  view  is  confirmed  by 
the  opening  of  St.  John,  where  ••  we  "  is  used,  followed  by  the  resumption 
of  the  first  person.  Consequently  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  gospel 
was  dictated  by  John,  in  extreme  old  age,  to  an  amanuensis,  who  put  it  into 
form  afterwards  ;  or  even  that  it  represents  the  work  of  the  disciples  of  St. 
John,  reproducing  the  effect  of  his  teaching.  The  argument  drawn  from 
differences  between  the  style  of  the  gospel  and  of  the  Apocalypse,  that  they 
cannot  both  have  been  written  b}r  the  same  author,  is  not  very  strong,  in 
the  view  of  those  who  believe  the  Apocalypse  to  have  been  written  not  later 
than  a.d.  08,  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Gospel  not  before  98,  an 
interval  of  thirty  years,  sufficient  to  produce  a  most  marked  change  of 
style.  It  is  easy  to  realise  St.  John's  Gospel  as  the  work  of  a  ripe  old  age, 
when  every  thought  of  a  long  life  had  been  perfected  and  purified,  and 
when  affection  could  give  forth  its  richest  geniality. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  sayings  of  Christ  recorded  in 
the  Fourth  Gospel  differ  noticeably  in  style  and  words  from  those  found  in 
the  synoptics,  and  also  that  they  greatly  resemble  the  author's  Distinctions 
own  style  and  words,  so  that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  of  style- 
where  one  ends  and  the  other  begins.  Moreover  the  whole  gospel  has  a 
marked  unity  of  object  and  mode  of  presenting  thought,  and  has  a  con- 
struction apparently  designed  to  set  forth  certain  aspects  of  truth  not  pre- 
sented in  the  previous  gospels.  It  may  be  inferred  that  it  was  written  with 
full  knowledge  of  the  other  gospels,  from  the  absence  to  a  large  extent  of 
repetition  of  narratives,  and  from  the  things  added.  While  the  writer  writes 
as  an  eye-witness,  he  writes  as  if  many  years  had  elapsed  since  the  events 
took  place.  It  is  notable  how  the  universal  aspect  of  Christ's  mission  is 
dwelt  upon,  and  how  the  writer  repeats  the  words  in  which  Christ  described 
the  nature  of  His  person  and  mission.  Christ  is  set  forth  as  the  Truth, 
the  perfect  revelation  of  God  the  Father,  the  perfect  pattern  of  life,  the 
uniter  of  the  finite  and  the  infinite.  Great  prominence  is  given  to  the 
idea  of  various  forms  of  witness  to  the  truth,  such  as  that  of  God  the 
Father,  of  Christ  Himself,  of  works,  of  Scripture,  of  John  the  Baptist, 
of  the  disciples,  of  the  Holy  Spirit  of  Truth  sent  from  God  after  Christ's 
death. 

Another  aspect  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  is  the  prominence  it  gives  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Logos,  or  Word.  Here  we  come  to  the  two  most  opposite 
schools  of  thought  on  the  gospel.  Some  see  in  the  Fourth  Gospel  Doctrine  of 
a  development  of  Philo's  doctrine  of  the  Logos,  such  that  none  tneLo°os- 
but  a  Hellenic  Jew  versed  in  Alexandrian  learning  could  have  written  it, 
while  some  even  attribute  the  gospel  to  Philo  as  author.  Others,  seeing 
that  Philo's  Logos  is  impersonal,  regard  the  use  of  the  idea  of  the  "  Word  " 
of  God  in  the  Old  Testament  as  representing  the  personal  action  of  God, 
as  sufficient  to  suggest  the  forms  of  teaching  in  the  Fourth  Gospel.  Many 
now  consider  that  Philo's  influence  on  the  Fourth  Gospel  is  evident,  but  that 


7i2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

in  seizing  and  presenting  the  idea  of  the  "  Logos  made  flesh  "  the  latter  is 
strikingly  new  and  original. 

Irenseus,  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Tertnllian  (end  of  second  and 
beginning  of  third  century)  quote  from  the  Fourth  Gospel  freel}-,  and 
Early  Eusebius  (third  and  fourth  centuries),  who  had  access  to  many 
testimonies.  worliS  anc[  mnch  knowledge  now  lost,  spoke  of  it  without  reserve 
as  unquestionably  written  by  St.  John.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  second 
century  it  was  accepted  even  by  heretics  and  opponents  of  Christianity. 
Athenagoras  (about  176)  plainty  uses  the  language  of  the  gospel  as  one 
thoroughly  familiar  with  it.  Tatian  (about  1(30  a.d.)  quotes  words  from  the 
gospel  as  being  well  known.  The  Ignatian  epistles  contain  several  of  the 
same  phrases,  such  as  ':  bread  of  heaven,''  "  bread  of  life,  which  is  the  flesh 
of  Jesus  Christ,"  "  the  spirit  knoweth  whence  it  cometh  and  whither  it 
goeth."  Polycarp,  the  disciple  of  St.  John,  in  the  epistle  which  has  been 
preserved,  uses  a  striking  verse  from  1  John,  which  must  be  by  the  same 
author  as  the  gospel.  Papias,  according  to  Eusebius,  used  testimonies  from 
"  the  former  epistle  of  John  "  ;  and  both  these  facts,  b}^  confirming  1  John, 
confirm  the  authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel.  Justin  Martyr  shows  in  his 
writings  the  influence  of  its  teaching  about  the  Word. 

But  for  Christians  the  internal  evidences  that  St.  John  wrote  the  Fourth 
Gospel  (whether  it  was  afterwards  edited  or  not)  are  full  and  strong.  The 
internal  author  was  evidently  a  Jew,  with  full  knowledge  of  everything 
evidence.  Jewi^ — opinions,  observances,  Old  Testament,  language,  style 
of  thought.  He  was  a  resident  in  Palestine,  familiar  with  minute  details 
of  time  and  place.  He  was  an  eye-witness  of  what  he  described,  an  apostle  ; 
and  if  an  apostle,  he  could  only  have  been  John,  for  John  is  the  only  apostle 
not  named,  except  by  special  phrases  upon  which  the  subject  of  them 
would  love  to  dwell.     He  alone  completely  satisfies  all  the  indications. 

We  cannot  here  analyse  and  compare  the  contents  of  the  gospels  ;  but 
it  may  be  remarked  that  the  simplest  way  of  accounting  for  divergences  and 
diversity  is  by  looking  at  the  recorders  as  human  beings  capable  of  mistake 
or  misinterpretation,  and  the  editors  or  copyists  of  their  works  as  not  exempt 
from  the  same  frailties.  Just  because  precisely  the  same  picture  is  not 
given  by  each  narrator,  each  biography  gains  in  value,  and  by  careful  study 
and  combination  it  is  possible  to  obtain,  a  much  more  vivid  notion  of  the 
character  and  life  of  Christ  than  if  none  of  the  narratives  varied  in  style  or 
matter. 

That  the  "  Acts  of  the  Apostles  "  was  written  by  St.  Luke  is  so  wel 
attested  and  so  generally  received  that  Ave  need  here  only  note  the  fact, 
Acts  of  tne  Its  early  propagation  and  acceptance  is  well  established,  even 
Apostles,  though  it  is  doubtful  whether  writers  so  ea.rly  as  Clement  of  Rome, 
Ignatius  and  Papias  make  distinct  references  to  it  or  its  contents.  Dr. 
Davidson  says  of  the  sections  in  which  the  narrator  uses  the  first  person 
plural,  that  they  are  "  characterised  by  a  circumstantiality  of  detail,  a 
vividness  of  description,  an  exact  knowledge  of  localities,  an  acquaintance 
with  the  phrases  and  habits  of  seamen,  which  betray  one  who  was  per- 


THE   NEW  TESTAMENT.  713 


sonally  present"' — who  must  therefore  have  been  an  intimate  companion  of 

St.  Paul.  Renan  admits  that  the  similarity  in  stylo  throughout  the 
book  is  such  that  the  same  author  must  have  written  the  whole.  The  book 
breaks  off  abruptly,  and  it  is  surprising  that  nothing  has  been  added 
describing  the  later  life  and  death  of  St.  Paul ;  but  this  is  explicable,  if  the 
book  was  written  within  the  two  years  after  the  apostle's  arrival  at  Rome 
<;i-03).  It  may  be  granted  that  the  matter  of  the  "Acts  "  does  not  altogether 
justify  the  title,  as  it  gives  a  partial  account  only  of  the  deeds  of  some  of  the 
apostles:  but  it  is  not  certain  that  this  was  the  original  title,  though  it 
is  undoubtedly  very  ancient.  It  is  more  properly  described  as  a  history 
of  the  most  important  facts  in  the  growth  of  the  early  Christian  Church. 

The  New  Testament  books  are  not  the  only  narratives  we  have  which 
purport  to  describe  the  life  of  Christ  and  the  early  days  of  Christianity, 
There  are  both  apocryphal  gospels  and  apocryphal  Acts.  The  ocrvpnal 
';  Gospel  of  James,"  which  is  known  to  have  existed  "early  in  the  Gospels  and 
fourth  century  and  probably  earlier,  not  only  supplements  our 
gospels  in  many  particulars,  but  expands  them  in  many  places,  especially  in 
regard  to  events  preceding  Christ's  birth.  The  most  obviously  legendary 
matter  is  largely  included.  There  is  also  an  early  "  Gospel  of  St.  Thomas," 
giving  accounts  of  extraordinary  and  foolish  miracles  performed  by  Christ 
in  His  boyhood.  The  "  Gospel  of  Nicodemus  "  (a  modern  title)  contains  a 
full  account  of  the  trial  of  Jesus,  and  of  His  descent  into  Hades.  Various 
gospels  were  in  use  by  the  Gnostic  sects,  one  known  as  the  Gospel  of  the 
Egyptians,  others  forbidding  marriage.  The  most  important  heretical 
gospel  is  that  known  as  the  Gospel  of  Marcion,  who  taught  in  the  first  half 
of  the  middle  of  the  second  century..  He  formed  a  gospel  out  of  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Luke,  omitting  every  part  which  was  inconsistent  with  his  peculiar 
doctrines  and  views.  This  gospel  has  not  come  down  to  us,  but  there  are 
sufficient  early  testimonies  by  the  Fathers  as  to  what  it  contained.  Some- 
have  even  conjectured  that  Mansion's  gospel  was  the  original  out  of  which 
Luke's  was  subsequently  constructed,  but  this  has  been  decisively  disproved, 
and  it  is  evident  that  his  gospel  testifies  to  the  early  existence  and  ac- 
ceptance of  St.  Luke's.  Marcion  also  rejected  the  Acts  and  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  including  only  ten  Pauline  Epistles  in  his  :'  Apostolicon." 
There  were  numerous  apocryphal  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  such  as  "  the  preach- 
ing of  Addai "  (Thaddaeus)  "  to  Abgarus,  king  of  Edessa,"  "  the  Acts  of 
Paul  and  Thecla,"  exalting  virginity  and  condemning  marriage,  the  Acts  of 
St.  Thomas,  of  St.  Philip,  of  St.  Peter,  of  St.  John,  and  the  Assumption  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin.  All  these  are  so  plainly  fabulous  in  their  contents  that 
it  is  not  worth  while  to  give  details. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  ascribed  in  our  Authorised  Version  to  St. 
Paul,  in  the  oldest   manuscripts  bears  the  simple  title  "  To  the  Hebrews." 
The  anonymous  author  has  been  singularly  successful  in  suppress-    Epistie  to 
ing  his  identity,  for  to  this  day  there  is  the  greatest  diversity  of    Hebrews, 
opinion  on  the  subject.     Its  early  date  and  authenticity  are  not  however 
questioned,  and  it  is  believed  to  have    been  written   before    the    Fall  of 


714  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Jerusalem.  It  is  quoted  abundantly  in  the  Epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome  ; 
and  it  was  believed  to  be  by  St.  Paul  throughout  the  Eastern  Church.  But 
the  differences  in  style  between  it  and  the  Pauline  Epistles  have  strongly 
impressed  many  since  the  second  century  ;  and  in  the  "Western  Church  it  was 
long  regarded  as  doubtful  whether  it  was  St.  Paul's.  Apollos  and  Barnabas 
are  the  two  possible  authors  whose  claims  are  viewed  with  the  greatest 
favour.  Tertullian  names  Barnabas  as  the  author  with  great  confidence. 
Careful  analysis  shows  that  there  are  very  many  words  and  expressions 
common  to  this  Epistle  and  St.  Paul's  writings  and  used  nowhere  else  in 
the  New  Testament. 

The   First  Epistle   oi    Peter  was  thoroughly  accepted  and  attested  as 
genuine  early  in  the  second  century ;  but  it  gives  internal  evidence  of  its 

Epistles  of  own  comparatively  late  date  in  its  language  about  persecutions, 
Peter.  and  can  scarcely  be  dated  earlier  than  a.d.  64,  being  possibly 
written  at  Rome.  It  shows  St.  Peter  as  a  strong  supporter  of  the  Pauline 
theolog3T,  but  with  many  personal  characteristics.  As  to  the  Second  Epistle 
ascribed  to  Peter,  there  was  much  doubt  as  early  as  the  time  of  Eusebius 
and  Jerome :  later,  the  Church  agreed  to  accept  it ;  since  Erasmus  and  Calvin 
many  have  rejected  it.  This  epistle  is  of  special  interest  as  being  the  only 
New  Testament  writing  which  predicts  the  entire  future  destruction  of  the 
heavens  and  the  earth  by  fire. 

The  Epistle  of  James  has  also  been  much  doubted,  both  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  reckoning  it  doubtful,  though  Eusebius  quotes  it  as  the  work  of  an 

Epistle  of  apostle.  Its  contents  indicate  plainly  that  it  was  written  early 
James.  [n  the  history  of  Christianity  by  a  Jew  for  Christian  Jews. 
There  are  numerous  indications  in  it  of  the  direct  influence  of  Christ's 
discourses,  as  given  by  a  personal  follower.  The  dispute  as  to  whether  the 
second  half  of  the  second  chapter  is  an  attack  upon  St.  Paul's  doctrine  of 
justification  by  faith,  is  answered  b}T  saying  that  "  he  has  denied  nothing 
that  Paul  has  asserted,  and  asserted  nothing  that  a  disciple  of  Paul  would 
care  to  den}-."  St.  James's  doctrine  of  works  is  really  found  fully  expressed 
by  St.  Paul.  The  epistle  is  characterised  by  abundance  of  moral  maxims 
rather  than  by  teaching  about  Christ. 

The  Epistle  of  Jude  was  accepted  as  genuine  earlier  than  the  preceding. 
It  is  remarkable  that  neither  of  them  claims  distinctly  to  be  written  by  an 

Epistle  of  apostle,  and  it  is  inferred  that  James  and  Judas,  the  "  brothers  " 
Jude.  0f  Jesus,  were  not  apostles.  Jude  quotes  twice  from  apocryphal 
books,  viz.,  the  contest  for  the  body  of  Moses,  from  "  The  Assumption  of 
Moses,"  and  the  words  of  Enoch  (verse  14)  from  the  book  of  Enoch.  In 
several  points  the  contents  of  the  Epistle,  such  as  the  reference  to  the  fallen 
angels,  are  such  as  to  make  it  difficult  of  reception. 

The  "  Revelation  of  John  "  is  the  most  valuable  specimen  of  a  kind 

of  literature  which  was  abundant  in  the  later  Jewish  and  early  Christian 

The        period,  purporting  to  reveal  the  history  of  mankind  and  of  Jews 

Revelation.  ant]  Christians.     Many  believe  it  to  have  been  written  before  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem,  a.d.  68  to  70.    Many,  however,  prefer  to  accept  the  testi- 


THE   NEW  TESTAMENT  715 


mony  of  Irenaeus,  the  friend  of  Polycarp,  St.  John's  disciple,  who  writes 
that  "  the  Revelation  was  seen  no  long  time  since,  but  almost  in  our  own 
generation,  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Domitian  "  (a.d.  81-96) ;  and 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and  Jerome  agree  that  St.  John  was 
banished  to  Patmos  during  the  reign  of  Domitian.  In  language  of  grand 
imagery,  the  author  gives  a  picture  of  the  future  history  of  the  Church, 
including  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  chaining  of  the  devil, 
the  reign  of  Christ.  The  glory  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem  is  set  forth  in 
I  he  later  chapters  in  language  which  is  indelibly  written  in  the  hearts  of 
Christians,  and  which  has  comforted  and  strengthened  multitudes  in  the 
trials  of  life  and  in  the  hour  of  death.  There  are  many  arguments  which 
support  the  belief  that  St.  John  wrote  the  Revelation  earlier  than  the 
Fourth  Gospel ;  both  contain  many  of  the  same  ideas,  though  widely 
divergent  in  style  and  matter.  The  diversity  of  style  is  to  most  persons 
explained  by  the  state  of  prophetic  ecstas}^  in  which  it  was  written.  The 
interpretation  of  the  book  in  detail  is  too  complex,  and  a  subject  of  too 
great  differences  of  opinion,  among  orthodox  and  heterodox  alike,  w  be 
entered  into  here. 

We  will  now  briefly  give  an  account  of  the  manuscript  sources  from 
which  the  New  Testament  is  derived.     Early  manuscripts  of  any  impor- 
tant book  are  rare,  and  there  is  no  complete  copy  of  Homer  of  Manuscripts 
earlier  date  than  the  thirteenth  century:  whereas  the  manuscripts   Testament. 
of  the  New  Testament  are  comparatively  abundant  and  ancient,  testify- 
ing to  their  early   importance,    and   the   prolonged   care  taken    of    them. 
Apparently,  the   oldest   now  existing   is   the   Codex    Sinaiticus,       codex 
discovered  in  the  convent  of  St.  Catherine  on  the  supposed  Mount  sinaiticus- 
Sinai  on  the  4th  of  February,  1S59,  by  Tischendorf,  and  now  deposited  in 
the  Imperial  Library  at  St.  Petersburg.     It  contains,  besides  a  large  portion 
of  the  Septuagint  Old  Testament,  the  whole  of  the  New,  together  with  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  part  of  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas.     Though  some 
have  attributed  it  to  a  later  date  than  the  next  manuscript,  there  is  a  very 
general  assent  to  its  being  a  true  relic  of  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century — 
a  view  depending  on  many  details  of  evidence.     Its  text  does  not  agree 
precisely  with  any  other. 

The  Codex  Alexandrinus,  in  the  British  Museum,  derived  early  in  the 
seventeenth  centuiy  from  Alexandria,  contains  the  whole  of  the  Septuagint, 
and    most   of  the   New   Testament,  except   a   great  part  of  St.      codex 
Matthew,  and  parts  of  St.  John,  and  of  2  Corinthians;  also  the  Alexandrinus. 
Epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome.     It  dates  from  the  beginning  or  middle  of  the 
fifth  century.     The   Codex  Vaticanus   of  the    Vatican   Library,       codex 
Rome,  has  been  there  since  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  vaticanus. 
(excepting  when  it  was  transferred  to  Paris  l\y  Napoleon).     It  contains  the 
greater  part  of  the  Septuagint,  and  the  New  Testament  down  to  Heb.  ix.  14; 
the  concluding  portion  was  added,  probably,  in  the  fifteenth  cen-      codex 
tury.     The  manuscript  dates  from  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  Epnraemi. 
century.     The  Codex  Ephraemi,  at  Paris,  is  a  specimen  of  a  palimpsest,  or 


716  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

manuscript  made  out  after  having  been  partially  erased  to  receive  a  newer 
manuscript.  Yellum  or  parchment  being  valuable  in  early  days,  previous 
manuscripts  were  often  erased  and  written  over.  Portions  of  every  part  of 
the  New  Testament  have  been  recovered  from  it,  amounting  in  all  to  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole.     It  dates  from  the  fifth  century,  or  even  somewhat 

„  ,  t,  earlier.  The  Codex  Bezos,  in  the  Universitv  Library,  Cambridge, 
Codex  Bezse.  .  "  J  '  07 

presented  by  Theodore  Beza,  in  1501,  contains  the  gospels  and 
Acts  in  Greek  and  Latin.  It  exhibits  many  bold  and  even  extensive  inter- 
polations, some  of  them  supported  by  the  Old  Latin  and  Sj^riac  versions :  all 
other  Greek  manuscripts  are  of  the  seventh  or  later  centuries.  The  earliest- 
dated  manuscript  yet  discovered  bears  the  date  a.d.  919,  and  the  dates  of 
others  have  to  be  inferred  from  various  kinds  of  evidence.  There  are  also 
some  very  early  manuscripts  of  parts  of  the  New  Testament.  All  before 
the  tenth  century  are  written  in  uncial  characters,  or  capital  letters,  each 
formed  separately,  and  in  the  earlier  manuscripts  without  any  space  between 
the  words. 

Seeing  that  all  the  earliest  manuscripts  differ  considerably  in  details,  the 

earliest  copies  of  versions  in  other  languages  than  Greek  become  of  great 

versions     importance.       Consequently,    the   Peshito    Syriac,   used   by   the 

Eastern  Church  long  before  the  separation,1  and  the  old  Latin 

translations,  are  in  the  first  rank  as  authorities,  for  they  apparently  repre- 

^   ...        sent  a  text  of  the  New  Testament  which  existed  in  the  middle  of 
Pesnito 

syriac  and  the  second  century  a.d.  There  are  other  versions,  the  Egyptian, 
the  Curetonian  Syriac,  the  Latin  Vulgate,  the  Gothic,  Armenian 
and  Ethiopian,  which  are  of  high  value,  some  having  been  made  as  early 
as  the  third  or  fourth  century.  The  Peshito  is  the  most  valuable,  being 
extremely  faithful  where  it  can  be  judged,  remarkable  for  ease  and  free- 
dom, and  seldom  loose. 

Quotations  in  the  early  Fathers  are  of  much  less  value  than  might  have 
been  expected,  for  accuracy  and  precision  in  quotation  were  evidently  not 
much  considered  by  them ;  and  what  they  quoted  has  often  been  altered 
in  copying. 

The  autographs  of  the  New  Testament  authors  appear  to  have  perished 
early,  and  the  early  Fathers  refer  to  ancient  and  approved  copies,  never 
having  apparently  seen  any  originals.  Some  critics  still  hope  to  recover 
an  original  text,  either  by  the  discovery  of  new  manuscripts,  or  by  com- 
parative and  minute  study  of  all  the  evidence  supplied  by  existing  manu- 
scripts. Many  of  these  have  as  yet  not  been  carefully  collated  or  criticised. 
It  is  evident  that  the  true  readings  cannot  be  derived  from  any  one  set  of 
authorities,  but  must  be  the  result  of  a  patient  comparison  and  weighing  of 
the  evidence  of  all  taken  together. 

_  J  This  version  is  now  used  alike  by  the  Nestorians  in  Kurdistan,  the  Monophysites  in 
Syria,  the  Christians  of  St.  Thomas  on  the  coast  of  Malabar,  and  the  Maronites  of 
Lebanon. 


ST.    PETEB  S     I'HAllt    AT    ROME. 


CHAPTER   III. 
€ht  Qpostolic  Cmu*. 

Difficulty  of  founding  the  Church — St.  Peter — The  Rock  and  the  Keys— First  successes— Martyrdom 
of  Stephen— Persecution— Admission  of  Gentiles— His  later  actions  and  influence— St.  Paul — 
His  early  life — His  conversion— His  labours  at  Antioch,  Corinth,  and  Ephesus— Arrest  at 
Jerusalem — Imprisonment  at  Rome — His  character— His  writings— His  theology— His  teaching 
about  Christ — Human  faith — Penalty  for  sin — The  new  spirit  of  the  Christian— Jewish  ideas 
of  sacrifice — The  Church  as  the  Body  of  Christ — Ministry — Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper — 
Lofty  outbursts— Teaching  as  to  women— St.  John— His  first  Epistle— St.  James— Faith  and 
works— The  first  general  persecution— Pliny  and  Trajan— Ignatius— His  epistles  and  martyr- 
dom at  Rome — Polycarp — His  martyrdom  at  Smyrna. 


THERE  can  be  no  manner  of  doubt  that  the  life  and  death  of  Christ, 
combined  with  the  preaching  of  His  disciples,  founded  the  Christian 
Church.  But  a  careful  consideration  of  the  gospels  will  show  that  sur- 
prisingly little  in  the  way  of  a  definite  Church  existed  at  the 
time  of  the  Crucifixion,  and  that  it  almost  entirely  lacked  formal  founding  the 
doctrines  and  organisation.  Thus  an  enormous  work  was  left  to  Churcl1- 
be  accomplished  by  those  who  had  received  and  assimilated  the  direct 
teachings  of  Jesus.  Deprived  of  the  inspiration  of  His  bodily  presence, 
they  had  to  act,  in  order  to  succeed,  as  boldly  and  courageously  and  wisely 
as  if  they  still  had  the  stimulus  of  His  presence  and  encouragement ;  and 
it  is  claimed  by  the  Christian  Church  that  it  was  only  in  virtue  of  a  realisa- 

717 


7i8  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

tion  of  His  invisible  aid  and  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit  which  He 
had  promised  to  them  that  they  accomplished  what  they  did. 

Everything  appeared  to  be  against  the  chances  of  the  establishment 
of  the  new  religion.  The  Founder  was  dead  under  circumstances  of  shame 
and  of  desertion  by  His  disciples.  A  prominent  disciple,  Peter,  had  denied 
knowing  Him  with  oaths  and  curses.  The  triumphant  enemies  of  Jesus 
were  read}7,  to  crush  His  followers  if  they  dared  to  show  themselves.  Yet, 
by  some  extraordinary  stimulus,  which  is  most  rationally  referred  to  their 
absolute  certainty  of  having  seen  their  risen  Master,  and  to  their  feeling 
an  overpowering  impulse  to  tell  what  they  had  experienced  in  their  com- 
panionship with  Him,  they  succeeded  in  drawing  to  their  ranks  within  a 
few  weeks  many  thousands  of  adherents  in  Jerusalem,  the  scene  of  the 
Crucifixion ;  and  the  recreant  disciple  became  the  most  prominent 
of  the  apostles,  bold,  fiery,  and  eloquent.  According  to  the  extant 
narratives,  he  had  been  distinguished  by  a  special  appearance  of  Christ  to 
him  after  His  resurrection,  and  he  had  received  from  Him  a  special  pastoral 
charge  over  His  "  sheep  "  and  "  lambs."  Previously  to  his  denial  of  Christ 
he  had  made  a  notable  and  full  confession  of  belief  in  Him  as  "  the  Christ 
The  Rock  and  the  Son  of  the  living  God,"  and  had  received  a  blessing  containing 

the  Keys.  ^he  WOrds,  "  Thou  art  Peter,  and  upon  this  rock  I  will  build  My 
Church.  ...  I  will  give  unto  thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  ; 
and  whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  on  earth  shall  be  bound  in  heaven,"  etc. 
These  words  are  relied  upon  by  the  Church  of  Rome  as  constituting  Peter 
the  head  of  the  Church,  and  as  giving  him  power  to  transmit  his  headship  ; 
and  in  other  ways  they  are  regarded  as  establishing  the  powers  claimed  by 
Roman  Catholicism.  It  is  held  by  opponents  of  this  view  (1)  that  Christ 
spoke  of  Himself,  not  Peter,  as  the  Rock  ;  (2)  that  Peter's  confession  of  faith 
was  the  rock;  or  (3)  that  Peter  is  addressed  in  a  representative  capacity 
as  chief  disciple.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  meaning,  we  find  Peter 
taking  the  lead  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  as  the  chief  preacher  and  ex- 
ponent of  the  new  teaching.  Yet  wTe  have  no  sign  of  a  dictatorship  or  even 
primacy  on  his  part ;  he  did  not  act  apart  from  the  other  apostles  ;  at  a 
later  time,  St.  James  occupied  the  leading  position  at  Jerusalem ;  and  there 
is  no  record  that  St.  Peter  transmitted  or  assigned  his  position  to  any  one 
at  his  death. 

A  wonderful  enthusiasm  was  excited   by   the  first   preaching   of  the 
Gospel  and  the  signs  and  wonders  which  followed  it.     A  tendency  to  live 

First  sue-    m  social  unity,  with  a  common  fund,  was  manifested,  and  the 

cesses,      only  care  of  the  first  Christians  was   to  continue  praying  and 

worshipping  in  the  Temple  and  testifying  to  the  truth.     Soon,  however,  the 

high  priest  and  the  Sadducees  grew  alarmed  at  the  success  of  the  new 

party,  especially  as  it  condemned  their  own  recent  action,  and  before  long 

Martyrdom  they  stoned  to  death  a  convert  named  Stephen,  who  himself  was 

of  Stephen,  preaching  with  great  power.  Stephen  had  proclaimed  at  the 
end  of  his  defence  that  he  "  saw  the  heavens  opened,  and  the  Son  of  man 
standing  on  the  right  hand  of  God,"  and  we  may  trace  some  affinity Jbe- 


THE  APOSTOLIC   TIMES. 


719 


tween  this  vision  and  that  which  subsequently  converted  Saul,  afterwards 
Paul,  a  young  man  who  took  part  in  the  stoning  by  protecting  the  clothes 
of  the  witnesses  to  Stephen's  so-called  blasphemy.  Stephen's  dying  utter- 
ance, "  Lord,  lay  not  this  sin  to  their  charge,"  reminds  us  of  his  Master's 
similar  prayer  for  the  forgiveness  of  His  murderers. 

This  tragedy  was  followed  by  a  persecution  which,  scattering  the 
infant  Church,  was  a  means  of  its  spread.  Saul  took  violent  ac-  Peraecuti0IL 
tion  in  entering  houses  and  forcibly  dragging  Christian  men  and 
women  to  prison.  Among  the  places  to  which  the  Gospel  was  carried  by 
Philip  the  evangelist 
was  Samaria,  and 
the  Samaritans 
readily  accepted  his 
teaching.  Peter, 
going  down  with 
John  to  establish 
the  converts,1  was 
besought  by  Simon, 
a  magician,  to  impart 
to  him  for  money 
the  power  which  at- 
tended his  laying 
his  hands  on  the  be- 
lievers, and  received 
a  crushing  rebuke. 
B}T  this  incident 
traffic  in  holy  things 
for  money  was  once 
for  all  condemned, 
and  from  it  we  have 
derived  the  term 
"simony."    Another 

important  . 

r  Admission  of 

event  was    Gentiles  by 
the  call  of        Peter- 
Peter  to  teach  Cor- 
nelius, a  devout  Ro-  statue  of  st.  peter,  is  st.  peter's,  at  Rome. 
man     centurion     at 

Csesarea,  and  his  first  opening  the  teaching  of  the  Gospel  to  Gentiles.  His 
action  in  baptising  him  and  his  household  is  recorded  to  have  been  based  on 
then  "having  received  the  Holy  Ghost "  like  the  Jewish  converts.  Peter 
had  learnt  the  great  truth  that  God  is  no  respecter  of  persons,  and  that  "  in 
every  nation  he  that  feareth  Him  and  worketh  righteousness,  is  acceptable 
to  Him."     The   apostles  and  other  Christians  at  Jerusalem,  who  at  first 

1  Tins  occurrence  marks  the  institution  of  ':  confirmation  "  by  laying  on  of  hands; 
which  the  Western  Church  has  always  maintained  should  he  performed  by  a  bishop. 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


objected  to  Peter's  action,  when  they  heard  the  details  found  their  objections 
silenced,  and  said,  "  Then  to  the  Gentiles  also  hath  God  granted  repentance 
unto  life." 

After  this  period,  and  his  deliverance  from  prison,  when  the  Apostle 

James  had  been  killed  by  Herod  Agrippa  (a.d.  40),  we  have  little  direct 

information  about  Peter,  except  when   he  took  the  lead  at  the 

actions  and  so-called  council  of  Jerusalem,  and  maintained  the  conditions  of 

influence.  eqUakty  on  which  he  had  admitted  Gentiles  to  the  Church.  Bat 
he  did  not  call,  preside  at,  or  pronounce  the  decision  of  the  council,  and  these 
facts  appear  fatal  to  the  Roman  claims  as  to  the  primacy  of  St.  Peter.  From 
this  time  Peter  mainly  preached  to  Jews,  and  still  remained  so  far  attached 
to  Jewish  practices  that  he  incurred  a  sharp  rebuke  from  Paul  at  Antioch 
for  withdrawing  from  eating  with  the  Gentile  converts.  It  is  believed  that 
Peter  visited  Corinth,  and  by  many  that  he  visited  Rome,  and  was  martyred 
there,  probably  a.d.  67.  His  impressive  energy,  power  of  rapid  decision  and 
action  and  practical  tendency,  if  at  times  too  strongly  inclined  to  follow 
apparent  expediency,  had  a  powerful  effect  in  establishing  the  early  Church. 
But  a  greater  light  arose  out  of  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen.  The  first 
martjT  of  Christ  had  a  distinct  infhience  in  developing  the  Apostle  to  the 
Gentiles.  But  here  also  the  great  teacher  was  a  Jew  of  the 
'  aU '  purest  lineage,  though  born  a  Roman  citizen  in  a  city  distant 
from  Palestine.  The  Semitic  element  was  all  powerful  in  founding  the 
new  Church.     Taught  by  Gamaliel,  a  leading  rabbi,  Paul  at  first  far  outdid 

His  early    n^s  teacher  in  his  fanatic  regard  for  Jewish  usages.     It  appears 

life-        that  St.  Paul  had  never  seen  Jesus  before  the  date  of  his  vision 

while  on  the  way  to  Damascus  to  extend  the  area  of  his  persecution  of  the 

Christians.     His  religious  life  was  early  of  a  very  intense  kind  ;  and  after  he 

had  seen,  as  he  was  certain,  the  living  Christ,  just  as  evidently  as  He  was  seen 

His  con-     ^y  the  apostles  after  His  death,  he  became  even  more  energetic 

version.  as  a  preacher  of  Christianity  than  he  had  been  as  a  persecutor. 
Even  if  this  vision  is  regarded  as  one  of  ecstasy,  and  as  describing  an 
inward  and  not  an  objective  vision,  nothing  can  get  rid  of  the  fact  that 
something  sufficiently  powerful  transformed  a  violent  persecutor  into  an 
ardent  believer  and  a  zealous  preacher  of  Christianity  against  the  severest 
difficulties  and  opposition.  Paul  himself  solemnly  declared  that  his  com- 
mission to  teach,  and  the  matter  of  his  teaching,  had  been  directly  received 
from  Christ ;  and  those  who  even  think  they  can  account  for  the  success  of 
his  preaching  by  various  natural  causes,  have  to  charge  Paul  with  being 
either  a  deceiver  or  a  visionary,  which  will  not  readily  fit  in  with  his 
practicality  of  method  all  through.  His  preaching  rested  upon  no  human 
commission ;  he  was  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  "  not  from  men,  neither 
through  man." 

"We  shall  not  attempt  to  describe  the  events  of  his  well-known  life,  his 
indefatigable  labours,  his  extraordinary  successes  among  the  most 

His  la.*bouxs 

'  diverse   peoples,  his  terrible  sufferings,  his   heroic  fortitude,  his 
dauntless  courage.     It  is  evident  that  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  records  but 


THE  A  EOS  TO  L/C    TIMES. 


721 


a  small  portion  of  his  labours.     We  derive  a  fuller  notion  of  them  from  his 
own   epistles,  where   he  describes   his  numerous   whippings  by  mg  labour3 
the  Jews,  his   beating   by  the   Koman   lictor's  rods,  his   being 


stoned,  his  three  shipwrecks,  his  many  perils,  his  sufferings  from  hunger 

and  thirst,  from  cold  and  nakedness.     He  was  prominent  in  the  , 
f         T  n      1       ™  ,  -i  i  ,1  u  ™     •      At  Antioch. 

founding  of  the  Church  at  Antioch,  where   the  name      Chris- 
tian "  was  first  applied  to  the  converts,  and  where  the  Gentiles  and  the 

3  A 


7 22  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Jews  first  lived  in  common.  He  also  planted  the  Gospel  throughout  Asia 
Minor,  in  Macedonia  and  Greece.  Although  he  always  seems  to  have 
preached  first  to  the  Jews  in  any  place  he  visited,  it  became  obvious  and 
acknowledged  that  his  chief  mission  was  to  the  Gentiles,  and  he  insisted 
that  no  burdensome  or  ceremonial  obligations  of  the  Mosaic' law  should  be 
laid  upon  them. 

Paul  had  less  success  in  philosophic  Athens  than  among  the  crowded 
masses   of  industrial   cities,    where   the   sensuality  of  the   rich   and    the 
At  Corinth  wretchedness  of  the  poor  and  the  slaves  afforded  him  full  scope 
and  Epnesus.  for  j^g  £erv  preaching.     Corinth  and  Ephesus  were  two  such 
centres.     1  Cor.  iv.  11-13  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  his  painful  life  in  Ephesus, 
an  object  of  scorn  and  humiliation,  a  suffering,  hungry  worker  of  uncertain 
habitation,  "  dying  daily."     At  one  time  he  had  to  fight  with  beasts  in  the 
arena  ;  at  another  he  was  barely  saved  by  Prisca  and  Aquila,  "  who  for  his 
life  laid  down  their  own  necks."     One  noticeable  effect  produced  at  Ephesus 
was  the  falling  off  of  the  trade  of  the  silversmiths  who  made  models  of 
Artemis  and  of  her  temple  for  sale  to  worshippers ;  and  this  led  to  a  dis- 
turbance, which  was  followed  by  his  second  visit  to  Europe.      During  this 
journey  he  described  himself  (2   Cor.  vi.   9,  10)  as  dying  yet  living ;  as 
sorrowful,  yet  always  rejoicing  ;  as  poor,  yet  making  many  rich  ;  as  having 
nothing,  yet  possessing  all  things.     Then,  as  always,  he  remembered  the 
poor  and  suffering,  and  took  especial  pains  to  obtain  a  large  contribution 
for  the  Christians  of  Palestine,  which  he  himself  took  to  Jerusalem.     On  his 
way  he  touched  at  Ephesus,  and  in  his  farewell  address  to  the  Ephesian 
elders  quoted  a  saying  of  Jesus  not  given  in  the  Gospels,  "It  is  more  blessed 
Arrest  at    t°  give  than  to  receive."     At  Jerusalem  he  was  soon  attacked 
Jerusalem.  as  a  molester  of  Jewish  customs  and  a  polluter  of  the  temple. 
The  Roman  governor,  who  had  seized  him  in  order  to  protect  him,  was 
constrained  to  grant  him  the  appeal  to  the  Roman  Emperor  (Nero),  and  to 
send  him  to  Rome,  where,  according  to  the  Acts,  he  was  kept  in  a  qualified 
imprisonment  state  of  imprisonment  for  two  years,  having  opportunity  to  teach 
at  Rome,     those  who  came  to  him,  making  converts  among  the  Jews,  the 
Praetorian  guard,  and  even  the  Imperial  household.     Whether  he  was  re- 
leased after  this  and  afterwards  preached  in  Spain,  whether  he  was  in  fact 
martyred  at  Rome  in  a.d.  64  is  by  no  means  certain,  though  generall}' 
believed.    He  is  described  in  the  "Acts  of  Paul  and  Thekla"  as  "a  man  small 
in  stature,  bald-headed,  bow-legged,  stout,  close-browed,   with  a  slightly- 
prominent  nose,  full  of  grace  ;  for  at  one  time  he  seemed  like  a  man,  at 
another  time  he  had  the  face  of  an  angel." 

Occupying,  by  common  consent,  the  second  place  in  the  history  of 
Christianity,  St.  Paul  is  surpassed  by  no  man  in  the  variety  of  his  experiences, 
and  only  by  his  Master  in  his  readiness  and  power  of  adaptation 
'  to  every  circumstance.  Intensely  human,  his  natural  impulse 
was  to  gain  and  exert  a  predominant  influence  ;  his  disciplined  aim  was 
to  use  his  influence  entirely  to  propagate  the  most  important  truth,  and  to 
elevate  and  strengthen  mankind.     It  is  impossible  to  conceive  a  man  under- 


THE  APOSTOLIC   TIMES.  72; 


taking  such  labours  and  perils  without  an  inner  conviction  amounting  to 

certainty  of  his  Divine  commission ;  and  no  one  impeaches  his  sincerity. 

Equally  impossible  is  it  to  explain  away  his  achievements.     Few  will  deny 

that  Paul  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  who  have  ever  lived.     By  turns 

practical    administrator,    organiser,    conciliator,    pleader,   orator,  reason  >r, 

original  thinker  and  writer,  he  was  actuated  in  everything  b\r  an  absorbing 

devotion  to  the  end  he  had  in  view,  to  persuade  men  to  union  with  Gk)d 

through  Jesus  Christ.      And  if  in  the  fervour  of  his  advocacy  he  perhaps 

too  lightly  assumed  that  his  view  of  human  nature  included  everything, 

and  was  too  urgent  in  pressing  everyone  into  his  own  mould,  it  was  because 

of  the  strength  and  sincerity  of  his  beliefs,  and  because,  if  all  he  thought" 

was  true,  every  man  and  woman  was  in  imminent  danger  of  eternal  death. 

In  his  teaching  about  Divine  things,  while  very  largely  practical,  Paul 

was  intensely  theological — the  founder  of  theology  as  now  understood.     Not 

having  been  a  companion  of  Jesus,  he  was  not  surcharged  with 

.  .  His  writings. 

His  personal  teachings,  and  rarely  quotes  Him.  He  rather  comes 
before  us  as  one  who  had  absorbed  the  spirit  of  Jesus,  and  superadded  to  it 
the  conceptions  of  a  mind  persistently  endeavouring  to  gain  definite  ideas 
of  the  sj'stem  of  Divine  and  human  relationships.  Thus  the  matter  of  his 
epistles  is  quite  different  in  style  and  form  from  that  of  any  other  New 
Testament  writer.  It  is  as  if  he  had  laboured  to  arrive  at  a  clear  under- 
standing of  man's  nature  and  dreadful  sinfulness  and  the  remedies  for  it. 
and  had  spent  his  utmost  effort  to  express  this.  He  did  not  possess  all  the 
highest  literary  gifts,  and  is  sometimes  complex  and  involved ;  sometimes 
his  analogies  are  imperfect ;  sometimes  his  thoughts  do  not  seem  logicall}' 
to  grow  out  of  one  another.  His  impulsiveness  sometimes  hurries  him  rapidl}' 
through  a  high  flight  of  thought ;  but  he  is  essentially  a  theologian  for  the 
most  part,  and  tries  to  present  a  sort  of  mathematical  view  of  salvation. 

His  theology1  was  based  upon  the  universal  fact  of  sin,  wrong-doing, 
and  the  tendency  to  do  wrong,  a  state  of  disobedience  to  God's  law,  assumed 
to  be  known  by  every  man.  This  is  so  far  personified  that  we 
seem  to  verge  near  something  like  the  Zoroastrian  Ahriman,  a 
personality  constantly  suggesting  evil  actions  and  seeking  to  antagonise 
and  crush  good  impulses.  The  fact  of  death  coming  upon  all  men  is  adduced 
as  a  proof  that  all  have  sinned.  The  fact  that  Adam  sinned  is  put  forward 
as  involving  the  necessaiy  sinfulness  and  death  of  all  his  descendants. 
There  was  for  the  Jew  a  law  given  by  Moses  which  it  was  impossible  for 
him  perfectly  to  obey  ;  there  was  for  the  Gentile  an  inner  law  of  the  heart 
telling  him  what  was  right  and  rebuking  his  transgressions ;  but  his  fleshly 
desires  were  in  permanent  captivity  to  sin. 

Thus,  without  God's  intervention,  which,  however,  was  foreordained  and 
as  much  part  of  the  general  scheme  as  sin  had  come  to  be,  man's  state  was 
one  of  hopeless  ruin.  This  intervention  was  in  the  form  of  His  Son  Jesus 
Christ,  made  a  true  man,  freely  given  and  giving  Himself,  intended  to  die 

1  See  Dr.  Hatch's  valuable  article  on  St.  Paul  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  9tl 

edition. 


724  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

for  man  on  the  cross  and  to  be  raised  again.  This  latter  event  was  the 
guarantee  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel,  of  man's  forgiveness  by  God.  The 
varying  expressions  of  Paul  about  the  way  in  which  the  death  of  Christ 
saved  man  have  afforded  the  basis  for  various  theories  of  redemption. 
His  teaching  Christ  "became  obedient  unto  death,"  He  was  "  made  to  be  sin 
about  Christ.  for  USj»  «  Christ  our  Passover  is  sacrificed,"  "  we  were  reconciled 
to  God  through  the  death  of  His  Son,"  "  God  was  in  Christ  reconciling 
the  world  unto  Himself,"  "  ye  were  bought  with  a  price."  The  sinner,  as 
a  condemned  criminal,  might  be  acquitted  by  the  favour  of  God  through 
the  death  of  Christ.  Christ  and  His  followers  are  represented  as  having 
together  died  to  sin,  and  together  risen  to  righteousness.  Thus  men  might 
once  more  become  righteous  by  the  gift  of  God,  might  receive  a  new  life, 
might  be  adopted  as  the  sons  of  God. 

Although  this  salvation  was  intended  and  prepared  for  all  men,  they 
could  only  enter  into  its  enjoyment  by  the  co-operation  of  their  own  mind 
and  will,  through  faith,  that  faculty  by  which  one  is  convinced 
'  of  and  mentally  appropriates  that  which  is  not  immediately 
tangible.  Thus  men  are  said  to  be  saved  by  their  faith,  as  well  as  by 
Christ's  blood  ;  and  their  new  righteousness  is  the  result  of  faith.  They  can 
only  do  this  by  an  act  of  repentance,  of  grief  for  past  sins,  and  a  resolute 
turning  away  from  them. 

Great  objections  were  evidently  raised  against  this  doctrine,  as  one 
which  condoned  all  sins  without  the  payment  of  a  personal  penalty ;  it 
Penalty  for  appeared  to  pass  over  crimes  too  readily,  and  no  State  has  re- 
sm-  trained  from  punishing  men  for  crimes  because  of  their  becoming 
Christians  afterwards.  Nor  is  Paul  able,  in  the  imperfect  knowledge  of  his 
time,  to  lay  full  stress  on  the  physical  and  social  punishment  which  attends 
and  follows  wrong-doing  in  this  world,  and  on  the  doctrine  of  physical 
heredity,  which  explains  much  that  is  most  striking  in  his  theory  of  sin- 
fulness and  death  through  "Adam."  The  view  that  the  Christian  doctrine 
of  forgiveness  wrongly  condones  crimes,  and  that  it  is  immoral  to  conceive 
of  a  guiltless  person  as  suffering  the  penalty  due  to  the  guilty,  has  not 
yet  lost  its  influence,  and  forms  a  perpetual  question  for  the  Christian 
philosopher.  St.  Paul  describes  the  saved  man  as  actuated,  even 
spirit  of  the  filled,  by  a  new  spirit.  Christ's  Spirit  dwells  in  him.  It  is 
ns  ian.   jmp0Ss^e  for  ^^  ^0   g^  s0  }ong  as  \ie  realises  his  new  state  ; 

and  after  lapses,  repentance  brings  reinstatement.  The  new  life  of  man- 
kind is  intimately  connected  with  the  hope  of  the  general  resurrection,  of 
which  Christ's  resurrection  is  a  pledge.  The  advent  of  Christ,  which  Paul 
conceived  as  near  at  hand,  was  to  be  followed  by  a  reign  during  which  He 
will  put  all  enemies  under  His  feet.  Sometimes  unbelievers  are  threatened 
with  eternal  destruction ;  at  others  we  are  told  that  in  Christ  all  will  be 
made  alive.  On  this  subject,  as  on  numerous  others,  we  may  account  for  the 
variety  of  presentation  by  the  fact  that  the  work  and  influence  of  Christ  had 
various  bearings,  and  could  only  be  adequately  stated  by  using  such  variety. 
It  was  so  great  that  no  one  form  of  words  sufficed  to  describe  it  fully. 


THE  APOSTOLIC   TIMES.  725 

There  is  much  in  Paul's  theology  which  is  closely — too  closely  and 
pedantically,  according  to  some — linked  with  Jewish  ideas  of  the  necessity 
of  sacrifice — especially  if  we  regard  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  Jewish  ideas 
as  his.  It  was  also  related  to  philosophy,  the  freewill  and  of  sacrmce 
necessity  controversy,  Epicureanism,  Stoicism,  and  Asceticism.  The 
doctrine  of  predestination  has  been  founded  very  largely  on  certain  ex- 
pressions of  his,  while  others,  displaying  the  freewill  of  man,  are  equally 
quoted  by  its  opponents.  The  question  whether  salvation  is  by  works  or 
by  grace  alone  is  largely  a  matter  of  discussion  from  his  writings. 

The  body  of  a  Christian  was  described  by  Paul  as  "  the  temple  of  the 
Holy   Ghost."      Every   believer   was   part   of  Christ's   body.     The  whole 
number  of  believers  constituted  a  collective  "body,"  the  Church  of  Tne  ^u^ 
Christ ;  and  the  members  each  had  their  function,  without  the  as  the  body 
due  discharge  of  which  the  whole  body  suffered.      We  gain   a 
good    idea  of  the  local    communities   from   his  epistles,   and  the   way  in 
which  their  diversities  of  gifts  were  utilised.     Every  man  had  the  right  to 
speak    in  the  assemblies,   but  this  right  was    withheld   from    women,    as 
among  the  Jews.     A  system  of  government,  depending  sometimes  upon  the 
vote  of  the  assembly,  sometimes  upon  the  authority  of  the  apostles  or  elders, 
was  gradually  built  up  ;  and  in  various  waj^s  the  new  life  showed  itself  in 
original  composition,  in  teaching,  and  in  works  of  mercy  and  hospitality 
carried  to  an  extent  little  practised  before.     Every  such  work  was  part  of 
the  ministry  (diakonia),  and  every  worker  was  so  far  a  deacon. 

•^  '  ^  .  Ministry. 

The  special  fixing  of  the    name   deacon,  presbyter,  bishop,   on 

particular  individuals,  arose  by  natural  evolution  as  the  churches  became 
organised.  "What  is  known  as  the  priestly  power  is  little  manifested  in  St. 
Paul's  references  to  any  but  himself,  the  other  apostles,  Timothy,  and  Titus, 
and  it  shows  no  tendency  to  assume  a  power  to  forgive  sins,  or  to  pass 
beyond  the  declaration  of  forgiveness  through  Christ.  Baptism  was  the 
mode  of  formal  admission  to  the  Church,  and  believers  were  re-  Baptism  and 
garded  by  Paul  as  buried  with  Christ  through  baptism,  and  the  Lord's 
rising  with  Him  in  newness  of  life.  Baptism  made  all  men 
brothers  in  Christ  Jesus,  so  that  afterwards  he  recognised  no  distinction  of 
persons — Jew  and  Greek,  slave  and  freeman,  were  all  equal.  All  partook  of 
a  common  meal,  the  Lord's  supper,  thus  realising  the  unity,  and  partici- 
pating mystically  in  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  as  sjmibolised  by  bread 
and  wine. 

In  the  midst  of  doctrinal  elaborations,  St.  Paul  again  and  again  breaks 
into  lofty  outbursts  like  the  unsurpassed  description  of  Christian  love  in 
I  Corinthians  xiii.,  and  the  apostrophe  to  the  wisdom   and  know-  Lofty  out- 
ledge  of  God  (Rom.  xi.  33-36).     By  such  passages,  quite  as  much    toursts- 
as  by  his  powerful  doctrinal  statements,  going  to  the  root  of  human  difficul- 
ties, St.  Paul  still  influences  the  world  far  more  than  it  knows. 

In  one  important  direction  many  hold  that  St.  Paul  falls  behind  the 
loftiest  ideal — namely,  in  the  position  he  assigns  to  women.    Many  Teaching  as 
of  his  references  to  them  emphasise  their  subjection  and  subor-  t0  women- 


726  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 

dination  to  men.    As  regards  wives,  lie  finds  an  analogy  between  the  relation 
of  the  Church  as  subject  to  Christ,  and  that  of  wives  to  husbands. 

The  Apostle  John  also  ranks  among  the  foremost  of  the  founders  of 
Christianity  ;  but  we  are  singularly  ignorant  as  to  his  personal  history,  with 
the  exception  of  the  incidents  recorded  in  the  gospels.  The  name 
given  by  Christ  to  him  and  his  brother  James,  '"Boanerges," 
sons  of  thunder,  implies  something  different  from  the  idea  of  gentle 
feminine  affection  so  generally  associated  with  St.  John,  and  was  justified 
by  several  actions  and  sayings  of  the  brothers.  But  he  is  specially  dis- 
tinguished as  "the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved,"  and  as  having  been 
entrusted  by  his  Master  with  the  care  of  His  mother  after  His  death. 
From  this  time  forward  we  have  no  trace  of  his  special  individual  action, 
though  he  took  part  in  the  general  proceedings  of  the  infant  Church  at 
Jerusalem.  According  to  tradition,  he  spent  most  of  his  later  life  at 
Ephesus,  and  lived  to  a  great  age,  having  among  his  disciples  Polycarp, 
Papias,  and  Ignatius,  and  dying  about  the  close  of  the  first  century.  His 
His  first  first  epistle  is  one  of  the  most  important  books  in  the  New 
Epistle.  Testament.  It  nowhere  deals  with  the  Christian  life  in  the  tone 
of  St.  Paul,  but  bears  strong  testimony  to  the  reality  of  Christ's  history.  It 
gives  a  view  of  the  nature  of  the  Divine  Being,  "  God  is  light,"  which  adds 
to  the  repertory  of  Biblical  descriptions  of  God,  and  he  applies  the  image  in 
a  number  of  ways.  Christians  have  confessed  their  sins  and  are  forgiven, 
and  the  "  blood  of  Jesus"  cleanses  them  from  all  sin.  They  are  the  sons  of 
God,  and  the  proper  fruit  of  that  relationship  is  sinlessness.  Their  true  life 
is  to  be  manifested  by  love.  Christ  had  laid  down  his  life  for  them,  and 
they  ought  to  be  willing  to  lay  down  their  lives  for  their  brethren.  It  was 
only  by  mutual  love  that  the  real  Christian  life  could  be  shown.  "With 
matchless  simplicity,  directness  and  clearness,  the  apostle  describes  the  place 
love  occupies  in  the  Christian  life  and  evidences. 

It  cannot  be  precisely  decided  what  is  meant  by  the  designation  of 
''brethren  of  the  Lord,"  in  which  the  authors  of  the  Epistles  of  James  and 
st  James    Jnc^e  are  included.     They  naturally  had  great  influence  in  the 
early  Church ;    and  the  Epistle  of    James  is  a  robust,  weighty- 
document,  addressed  to  Jewish  converts  to  Christianity,  designed  to  elevate 
their  standard  of  practical  life.     It  appears  to  have  been  written  in  a  time 
of  difficulty   and  persecution,   and    contains    many     expressions     bearing 
specially  upon  such  a  season.     He  condemns  the  lack  of  full  trust  in  God, 
and  a  too  great  regard  for  temporal  possessions,  and  reminds  his  readers  of 
the  perfection  of  God's  gifts,  and  the  unchangeableness  of  His  nature.     It 
is  a  matter  still  under  dispute  whether  it  was  written  before  or  after  St. 
Paul's  epistles,  and  whether  it  makes  any  reference  to  his  doctrines.     Many 
Faith  and   regard  the  epistle  as  directed  against  mistaken  inferences  from 
works.      gj.(  paups  teaching.     "  The  argument  turns  mainly  on  the  inter- 
pretation   of    the  doctrine  of    faith    and    works    in   James  ii.   24,    which 
formally,   at  least,  is  in  direct   opposition  to  Romans  iii.  28.      Now  it  is 
certain  that  the  antithesis  between  Paul  and  James  is  not  really  so  sharp  as 


THE  APOSTOLIC   7 LUES.  727 

it  appears  in  the  verses  just  cited,  because  the  two  do  not  attach  the  same 
meaning  to  the  word  "  faith."  In  fact,  James's  faith  without  works  is  not 
Paul's  justifying  faith,  but  the  useless  faith  without  love  spoken  of  in 
1  Corinthians  xiii.  We  have  to  deal  with  two  types  of  doctrine  using  the 
same  terms  in  different  senses,  so  that  it  is  not  inconceivable  that  the  two 
may  really  be  capable  of  such  reconciliation  in  the  practical  Christian  life  as 
to  make  their  divergences  unimportant.''     (Prof.  Lumby,  in  Encyc.  Brit.) 

The  persecution  under  which  the  apostles  Peter  and   Paul  have  both 
been  generally  believed  to  have  been  martyred  became  known  as  the  first 
general  persecution.     It  took  place  (a.d.  65)  under  Nero,   who,     The  first 
having  set  fire  to  Rome,  charged  the  Christians  with  the  crime,     general 
Those  who  were  arrested  were  horribly  treated,  some  being  cruci-  persecu 
fied,  others  set  on  fire,  others  clothed  in  wild  beasts'  skins  and  torn  by  dogs  ; 
and  such  cruelty  gained  compassion  for  the  victims  even  from  the  Romans. 
The  persecution  was  widely  extended  through  the  provinces,  and  the  Chris- 
tian religion  was  proscribed  by  laws  and  edicts.     Fortunately  for  the  young 
Church,  before  the  siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  in  a.d.  70,  the 
Jerusalem  Christians  had  withdrawn  to  Pella,  a  village  in  Decapolis  bej-ond 
the  Jordan.     There  was  no  cessation,  however,  in  the  spread  and  progress 
of  the  new  religion,  and  about  95  or  9G  the  Emperor  Domitian  set  on  foot 
the  second  great  persecution. 

The  third  persecution  of  which  we  have  any  account  is  that  of  Trajan, 
dated  about  112.  AVe  learn  from  a  Avell-known  letter  of  Pliny  the  younger, 
as  proconsul  of  Bithynia,  that  he  had  put  to  death  those  Chris-  puny  and 
tians  who  were  informed  against  and  obstinately  refused  to  re-  Trajan, 
cant ;  those  who  denied  that  they  were  Christians  were  compelled  to  invoke 
the  gods,  and  supplicate  the  emperor's  image  with  incense  and  wine,  and  to 
curse  the  name  of  Christ.  Pliny's  testimony  as  to  the  early  Christian  prac- 
tices is  very  valuable.  He  says,  "  They  affirmed  this  to  have  been  the 
utmost  of  their  crime  or  error,  that  they  were  accustomed  on  a  fixed  day  to 
assemble  before  daylight,  and  sing  a  hymn  alternately  to  Christ  as  to  a  god ; 
and  they  bound  themselves  by  a  sacred  oath,  not  to  some  crime,  but  to  com- 
mit neither  thefts,  nor  robberies,  nor  adulteries;  not  to  break  their  word, 
not  to  deny  a  deposit  when  called  upon  :  which  being  over,  they  departed, 
but  came  together  again  to  take  food,  in  common,  and  without  an}*  guilt." 
The  meeting  day  here  spoken  of  is  generally  believed  to  have  been,  "  the 
Lord's  day,"  or  first  cloy  of  the  week,  and  the  common  meal  is  identified 
with  the  love-feast  eaten  in  connection  with  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Pliny's  measures  brought  back  many  to  the  worship  of  the  temples. 
Trajan,  in  reply  to  him,  directed  that  while  informers  and  anonymous  accu- 
sations were  to  be  discouraged,  those  convicted  must  be  punished  ;  but  those 
who  renounced  Christianity  and  supplicated  the  gods  were  to  be  pardoned. 
The  death  of  Ignatius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  who  has  been  previously  men- 
tioned (p.  708),  is  referred  to  the  persecution  under  Trajan.  Ignatius  is  said 
to  have  been  one  of  the  disciples  of  St.  John,  and  at  any  rate  was  contem- 
porary with  some  of  the  apostles.     He  appears  to  have  been  condemned  to 


728 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


death  about  a.d.  107,  and  to  have  been  sent  to   Rome,  where  he 
was  killed  by  beasts  in  the  sports  of  the  arena.     A  good  many 


details  of  his  journey  to  Rome  are  preserved  in  his  celebrated  epistles.  That 
addressed  to  the  Romans  contains  some  striking  meditations  on  his  ap- 
proaching martyrdom  ;  indeed,  it  has  been  called  a  martyr's  manual,  and 


THE  APOSTOLIC   TIMES.  729 

from  early  times  had  a  great  influence  011  others.  He  rejoiced  in  the  pros- 
pect of  his  death.  "  Let  me  be  given  to  the  wild  beasts,"  he  wrote,  His 
"for  through  them  I  can  attain  unto  God."  His  journey  had  been  martyrdom, 
a  constant  struggle  with  wild  beasts  (the  guards  who  accompanied  him). 
"Let  fire  and  cross,  and  grapplings  with  wild  beasts,  wrenching  of  bones, 
hacking  of  limbs,  crushings  of  my  whole  bod}r  come.  .  .  .  Only  be  it 
mine  to  attain  unto  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  good  for  me  to  die  for  Jesus  Christ 
rather  than  to  reign  over  the  farthest  bounds  of  the  earth.  Him  I  seek,  who 
died  on  our  behalf;  Him  I  desire,  who  rose  again.  The  pangs  of  a  new 
birth  are  upon  me.  "When  I  am  come  thither,  then  shall  I  be  a  man.  Permit 
me  to  be  an  imitator  of  the  passion  of  my  God."  Parts  of  Iris  epistles  attack 
the  docetism  of  the  time,  which  denied  Christ's  humanity.  His  evidence  is 
also  important  as  to  the  earl}''  appointment  and  recognition  of  bishops. 

His  friend  Polycarp,  another  disciple  of  St.  John,  was  also  martyred, 
but  many  years  later.  He  was  learned,  of  spare  diet  and  simple  clothing,  a 
liberal  almsgiver.  At  an  advanced  age  he  was  chosen  bishop  of 
Smyrna,  and  was  a  companion  of  Papias  and  Ignatius,  who,  in- 
deed, charged  him  to  write  to  the  churches  eastward  of  those  to  whom  he 
had  written.  His  only  extant  letter  to  the  Philippians  has  already  been 
referred  to.  Various  testimonies  show  that  Polycarp  exercised  very  wide 
influence.  Irenseus,  afterwards  bishop  of  Lyons  (a.d.  177),  a  pupil  of  his, 
has  described  many  characteristics  of  his  person,  teachings,  and  character. 

Polycarp,  in  his  later  years,  visited  Rome,  where  he  conferred  with 
Bishop  Anicetus  about  the  time  for  celebrating  the  death  of  Christ,  which, 
Polycarp  said,  according  to  the  practice  of  St.  John  and  the  other  apostles 
with  whom  he  had  spoken,  should  be  kept  on  the  day  of  the  Jewish  Pass- 
over, the  14th  Nisan,  on  whatever  day  of  the  week  it  might  fall.  Polycarp's 
end  came  as  a  consequence  of  a  popular  demand  for  victims  for  the  public 
games  in  Smyrna.  The  cry  "  Away  with  the  atheists  !  "  (disbelievers  in  the 
Greek  and  Roman  gods),  "Let  search  be  made  for  Polycarp,"  led  to  his 
apprehension,  when,  after  a  simple  "  God's  will  be  done,"  he  stood  His 
and  prayed  for  two  hours,  and  then  went  steadfastly  before  the  martyrdom, 
authorities  and  refused  to  recant.  When  pressed  to  revile  Christ,  he  said. 
"  Fourscore  and  six  years  have  I  served  Him.  and  He  hath  done  me  no 
wrong.  How  then  can  I  speak  evil  of  my  King,  who  saved  me  ?  "  He  was 
led  to  a  stake  and  burnt  to  death  (a.d.  155  or  15G).  With  his  sufferings,  it 
is  said,  the  persecutions  of  the  Christians  for  a  time  ceased. 

It  is  evident  from  these  examples  that  the  men  who  immediately  suc- 
ceeded the  apostles  were  inspired  by  the  same  spirit,  endued  with  the  same 
love  for  the  truth  they  had  received,  and  resolute  to  die  rather  than  deny 
their  Lord  and  Master.  It  was  this  spirit,  this  resolution  to  face  death 
rather  than  do,  say,  or  acknowledge  anything  they  believed  untrue  to  Christ 
and  to  their  religious  belief,  which  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Christian 
Church  so  broadly  and  strongly  during  the  early  centuries,  when  the  vast 
power  of  the  Roman  empire  was  continually  occupied  in  discouraging  and 
often  in  trying  to  exterminate  it. 


THE    SEVEN    SONS    OF    ST.    FELICITAS,    SAID    TO    HAVE    DEEN    MARTYRED 
UNDER    MARCUS    AURELlUS. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

CJnistianttp  persfewtefc:  ^tcontr  anti  C&trti  Centuries. 

Persecution  toy  Marcus  Aurelius  —A  Roman  senator  martyred — Wide  spread  of  Christianity  in  secom 
century.— Persecution  by  Septimius  Severus— Period  of  toleration— Persecution  toy  Decius 
Cyprian  on  flight— The  martyr  spirit  at  Rome— Gallienus's  edict  of  toleration— Persecution  o 
Diocletian — Galerius's  decree  of  toleration— Constantine  grants  religious  freedom — "Teaching  o 
the  Twelve  Apostles  "—Justin  Martyr— His  first  apology — Second  apology— Dialogue  with  Tryph 
— Justin's  characteristics— Melito— Tatian— Athenagoras— Theophilus  of  Antioch— Irenaeus— Th 
Pseudo-Clementine  writings— Clement  of  Alexandria— Origen— His  works— "First  Principles 
— "  Answer  to  Celsus  " — Hippolytus — Tertullian— Cyprian— Heretical  toaptism— The  unity  of  th< 
Church  —  Ebionism  —  Gnosticism  —  Basilides  — Valentinus— Marcion— Tatian— The  Encratites- 
Manichseism  —  Manes,  or  Mani  —  The  Monarchians — Paul  of  Samosata— The  Patripassians- 
Sabellius — The  Montanists— The  Millenarians — Churches — The  Church— Catechumens— Bapti-m- 
Confirmation — Worship — The  Lord's  Supper— Love-Feasts— Eucharistic  doctrine — Discipline- 
Fasting— Easter— The  Quartodecimans— Whitsuntide— Growth  of  the  priestly  order— Bishops- 
Popular  election— Parish  and  diocese— Metropolitan,  archtoishop,  patriarch— The  toishopric  o. 
Rome— Unity  of  the  Church. 

IN  dealing  very  briefly  with  the  vast  amount  of  interesting  history 
pertaining  to  the  first  ages  of  the  Church,  we  shall  first  refer  to  the 
general  course  of  the  history,  then  to  the  great  teachers  and  writers,  and 
the  chief  heretical  movements  affecting  the  Church,  and  finally  describe  the 
main  features  of  Church  life  and  organisation  in  the  first  three  centuries. 

The  philosophic  emperor,  Marcus  Aurelius,  a  sceptic  about  the  gods  he 

upheld  (see  page  438),  strangely  enough  was  a  more  severe  persecutor  oi 

t'on  Christianity  than  his  predecessors.      Adopting   from   the   Stoics 

toy  Marcus  their  incredulity  about  marvels,  and  contemning  what  he  thought 
Aurelius  .         .  . 

the  obstinacy  or  tragic  airs  of  the  Christians,  he  was  not  un- 
willing to  see  in  their  refusal  of  homage  to  the  gods  to  whom  he  paid  out- 
ward homage  an  act  of  treason  against  his  own  majesty.  The  calamities 
which  occurred  during  his  reign  were  followed  by  fresh  outbreaks  of  perse- 
cution more  or  less  throughout  his  empire.  Some  of  the  inscriptions  in  the 
catacombs  of  the  Christians  at  Rome  record  the  severity  of  their  lot,  and  the 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED. 


,.-> 


MARCUS    AURELIUS. 


fact  that  they  resorted  even  to  caverns  to  worship,  without  being  able  to 
escape  martyrdom.  During  the  time  of  M.  Aurelius,  Justin  Martyr  was 
beheaded  at  Rome  (about  1GG),  Polycarp 
suffered  at  Smyrna,  Melito  at  Sardis, 
Pothinus,  bishop  of  Lugdunum  (Lyons), 
in  Gaul  (177).  In  the  latter  province 
Christian  slaves  were  crucified,  natives 
of  Gaul  were  thrown  to  wild  beasts,  and 
Roman  citizens  beheaded  by  order  of  the 
emperor.  Dogs  were  allowed  to  eat  the 
bodies,  and  what  they  left  was  burnt  and 
the  ashes  thrown  into  the  Rhone  in  con- 
tempt for  the  belief  in  the  resurrection. 
The  famous  Irenseus,  afterwards  successor 
of  Pothinus,  carried  a  letter  from  the 
Gallic  churches  to  those  of  Asia  and 
Phrygia  describing  these  events. 

During  the  reign  of  Commodus  (180- 
192),  there  is  recorded  the  striking  fact 

of  the   martyrdom  of   a  Roman   senator,   Apollonius,  who,   however,  was 
permitted  to  read  a  full  apology  for  his  faith  before  the  whole 
Senate.    By  the  close  of  the  second  century  Christianity  had  been     senator 
preached  with  success  in  every  province  of  the  Roman  empire,  mar  yre 
even  possibly  in  Britain,  though  we  cannot  trust  the  tradition  relating  that 
a  British  king,  Lucius,  sent  to   Pope   Eleutherus   begging   for  Wide  spread  cf 
instruction   in   Christianity.      Beyond    the    Roman    dominions,     in  second 
Parthia,  Media,  Persia,  and  various  barbarous  tribes  of  Europe      century. 

had  been  evangelised  with  more  or  less 
success. 

In  202  the  emperor  Septimius  Severus, 
who  had  at  first  been  favourable  to  the 
Christians,  issued  an  edict  for-  Persecution 
bidding  his  subjects  to  embrace  by  septimius 

Sfivcrus 

Judaism  or  Christianity,  and 
this  edict  started  the  fifth  general  per- 
secution. In  Egypt  and  the  African  pro- 
vince the  Christians  suffered  severely. 
Leonidas,  the  father  of  Origen,  and  Pota- 
miama,  a  virgin  of  great  beauty  and 
courage,  were  among  the  martyrs  at  Alex- 
andria. Potamiaana  is  related  to  have  been 
first  cruelly  tortured,  and  then  killed  by 
immersion  in  boiling  pitch.  Her  be- 
haviour so  affected  Basilides,  the  officer 
who  led  her  to  death,  that  he  treated  her  with  humanity,  and  afterwards 
declared  himself  a  Christian.     In  Africa,  possibly  at  Carthage,  Perpetua, 


SErTIMIUS    SEVERUS. 


732  THE    WORLDS  RELIGIONS. 


a  young  wife,  Felicitas,  a  slave,  and  others  suffered  at  a  show  on  th( 
birthday  of  Geta,  son  of  Severus.  The  persecutions  diminished  under  Cara 
calla  (211-217) ;  while  Elagabalus  (218-222),  absorbed  in  his  own  idolatrou; 
Period  of  projects,  appears  to  have  tolerated  all  forms  of  religion,  and  tc 
toleration.  ]iave  proposed  to  celebrate,  in  the  universal  temple  which  he  buih 
on  the  Palatine  Hill,  the  rites  of  Jews  and  Samaritans,  as  well  as  Christians 
His  successor,  Alexander  Severus  (222-235),  tolerated  both  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians, and  in  his  private  chapel  for  daily  worship  he  had  statues,  not  of  tlif 
gods,  but  of  deified  men,  among  whom  were  Abraham,  and  Christ,  with 
Alexander  the  Great  and  Apollonius  of  Tyana.  He  had  inscribed  on  hS 
palace  and  on  public  monuments  the  negative  form  of  the  golden  rule 
His  mother,  Julia  Mamsea,  was  decidedly  favourable  to  Christianity,  and 
invited  Origen  to  the  court  at  Antioch.  In  the  reign  of  Severus  the  laws! 
against  Christians  were  codified  by  the  famous  jurist  Ulpian. 

Under  the  next  emperor,  the  Thracian  Maximin  (235-238),  occurred  the 
sixth  general  persecution.  The  next  emperors  were  of  a  milder  type,  and  Philip 
Persecution  the  Arabian  (244-249)  was  so  favourable  to  the  Christians  that  he 
by  Deems,  j^s  been  claimed  as  the  first  Christian  emperor.  Decius  (249-251^ 
followed  with  a  systematic  attempt  to  destroy  the  Christian  Church,  and  the 
bishops  and  clergy  were  especially  sought  out  and  punished.  This  (called  the 
seventh)  was  the  first  really  general  persecution.  Decius  appears  to  have 
thought  that  the  luxury  and  social  evils  which'  prevailed  were  due  to  the  new 
superstition,  and  it  is  said  that  the  lives  of  some  Christians  at  least  gave  colour 
to  the  idea.  Christianity  had  gained  in  social  repute,  and  the  clergy  and 
members  were  taking  up  social  arts  and  practices.  Decius  is  reported  to  have 
said  that  he  would  rather  have  a  second  emperor  at  his  side  than  a  bishop 
at  Rome  ;  and  consequently  Fabian,  the  bishop  of  Rome,  and  many  other 
bishops  throughout  the  empire,  were  among  the  martyrs  of  this  time.  Origen 
was  imprisoned  and  tortured  in  various  ways,  and  only  regained  freedom  to 
die  in  the  second  year  after  Decius.  Many  of  those  prosecuted  yielded  and 
offered  sacrifice  and  incense  to  the  gods  ;  others  by  money  payments  gained 
certificates  to  the  same  effect.  Many,  even  bishops  and  priests,  fled,  either 
Cyprian  on  from  cowardice  or  from  prudential  motives.  The  latter  course 
flight.  was  defended  by  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  in  these  words : 
"  Our  Lord  commanded  us  in  times  of  persecution  to  yield  and  fly.  He 
taught  this,  and  practised  it  Himself.  For  since  the  martyr's  croAvn  comes 
by  the  grace  of  God,  and  cannot  be  gained  before  the  appointed  hour,  he  who 
retires  for  a  time  and  remains  true  to  Christ  does  not  deny  his  faith,  but  only 
bides  his  time."  The  Christians  in  prison  at  Rome  wrote  to  their  African 
brethren  in  a  noble  strain  of  martyrdom  :  "  What  more  glorious  and  blessed 
lot   can   fall   to   man   bv  the  grace  of  God  than  to  confess  the 

The  martyr  .  J  ^ 

spirit       Lord  God  amidst  tortures    and  in  the  face  of  death  itself;  to 

confess  Christ  the  Son  of  God  with  lacerated   body  and  with 

spirit  departing  yet  free  ?     .     .     .     Though  we  have  not  shed  our  blood,  we 

are  ready  to  do  so."     Persecutions  continued  under  the  reign  of  Gallus,  and 

in  the  fifth  year  of  Valerian  (257-8)  there  began  an  eighth  persecution  in 


CHRISTIANITY   PERSECUTED. 


735 


which  Cyprian  perished,  as  well  as  Sixtus  II.,  bishop  of  Rome,  and  his  deacon 
Laurentius,  related  to  have  been  slowly  roasted  to  death  on  a  grid-   Gaiuenus's 
iron.     The  martyrdoms  under  Valerian  were  followed  by  the  First     Edict  of 
Edict  of  Toleration,  issued  by  his  son  Gallienus,  and  addressed  to 
the  bishops.     He  recalled  Christian  exiles,  restored  to  them  their  cemeteries, 
and  acknowledged  their  religion   as   "permitted."     The  bishops  were  in- 
formed  that   the   officials    had  been   ordered  to  evacuate  the   consecrated 
places,  and  that  they  were  to  reoccupy  them;  and  the  edict  was  to  suffice 
as  their  authority.     Thus  the  right  of  the  Church  to  hold  property  was 
effectively  granted. 

His  successor,  Aurelian,  despised  the  Christians,  being  a  devotee  of  the 
Sun,  and   he  had   prepared    an  edict  for  a   persecution  of  the  Persecuti0] 
Christians,  wrongly  termed  the  ninth,  when  he  was  assassinated.         of 
The  edict  was   revoked   by   his   successor,  Tacitus.       Diocletian, 
a   rough   Illyrian   soldier  (Emperor,  284-305),  even  had  a  Christian  wife, 
Prisca  ;   and  Valeria,  his  daughter,  married,  to  Gale- 
rius,  his    associate  Caesar,  is  credited  with  having 
been  able  to  check  hostility  to  Christianity.     Many 
important   state   offices  at  this  time  were  held  by 
Christians,  churches  were  built  in  every  important 
city,  and  that  at  Nicomedia,  in  Asia  Minor,  then  the 
seat   of  Diocletian,    was  especially  fine.      The  op- 
ponents of  Christianity  were  stirred  to  make  a  great 
effort  to  crush  it.      It  was  represented,  that  profane 
persons  (Christians  in  the  Emperor's  service)  pre- 
vented the  proper  results  of  divination  from  being 
attained ;  all  such  persons  were  ordered  by  Diocletian 
to  sacrifice  in  person.     At   last,   after  several  pre- 
liminary steps,  on  February  23,  303,  an  edict  was 
issued  commanding  the  demolition  of  all  Christian 
churches,  the  burning  of  all  sacred  books,  the  de- 
gradation of  Christians  from  all  offices  and  their  deprivation  of  civil  rights, 
and  the  reduction  of  non-official  Christians  to  a  state  of  practical  slavery. 
The  church  of  Nicomedia  was  destroyed.     Diocletian's  wife  and  daughter 
were  compelled  to  join  in  sacrifice  to  the  gods.     Persecution  was  extended 
far  and  wide.     Very  many  Christians  were  burnt  or  drowned  ;  many  were 
imprisoned  in  dungeons.     Every  person  who  pleaded  in  a  court  of  justice 
was  compelled  to  sacrifice  before  his  plea  was  heard.     Great  ingenuity  was 
shown  in  devising  new  tortures.     Only  in  Gaul  and  Britain,  then  under 
Constantius  Chlorus  as  Caesar,  was  there  any  toleration  for  Christians,  and 
even  here  some  martyrdoms  took  place,  as  that  of  St.  Alban  at  Verulam. 
Elsewhere  cruelty  raged.     All  officials  of  Christian  churches  were  seized 
and  tortured  to  make  them  give  up  their  sacred  books,  and  no  doubt  at  this 
time  many  invaluable  manuscripts  perished.     In  the  language  of  Eusebius, 
executions  went  on  till  the  swords  were  dull  and  shattered,  and  the  wearied 
executioners  had  to  relieve  each  other.     Strangely  enough,  Diocletian  was 


DIOCLETIAN. 


734  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 

the  last  Emperor  deified  by  tlie  Roman  Senate,  and  tlie  last  who  celebrated 
a  triumph  at  Rome.  In"  305,  Diocletian,  worn  out  by  ill-health,  abdicated 
at  Nicomedia,  and  Maximin  did  the  same  at  Milan,  Galerius  and  Con- 
stantms  succeeding  them,  with  Severus  as  Caesar  in  Africa,  and  Maximin 
in  Syria  and  Egypt.  Galerius,  seconded  b}^  Maximin,  continued  the  per- 
secution, which  was  even  increased  in  rigour.  All  imperial  subjects  were 
compelled  to  sacrifice,  and  food  exposed  in  the  markets  was  sprinkled  with 
t  he  libations  to  the  gods  in  order  that  Christians  should  find  it  impossible  to 
,  avoid  pollution  with  idolatry.  At  last,  when  dying  of  loathsome 
decree  of    disease,    Galerius  in  311   issued   a   decree   of  toleration,    which 

acknowledged  the  failure  of  previous  edicts  to  suppress  Christi- 
anity. It  was  pretended  that  the  edicts  had  been  inspired  by  a  desire  to 
bring  back  Christians  to  their  own  primitive  faith.  Permission  was  granted 
to  them  to  rebuild  their  churches  and  resume  their  meetings,  on  condition 
that  they  did  nothing  to  disturb  the  State  ;  and  finally  they  were  begged  to 
pray  to  their  God  for  the  health  and  welfare  of  the  emperors.  In  312,  Con- 
stantine,  after  his  victory  over  Maxentius  near  Rome,  proclaimed  toleration 

for  the  Christians,  and  in  June,  313,  he  granted  freedom  of  reli- 

grants      gion  and  its  exercise  throughout  the  empire.    In  327  he  professed 

freedom3    Christianity,  and  urged  all  his  subjects  to  embrace  the  Christian 

religion.  Thus  ended  the  first  great  period  of  the  history  of 
Christianity. 

Before  beginning  to  review  the  early  Apologetic  Literature,  we  may 

refer   to   a   book   which   has   only   in  recent   years   been   discovered   and 

"  Teaching  of  Published  in  Constantinople  by  Bryennius,  namely,  "  The  Teach- 

the  Twelve  ing  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,"  probably  dating  from  the  end  of  the 

first  century  a.d.,  and  exhibiting  a  notable  relation  to  the  Epistle 
of  Barnabas.  The  first  six  chapters  deal  with  the  Two  "Ways,  of  Life  and 
Death  ;  the  former  summed  up  in  the  precepts  "  Love  God  who  made  thee," 
and  "  Love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself,  and  do  not  to  another  what  thou 
wouldest  not  have  done  to  thyself."  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  is  quoted, 
the  Decalogue  is  enforced,  and  evils  resulting  from  breach  of  the  spirit  of 
the  Commandments  are  denounced.  Directions  are  given  for  baptism,  to 
be  preceded  by  fasting  ;  for  modes  of  prayer,  and  the  form  of  the  Eucharist 
(which  consists  of  very  simple  thanksgivings,  not  like  those  now  associated 
with  that  office).  The  blessing  of  the  cup  precedes  that  of  the  bread.  The 
wine  is  identified  with  "  the  vine  of  David  "  made  known  through  Jesus. 
The  first  thanksgiving  is  directed  to  be  said  "  after  being  filled,"  which  ap- 
parently excludes  anything  like  the  modern  type  of  Communion,  but  which 
would  be  applicable  rather  to  the  early  Love-feasts.  Due  honour  and  respect 
for  apostles  and  prophets  are  enjoined.  In  chapter  xv.  the  instruction  is 
given,  "Elect  therefore  to  yourselves  bishops  and  deacons,"  apparently  to  con- 
duct the  weekly  services.  Those  only  may  attend  who  have  confessed  their 
sins  in  the  church.  The  last  chapter  (xvi.)  exhorts  the  Church  to  watch  for 
t  he  Lord's  second  coming.  It  is  conjectured  that  the  book  was  produced  by 
Christian  Jews  living  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem. 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED.  735 


Very  early  in  Christian  history  began  that  series  of  "  Apologies  "  or 
answers  to  objections  to  Christianity  which  has  never  since  ceased.  The 
earliest  of  which  we  hear  were  addressed  to  the  Roman  Emperor  Hadrian 
about  125,  by  Qnadratus,  Bishop  of  Athens,  and  Aristides,  an  Athenian 
philosopher.    At  first  it  was  very  necessary  to  show  the  distinctions  between 

Justin      tne  Christians  and  the  Jews.     The  first  great  apologist  whose 

Martyr.  Apology  has  come  down  to  lis  is  Flavius  Justinus,  commonly 
known  as  Justin  Martyr,  born  at  Neapolis  in  Palestine  (now  Nablous  i  about 
the  end  of  the  first  century.  After  studying  Greek  philosophy  and  becom- 
ing a  Platonist,  he  adopted  Christian^,  partly  by  study  of  the  sacred  books 
and  partly  through  witnessing  the  steadfastness  of  the  Christians  under 
persecution.  We  have  already  mentioned  his  martyrdom  at  Rome.  His 
first  Apology  was  addressed  to  the  Emperor  Antoninus  Pius,  and  refutes  the 
His  first  false  charges  brought  against  Christianity,  declares  its  principal 
Apology,  truths,  and  describes  Christian  worship  and  practices.  His 
courage  is  very  marked.  "  As  for  us  Christians,"  he  says,  "  we  do  not 
consider  that  we  can  suffer  any  ill  from  any  one,  unless  we  are  convicted  of 
wickedness  or  evil-doing.  You  can  kill  us,  indeed,  but  damage  us  you 
cannot/'  Against  the  charge  of  setting  up  a  new  kingdom,  he  says,  "  Surety 
we  are  the  best  friends  a  ruler  could  desire, — we  who  believe  in  a  God 
whose  eye  no  crime  can  escape,  no  falsehood  deceive, — we  who  look  for  an 
eternal  judgment,  not  onty  on  our  deeds,  but  even  on  our  thoughts.'"  He 
alleges  as  proofs  of  the  truth  of  Christianity  that  its  chief  events  had  been 
predicted  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  that  it  had  produced  moral  conversion 

second  i11  aU  kinds  of  offenders.  His  second  Apology,  written  apparently 
Apology.  110t  long  after  the  first,  was  instigated  by  some  atrocious  condem- 
nations of  Christians  to  death,  showing  that  a  future  day  of  retribution 
would  come,  and  that  Christianity  was  far  above  the  State  religion  in  its 
moral  character,  and  above  the  philosophical  systems  in  vogue.  Bold  pro- 
tests of  innocence  were  made,  and  Justin  shows  that  Christians  had  nothing 
to  withdraw  or  give  up. 

In  his  "  Dialogue  with  Trypho,"  a  Jew,  Justin  proves  the  Christian 
position  from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  Typho  wonders  how  the  Christians 
Dialogue  with  c'ould  profess  to  serve  God,  and  yet  break  the  Mosaic  law  which 

Trypho.  q0(j  ^ac[  given,  and  how  they  could  believe  in  a  human  Saviour. 
Justin  in  reply  shows  that  the  binding  nature  of  the  Jewish  law  passed 
away  with  the  coming  of  Christ,  who,  while  human,  was  truly  divine,  pre- 
existent,  yet  subordinate  to  the  Father,  then  became  incarnate,  was  cruci- 
fied, rose  again  and  ascended  to  heaven.  He  defends  himself  against  the 
charge  of  advocating  a  plurality  of  gods  by  bringing  numerous  passages  of 
the  Old  Testament  to  show  that  they  involved  the  existence  and  manifesta- 
tion of  such  a  person  as  Christ  {e.g.  in  the  Theophanies).  This  dialogue  has 
great  value  as  showing  the  mode  of  interpreting  Scripture  at  a  very  early 
date,  and  as  covering  a  great  part  of  the  ground  of  theology.  Justin  is  also 
remarkable  for  his  allowing  that  the  Divine  Being  was  revealed  in  part  to 
the  Gentiles,  and  especially  to  such  philosophers  as  Socrates,  who,  he  says, 


736 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


was   martyred   for  Christ.      As  regards   the   Holy  Spirit,  Justin  was  less 
definite,  but  he  holds  Him  worthy  of  Divine  honour,  as  being  concerned  in 


THE    CATACOMBS    AT    ROME  :    BURIAL-PLACES    OF    EARLY    CHRISTIANS. 

creation  and  in  inspiration.  He  holds  mainly  the  Pauline  view  ot  original 
sin  and  its  remission  through  Christ ;  believes  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
body,  and  eternal  (seonian)  punishment  of  sinners. 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED.  737 


It  is  admitted  that  Justin  interprets  Scripture  in  a  way  very 
antagonistic  to  Judaism,  and  that  many  of  his  reasonings  will  not  stand  the 
tests  of  strict  logic  or  fuller  knowledge.  The  number  and  Justin's  cha- 
minuteness  of  his  references  to  Christ's  life  and  words  give  racteristics. 
evidence  that  he  knew  substantially  the  same  history  that  we  have.  The 
same  body  of  facts  is  referred  to,  with  but  some  few  additions  and  altera- 
tions, such  as  that  Christ  was  born  in  a  cave,  was  not  comely  of  aspect,  and 
made  ploughs  and  yokes,  emblems  of  righteousness;  that  the  Jews  ascribed 
His  miracles  to  magic,  that  Christ  said,  "There  shall  be  schisms  and 
heresies,"  and  "  In  whatsoever  I  find  you,  in  that  will  I  judge  you."  He  calls 
the  records  that  he  refers  to  "Memoirs  of  the  Apostles,"  records  of 
Christ's  sayings  and  doings  written  by  the  apostles  or  their  followers. 
There  is  strong  reason  to  believe  that  he  knew  St.  Matthew's  and  St.  Luke's 
Gospels ;  but  his  inexactness  of  quotation  prevents  our  being  certain  that 
he  did  not  use  some  gospel  or  original  document  which  has  not  come  down 
to  us.  There  is  much  in  common  between  his  ideas  of  the  word  and  the 
Fourth  Gospel,  but  he  has  no  direct  quotation  from  it.  One  or  two  passages, 
however,  seem  only  compatible  with  a  knowledge  of  this  gospel.  He  has 
distinct  references  to  1  Corinthians  and  2  Thessalonians,  and  makes  other  allu- 
sions only  compatible  with  knowledge  of  other  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
Further,  it  must  be  remembered  that  Justin  apparently  wrote  other  books 
which  are  lost,  and  which,  probably,  contained  many  of  the  things  we  miss. 

Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis,  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  second  century, 
wrote  an  Apology  (addressed  to  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius),  as  well  as  nu- 
merous other  works  mentioned  by  Eusebius.     In  one  of  his  works     Melit0 
he  gave  a  list  of  the  acknowledged  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Tatian,  born  in  Assyria  about  120,  was  a  hearer  of  Justin  Martyr,  at 
Eome,  and  wrote  a  Discourse  to  the  Greeks,  which  is  practically  an  "Apology 
for  Christianity,"  in  which  he  denounced  the  immorality  and  Tatian 
absurdities  of  the  Greek  stories  of  the  gods,  and  vindicated 
the  "barbaric"  {i.e.  the  Christian)  writings.  He  evidently  used  the 
Logos  philosophy  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  often  in  almost  identical  language, 
and  developed  the  idea  of  the  Spirit  beyond  Justin.  The  Spirit  of 
God,  he  says,  takes  up  His  abode  with  those  who  live  justly,  and  proclaims 
truth  in  the  form  of  prophecies.  Tatian  was  the  first  who  is  recorded  to 
have  made  a  harmony  of  the  gospels  (the  Diatessaron),  which  has  been 
in  modern  times  recovered  and  reconstructed  by  Zahn  from  an  Armenian 
version  of  a  commentary  on  it  by  Ephraem  the  Syrian  in  the  fourth 
century.  It  is  deduced  from  this  that  Tatian  accepted  and  affirmed  uie 
historical  character  of  the  four  gospels,  though  he  does  not  regard  them,  as 
infallible  in  their  chronology,  but  re-arranges  it  according  to  probabilities. 
After  the  death  of  Justin  Martyr,  Tatian  was  considered  to  have  become 
unorthodox,  and  to  have  adopted  gnostic  views.  His  extant  works  only 
discover  certain  tendencies  which  may  have  led  him  from  the  Christian 
standards  ;  but  he  was  condemned  by  Irenseus  as  "  puffed  up  as  if  superior 
to  other  teachers,  and  forming  his  own  type  of  doctrine." 

3  B 


738  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Athenagoras,  of  Athens,  was  a  philosopher  who  studied  Christianity 
in  order  to  write  a  refutation  of  it,  but  became  a  teacher  of  the  faith. 
■  His    "Apology"    (which   he    calls    an    "embassy"    concerning 

'  Christians,  addressed  to  the  Emperors  Marcus  Aurelius, 
Antoninus,  and  Commodus)  defends  Christians  against  the  current  charges 
of  atheism,  incest,  and  cannibalism  at  their  feasts.  Its  date  is  probably 
about  176.  Another  work  of  his  "  On  the  Resurrection  of  the  Dead," 
argues  the  question  mainly  from  philosophy,  and  from  the  nature  of  God 
and  of  man.  He  strongly  upholds  the  unity  of  the  Godhead,  while  teaching 
that  in  God  there  dwelt  from  eternity  the  Logos,  His  Son.  He  quotes 
numerous  phrases  from  the  New  Testament  without  mentioning  their 
source. 

Theophilus  of  Antioch,  Bishop  of  Antioch  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
second  century,  wrote  an  Apology  addressed  to  an  unbelieving  friend  named 
Tneopniius  Autolycus,  which  is  perhaps  most  notable  as  being  the  first  book 
of  Antiocn.  in  whicn  the  Trinity  (Gr.  Trias)  in  the  Divine  nature  is  referred 
to.  The  first  three  days  of  creation,  he  says,  were  types  of  the  triad — God, 
His  Word,  and  His  wisdom  ;  but  the  personality  of  the  Holy  Spirit  still 
remains  indistinct  in  his  account. 

Irenseus,  Bishop  of  I/yons,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  in  his  youth  a  pupil 

of  Polycarp,  and  thus  connected  with  St.  John,  was  chosen  as  the  successor 

of  Pothinus  at  Lyons,  in   178,  and  probably  held  that   see   for 
Irenseus. 

twenty-five   years.        He  was   a   zealous  preacher,  both   to  the 

heathen  and  against  heretics,  and  was  notably  eager  to  preserve  peace  within 

the  Church.  Already  in  his  time  the  Roman  Church,  through  Bishop  Victor, 

was  seeking  to  compel  the  Churches   of  Asia  Minor  to  keep   Easter  on  the 

same  day  as  the  Romans  did  (see  p.  372),  and  Irenseus  remonstrated  agains 

Victor   cutting   them   off    from   his   communion,    and    his    circular  letter 

probably  prevented  other  Churches  from  following  the  Roman  example.     It 

is  doubtful  whether  Irenseus  was  martj^red.     The  great  work  of  Irenseus  is 

usually   known   by   the   brief  title    "  Against  Heresies,"  but  its   complete 

designation  is    "Detection   and   Upsetting  of  falsely-called  Knowledge," 

(Gnosis),    written   in   Greek   against  the  gnostic   heresies.     We   have  the 

greater  portion  of  a  Latin  version,  and  fragments  of  the  original  Greek. 

Here  we  may  refer  to  the  works  known  as  the  pseudo-Clementines, 

written  probably  in  the  second  half  of  the  second  century,  in  the  name  of 

«,.  p«™*«  Clement  of  Rome.     The  Homilies,  described  as  "  a  philosophico- 

The  Pseudo-  '  .  ,..  ,,  n         , 

Clementine  religious  romance,  based  on  some  historical  traditions,    protess  to 
writings.    givQ  ^  account  of  the  discourses  0f  St.  Peter  on  his  apostolic 

journeys,  as  given  to  Clement.  The  author  puts  into  the  mouth  of  Peter  a 
mixture  of  Ebionite  and  Gnostic  teaching,  seeing  in  Christianity  merely  a 
restoration  of  the  pure  primitive  revelation.  Much  of  its  teaching  is  inter- 
preted as  a  veiled  attack  on  St.  Paul.  The  Recognitions  purports  to  be  an 
autobiography  addressed  by  Clement  to  James,  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  The 
books  resemble  one  another  in  many  points,  and  are  regarded  as  diverse 
forms  of  one  original.     To  Clement  were  also  ascribed  the  Apostolical  Con- 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED.  739 


stitutions  and  Canons,  the  former  consisting  of  eight  books  of  Church  laws, 
customs,  liturgies,  and  moral  exhortations,  an  early  work,  and  the  latter, 
probably  collected  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century,  containing  a  system  of 
discipline  for  the  clergy.  All  the  four  gospels,  principally  St.  Matthew, 
are  quoted  in  the  Clementines,  with  considerable  verbal  differences  from 
our  present  text ;  and  a  few  passages  not  found  in  our  gospels  are  quoted. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  was  the  earliest  great  teacher  at  Alexandria 
devoted  to  the  instruction  of  catechumens  or  those  preparing  for  Christian 
baptism,  from  about  a.d.  190  to  203.     He  was  followed  by  the  clement  of 
still  more  notable  Origen.     Of  the  three  chief  works  of  Clement,  Alexandria, 
the  Exhortation  to  the  Greeks  shows  the  folly  and  immoral  character  of  the 
Greek  religion  ;  the  second,  the   Tutor,  inculcates  Christian  morality,  and 
the  third,  "  Stromata"  or  Patchwork,  gives  the  deeper  Christian  teaching 
in  an  unsj'stematic  fashion.     Clement  represents  that  in  his  teaching  he  is 
reproducing  original  unwritten  tradition,  derived  from  the  apostles,  and  con- 
stituting a  true  guide  to  knowledge  or  gnosis,  in  opposition  to  the  false  gnosis 
then  abundant.     He  quotes  with  emphasis  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  and  also 
"  the  Preaching  of  Peter,"  and  the  "  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews,"  as 
well  as  the  books  of  the  canon  ;  but  he  quotes  loosely  and  inaccurately.     He 
describes  the  philosophic  believer  as  comprehending  the  complete  truth  of 
God,  and  becoming  as  far  as  possible  like  God.     Man  is  born  for  God's 
service,  for  which  he  is  fitted  by  painful  training,  and  by  receiving  the 
Holy  Spirit.     He  recognised  and  valued  highly  the  good  side  of  heathenism 
and  of  Greek  philosophy.     "  The  training  of  the  Jews  and  the  training  of 
the  Greeks  were  in  different  ways  designed  to  fit  men  for  the  final  mani- 
festation of  the  Christ.     .     .     .     The  various  schools  of  philosophy  are  de- 
scribed as  rending  in  pieces  the  one  truth,  like  the  Bacchants,  who  rent  the 
body  of  Pentheus,  and  bore  about  the  fragments  in  triumph.     Each  one, 
he  says,  boasts  that  the  morsel  which  it  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  gain  is 
all  the  truth.     ...     He  that  again  combines  the  divided  parts  and  unites 
the  exposition  in  a  perfect  whole,  will,  we  may  be  assured,  look  upon  the 
truth  without  peril "  (Westcott,  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog.). 

A  pupil  of  Clement,  Origen  (in  full,  Origenes  Adamantius)  was  destined 
greatly  to  excel  his  master  in  fame.  Born  at  Alexandria  in  185  of  Christian 
parents,  and  baptised  in  infancy,  he  early  studied  both  the  Bible  0ritren 
and  Greek  literature.  During  the  persecution  of  a.d.  202,  his 
father  Leonidas  was  martyred,  and  Origen  would  have  suffered  the  fame 
fate  but  that  his  mother  hid  his  clothes.  He  afterwards  supported  himself 
and  his  mother  and  family  by  teaching  Greek  and  copying  manuscripts. 
In  203,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  he  was  made  head  of  the  catechetical  school 
vacated  by  Clement.  To  further  qualify  himself  for  this  office  he  studied 
under  Ammonius  Saccas,  the  founder  of  Neo-Platonism,  a  teacher  who  no 
doubt  greatly  broadened  his  views.  He  lived  a  most  ascetic  life,  and  to 
guard  himself  against  temptation,  through  having  numerous  female  cate- 
chumens, he  emasculated  himself ;  and  by  his  teaching  and  life  made  many 
converts.    About  211  he  visited  Rome,  where  ideas  of  a  visibly  united  Church, 


74o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

made  up  of  baptised  persons,  were  already  strong,  while  the  Alexandrians 
regarded  the  Church  as  composed  of  all  holy  people  both  in  heaven  and  on 
earth.  Returning  to  Alexandria,  Origen  made  a  fresh  study  of  Hebrew, 
and  started  a  great  commentary  on  the  Bible,  for  which  Ambrose,  a  rich 
convert,  provided  a  library,  shorthand  writers  and  copyists.  In  his  numerous 
foreign  journeys  to  instruct  princes  and  notable  people  who  sent  for  him, 
the  bishops  of  Jerusalem  (Alexander)  and  Caesarea  invited  him  to  preach  in 
their  churches,  though  he  was  still  a  layman.  Later,  he  was  ordained  a 
presbyter  by  the  same  bishops  (a.d.  228),  which  excited  the  anger  of  Deme- 
trius, bishop  of  Alexandria,  who  in  231  and  232  held  two  councils  at  Alex- 
andria, at  which  Origen  was  accused  of  having  mutilated  himself,  of  having 
been  ordained  without  the  consent  of  the  bishop  under  whom  he  worked, 
and  of  teaching  erroneous  doctrines,  such  as  that  the  devil  would  be  finally 
saved,  etc.  He  was  forbidden  to  teach,  and  excommunicated,  a  sentence 
which  was  confirmed  by  the  Roman  and  Western  Churches,  but  rejected  in 
Palestine,  Phoenicia,  and  Greece.  Origen  withdrew  to  Caesarea,  where  he 
continued  to  teach.  Afterwards  he  again  travelled  widely,  partly  owing  to 
persecution  by  Roman  emperors  and  by  Christians.  Meanwhile  he  con- 
tinued to  work  at  his  commentary  and  other  writings.  During  the  per- 
secution of  Decius,  Bishop  Alexander  of  Jerusalem  was  martyred,  and  Origen 
was  condemned  to  death  and  cruelly  tortured.  But  the  death  of  Decius 
freed  Origen,  who  however  was  shattered  in  strength,  and  died  a  few  years 
later  at  Tyre,  about  255. 

The  Church  of  Rome  refused  to  Origen  the  titles  of  Saint  and  Father, 
in  common  with  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Tertullian  ;  but  he  was  cer- 
tainly one  of  the  greatest  scholars  and  most  powerful  intellects  of  his  time. 
He  was  very  fond  of  allegorical  and  mystical  interpretation,  and  also  of 
literal  following  of  ascetic  teaching.  He  was  the  first  to  attempt  a  complete 
study  of  and  comment  on  the  Bible,  and  to  endeavour  to  settle 
is  wor  s.  .^  ^^^^  ^  a  p0iygi0tt  Old  Testament  (called  Hexapla),  including 
six  versions  side  by  side  ;  namely,  the  Hebrew,  the  same  in  Greek  letters, 
the  Septuagint,  Aquila's  Greek  version,  the  text  of  Symmachus  (possibly 
an  Ebionite),  and  that  of  Theodotion,  an  Ephesian.  This  great  work,  kept 
in  the  library  at  Caesarea,  was  still  in  use  in  Jerome's  time.  Only  a  few 
portions  have  survived.  Of  his  other  numerous  writings  we  have  little  beside 
the  "Answer  to  Celsus,"  an  important  work,  and  the  "De  Principiis,"  a  work 
on  the  first  principles  of  Christian  doctrine  ;  but  these  suffice  to  show  Origen 
to  have  been  the  greatest  Christian  writer  who  had  appeared  since  the 
"First  apostolic  times.  His  work  on  "First  Principles"  was  the  first 
Principles."  attempt  to  fashion  a  philosophy  of  the  Christian  faith.  The 
object  or  end  of  life,  he  says,  is  the  progressive  assimilation  of  man  to  God 
by  the  voluntary  appropriation  of  His  gifts.  Rational  beings  are  endowed 
with  freewill,  and  with  responsibility  for  their  actions ;  they  can  never 
cease  to  be.  They  have  the  power  of  learning  from  the  revelation  of  God's 
will  in  the  Scriptures,  upon  which  a  rational  faith  is  to  be  founded.  Bishop 
Butler,  in  the  introduction  to  his  "  Analogy,"  quotes  a  famous  sentence  from 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED. 


74' 


this  book  as  having  supplied  an  important  hint  for  his  own  work.  "  He 
who  believes  the  Scripture  to  have  proceeded  from  Him  who  is  the  Author 
of  Nature,  may  well  expect  to  find  the  same  sort  of  difficulties  in  it  as  are 
found  in  the  constitution  of  Nature." 

Origen's  "Answer  to  Celsus  "  is  a  powerful  reply  to  the  "True  Pis- 
course  "  of  Celsus,  an  Epicurean  philosopher,  who  in  it  attacked  the  whole 
idea  of  the  supernatural,  the  incarnation  and  resurrection  of .« Answer  to 
Christ,  and  the  intellectual  and  moral  character  of  the  Christians,  celsus." 
Origen's  answer  is  close,  and  in  many  parts  conclusive  ;  but  his  lack  of 
the  true  historic  sense  mars  much  of  his  work.  He  maintained  the  true 
and  perfect  manhood  of  Christ,  subject  to  the  conditions  of  natural  growth, 
and  the  true  and  perfect  divinity  of  the  "  God  Word,"  which  was  so  united 
with  the  Man  Christ  Jesus,  through  the  human  soul,  as  to  be  one  person. 


' 


% 


ST.    APOLLINARIS   IN    CLASSE,    RAVENNA    (538-541))' 


He  regarded  the  Son  as  less  than  the  Father,  and  as  reaching  only  to 
rational  beings  ;  while  the  Holy  Spirit  was  still  less,  and  extended  only  to 
the  saints.  The  work  of  Christ  was  for  all  men,  and  for  the  whole  of  man. 
His  life  and  death  was  a  vicarious  sacrifice  for  sin,  and  was  even  of  value 
to  heavenly  beings.  The  future  consummation  of  the  world  would  in.cl.iide 
the  restoration  of  all  beings  to  unity  in  God.  Future  punishment,  pro- 
portionate to  sin,  awaited  all  sinners.  "  His  gravest  errors,"  says  Westcott, 
"  are  attempts  to  solve  that  which  is  insoluble."  He  has  been  so  far  mis- 
understood as  to  be  charged  with  being  the  forerunner  of  Arianism,  and 
with  holding  many  other  heresies.  For  his  own  age  he  is  a  remarks  ble 
example  of  boldness  and  freedom  of  thought  arising  in  the  new  Church. 
Among  the  followers  of  Origen  who  can  merely  be  mentioned  are  Dionj'sius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria,  a.d.  248-265 ;  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  bishop  of 
Neoceesarea  in  Pontus,  244-270;  Pamphilus  of  Csesarea,  the  friend  of 
Eusebius  ;    and  Hesychius,  an  Egyptian  bishop,   martyred  in  311  ;  while 


742  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Methodius,  bishop  of  Patara,  in  Lycia,  attacked  his  views  of  the  creation 

and  resurrection  of  the  body  in  three  dialogues. 

Going  back  to  the  contemporaries  of  Origen,  we  must  briefly  mention 

Hippolytus,  bishop  of  the  port  of  Rome,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  whose 

_.      ,  .        statue  was  dug  up  in  1551  in  Rome,  inscribed  with  the  names 
Hippolytus.  .  .  .  . 

of  his  works,  including  one  "  against  all  heresies,"  of  which  the 
greater  part  only  became  known  by  a  discovery  in  the  monastery  of  Mount 
Athos,  in  1842.  It  is  entitled  "  Philosophoumena,"  and  describes  heathen 
philosophies,  and  all  the  heresies  since  the  apostles'  times,  and  incident- 
ally gives  considerable  information  about  the  author's  life  and  beliefs,  and 
the  history  of  the  Roman  Church.  He  strongly  censured  the  laxity  of  the 
contemporary  Roman  bishops  Zephyrinus  and  Callistus.  He  was  probably 
martyred  near  Rome,  near  the  close  of  the  first  half  of  the  third  century. 

The   earliest   great  Latin  Christian  writers  flourished  in  the  Roman 
province   of  Africa,  chiefly  in  the  old   territory  of  Carthage.     Tertullian, 

born  between  150  and  160,  was  trained  as  a  lawyer,  and  only 
Tertullian.  .  '  J      7  J 

became  a  Christian  about  a.d.  192,  after  which  he  was  a  presbyter 
of  the  Church.  He  joined  the  Montanists  about  the  end  of  the  century. 
His  death  took  place  somewhere  between  220  and  240.  While  still  remain- 
ing an  orthodox  Christian,  Tertullian  wrote  several  important  works,  such 
as  his  Address  to  the  Martyrs,  and  his  Apology,  his  greatest  writing.  After 
he  became  a  Montanist,  he  wrote  many  books  defending  the  special  doc- 
trines of  the  sect,  though  without  giving  up  any  of  what  he  considered  to 
be  the  true  teaching  of  Christianity.  The  character  of  his  writings  is 
described  as  "  abrupt  and  impetuous,  eloquent  and  stern,"  though  often 
with  tender  and  beautiful  passages.  He  vehemently  denounced  flight  m 
persecution,  second  marriages,  ostentatious  and  elaborate  dressing  by 
Christian  women,  and  enjoined  severe  fasts  and  other  ascetic  practices. 

Cyprian,  the  second  great  African  father,  was  born  at  Carthage,  about 
a.d.  200,  of  a  wealthy  family,  was  highly  educated,  and  became  a  famous 
teacher  of  rhetoric.  He  was  baptised  a  Christian  in  245  or  246, 
and  studied  the  Scriptures  and  Christian  writers  so  successfully 
that  in  248  he  was  called  by  popular  acclamation  to  take  the  bishopric  of 
Carthage,  though  still  only  a  layman.  When  the  Decian  persecution  broke 
out,  he  fled  as  a  matter  of  expediency.  On  his  return,  he  had  to  deal  with 
many  cases  of  those  who  had  fallen  away  under  persecution  and  now  sought 
restoration  to  the  Church.  Many  had  even  obtained  indulgences  in  the 
name  of  martyrs,  who  while  in  prison  under  sentence  of  death  were  allowed 
to  recommend  the  restoration  of  persons  under  condemnation  by  the  Church. 
Consequently,  many  lax  and  disorderly  persons  obtained  admission  into 
the  Church,  and  occasioned  difficulty  and  scandal.  Cyprian  in  251  called 
a  council  of  African  bishops,  which  voted  in  favour  of  restoring  only  those 
of  the  lapsed  who  were  truly  penitent.  After  this,  Novatus,  a  presbyter, 
with  a  rich  layman  named  Felicissimus,  raised  an  outcry  against  Cyprian's 
election  as  irregular  and  illegal,  and  the  latter  set  forward  Fortunatus  as 
bishop  of   Carthage,   and    obtained   his   ordination   by  five  bishops,  all  of 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED.  743 


whom  were  either  condemned  heretics  or  had  lapsed  under  persecution ; 
but  this  schism  soon  vanished. 

Another  great  controversy  in  which  Cyprian  took  an  active  part,  was 
about  the  acceptance  of  Christian  baptism  as  valid  when  performed  by 
heretical  teachers.  He  held  that  no  such  baptism  was  valid,  and  Heretical 
that  its  efficacy  depended  not  only  upon  the  minister  being  a  baptism, 
priest  of  the  orthodox  church,  but  on  his  personal  holiness.  In  this  matter 
Stephen,  Bishop  of  Rome  (253-257),  took  the  broader  view  that  the  validity 
depended  on  following  the  institution  of  Christ,  not  on  the  state  or  belief 
of  the  minister.  Those  baptised  by  heretics  only  needed  confirmation. 
Stephen  appears  to  have  shown  more  than  a  dawning  of  the  high  pre- 
tensions of  the  see  of  Rome,  having  even  refused  to  receive  those  who 
brought  the  decisions  of  the  African  council  to  Rome,  denouncing  Cyprian 
as  "a  false  Christ,  a  false  apostle,  and  a  deceitful  worker."  This  harshness 
was  followed  by  the  rejection  of  all  communion  with  the  African  and  the 
Eastern  Churches ;  and  gradually  the  broader  view  prevailed,  and  was 
accepted  by  the  Church  generally  at  the  Council  of  NicEea.  Cyprian's 
martyrdom  under  the  persecution  of  Valerian  has  already  been  mentioned. 
He  left  behind  him  eighty-one  epistles,  giving  most  valuable  accounts  of 
ecclesiastical  questions  in  his  age.  He  also  wrote  a  work  "  On  the  Unity 
of  the  Church,"  which  is  the  first  full  assertion  of  the  principle .,  The Unity of 
of  a  great  united  visible  Church.  He  says  that  "  the  Church  the  c&urcn." 
was  founded  from  the  first  by  Christ  on  Peter  alone.  .  .  .  She  has  ever 
since  remained  one,  in  unbroken  episcopal  succession.  .  .  .  He  is  not  a 
Christian  who  is  iot  in  the  Church  of  Christ.  Whoever  separates  himself 
from  the  Church  -*  a  foreigner,  a  profane  person,  an  enemy.  '  Extra 
ecclesiam  nulla  salus  ''outside  the  Church  there  is  no  salvation).  Through 
Cyprian's  influence  the  ^urch  Council  first  became  of  prime  importance  to 
the  life  of  the  Church,  a.  episcopacy  acquired  a  greatly  increased  power. 
He  also  strongly  asserted  ih.1      dependence  of  bishops  when  once  elected. 

During  the  first  three  ct  nes  the  successive  setting-up  of  different 
forms  of  opinion,  which  their  advo  °,s  thought  compatible  with  Christianity, 
led  to  the  discussion  and  settlement  by  the  Church  of  numerous 
questions  of  the  highest  moment.  Ebionism  was  the  first  impor- 
tant development,  a  movement  full  of  zeal  for  the  law  of  Moses,  and  tending 
to  exalt  the  old  at  the  expense  of  the  new  Covenant.  The  Ebionites,1  who 
first  came  into  prominence  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  centuiy, 
regarded  Jesus  as  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary  without  any  supernatural 
conception,  and  as  a  mere  man.  Only  after  His  baptism  did  He  become 
anointed  as  Christ  and  endued  with  His  mission  as  Messiah.  They  neither 
believed  in  His  pre-existence  nor  in  His  divinity  ;  they  looked  for  His  future 
coming,  when  the  earthly  Jerusalem  would  be  restored,  and  the  Jews  would 
return  there  to  take  their  place  in  the  Messiah's  millennial  kingdom.  They 
insisted  that  the  Jewish  law  should  be  observed  by  all  Christians,  and  they 

1  Ebion,  poor ;  hence  Ebionite,  a  follower  of  Christ's  teaching  about  poverty. 


744  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

strongly  opposed  the  teaching  and  the  claims  of  St.  Paul.  There  was  a 
further  type  of  Ebionism  which  was  specially  ascetic  in  its  tone,  and  identi- 
fied Christianity  with  what  was  called  genuine  or  primitive  Mosaism.  The 
Ebionites  only  accepted  the  Pentateuch,  and  even  rejected  parts  of  that. 
They  did  not  define  the  precise  moment  of  union  of  Jesus  with  the  Messiah, 
who,  they  held,  was  ordained  to  combat  and  conquer  the  devil.  As  the 
latter  was  their  special  enemy,  they  refused  every  kind  of  worldly  indul- 
gence, except  that  they  recommended  early  marriages.  They  observed  both 
the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  the  Christian  Lord's  day,  but  they  had  no  regard 
for  the  Jewish  sacrifices  and  temple ;  yet  they  refused  all  communion 
with  the  uncircumcised.  Many  of  them  sought  to  propagate  their  views. 
They  exerted  much  influence  in  the  second  and  third  centuries  in  Syria,  but 
did  not  succeed  in  establishing  themselves  elsewhere.  The  teaching  of  Paul 
prevailed,  and  the  bishops  of  Palestine,  as  well  as  those  of  Rome,  showed  their 
disregard  for  Jewish  customs  in  the  settlement  of  the  Paschal  controversy 
in  the  second  century.  The  Ebionites  gradually  died  out  without  having 
exerted  any  wide  influence.  No  formal  pronouncement  of  a  council  against 
them  was  necessary.  Their  doctrines  died  a  natural  death,  though  a  few 
Ebionites  were  still  heard  of  up  to  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century. 

Gnosticism,  though  it  fills  a  vast  space  in  the  religious  history  of  the 
first  centuries  of  Christianity,  is  in  many  features  not  directly  its  product. 

It  appears  to  have  been  related  largely  to  Greek  and  many  other 
Gnosticism.  r*      .     .  .  ..  .  .  ,  ..  ,  -,  -■  ,        ~.y     . 

non-Christian  philosophies,  and  it  attempted  to  add  to  the  Chris- 
tian faith  a  knowledge  which  was  superior  to  faith.  It  also  claimed  to  be  the 
depository  of  a  secret  tradition  of  early  Christianity.  The  term  Gnostic  is 
used  to  cover  many  diverse  sects,  the  more  important  of  which  did  not  arise 
till  the  second  century.  The  principal  general  features  of  gnosticism  as  a 
philosophy  are  the  idea  of  the  essential  antagonism  of  spirit  and  matter,  the 
conception  of  a  Demiurgus  or  effective  creator  of  the  world,  distinct  from  the 
.supreme  God,  and  the  idea  that  Christ's  human  body  was  but  a  phantasmal 
appearance.  The  Divine  being  was  supposed  to  become  manifested  in  the 
form  of  aeons,  a  term  applied  to  all  spiritual  powers.  The  Demiurgus,  or 
maker  of  the  visible  world,  was  supposed  to  be  produced  by  the  union  of  the 
lowest  seon  with  matter.  The  liberation  of  human  nature  from  evil  was 
effected  by  the  work  of  Christ,  the  most  perfect  of  the  seons.  Twoprincijml 
views  of  morals  were  held  by  various  gnostic  sects :  one,  that  all  matter,  in- 
cluding human  nature,  was  corrupt,  and  every  material  pleasure  was  conse- 
quently to  be  avoided  ;  the  other,  that  the  pure  spirit  could  not  be  defiled 
by  any  material  thing  or  act.  We  can  but  briefly  refer  to  a  few  of  the 
leaders  of  gnostic  sects. 

Basilides,  who  flourished  at  Alexandria  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian  (117-138), 
is  best  known  to  us  by  the  extracts  given  from  his  writings  in  the  work  of 

Hippolytus  against  all  heresies.     His  high  philosophical  teaching 

is  too  complex  to  be  detailed  here.  The  sect  he  founded  lasted  in 
Egypt  till  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  Its  members  professed  to 
possess   a  hidden  knowledge,  reckoned  themselves   more   than  Christians, 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED. 


745 


claimed  and  exercised  great  freedom  about  contact  with  heathendom,  in- 
dulged in  magic  and  invocations,  and  were  reputed  to  practise  much 
immorality.     Their  ideas  were  very  different  from  those  of  their  founder. 


Valentinus,  a  much  greater  man,  was  probably  also  an  Alexandrian. 
He  is  known   to  have  taught  at  Rome  about  138-160,  and  to  Valentinu8 
have  died  in  Cyprus  in  160.     His  system  became  the  most  general 
form  of  gnosticism,   and  was  widely  spread  through  Egypt,  feyria,  Italy, 


746  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


and  Southern  Gaul.     Early  in  the  third  century  the  Valentinians  were  the 
most  numerous  of  heretics ;  in  the  fifth  they  were  quite  extinct. 

Marcion  (first  half  of  the  second  century),  son  of  a  bishop  of  Sinope  in 
Pontus,  but  excommunicated  by  his  father,  went  to  Rome  and  sought  restora- 
tion  from  the  presbyters  there.  Failing  to  obtain  his  object,  he 
formed  a  sect  of  his  own,  by  whom  he  was  recognised  as  bishop, 
and  became  the  founder  of  a  line  of  Marcionite  bishops.  His  sect  was  very 
widely  diffused  by  the  end  of  the  second  centaury,  and  their  strict  asceticism, 
which  included  celibacy  and  abstinence  from  meat  and  wine,  and  their 
ardent  spirit  of  martyrdom,  made  them  strong  and  gave  them  much  success. 
They  still  existed  in  the  seventh  century,  but  they  had  been  largely  eclipsed 
by  the  newer  Manichsean  heresy.  Marcion  recognised  three  ruling  powers  : 
the  good  God,  first  made  known  by  Christ ;  evil  Matter,  ruled  by  the  devil ; 
and  the  righteous  Demiurge,  or  world-maker,  the  angry  god  of  the  Jews. 
He  rejected  the  authority  of  the  Old  Testament  entirely,  and  regarded  Christ 
as  having  suddenly  descended  from  heaven  to  reveal  God,  His  body  being 
a  mere  appearance  and  His  death  an  illusion.  By  His  work  He  cast  the 
Demiurge  into  Hades,  secured  the  redemption  of  humanity,  and  com- 
missioned St.  Paul  to  preach  it.  The  Marcionites  observed  the  usual  church 
rites,  though  their  Eucharist  excluded  wine.  They  fasted  on  Saturdays. 
Marcion's  canon  is  referred  to  at  page  713. 

Tatian,  of  whom  we  have  already  spoken  (p.  737),  the  convert  of  Justin 

Martyr,    during   Justin's    lifetime    showed   in   his  writings   tendencies   to 

Tatian.     gnosticism,  and    later  became  pronouncedly  an   ascetic  gnostic, 

The        founding  a  sect  known  as  the  Encratites  (the  abstemious),  which 

Encratites.   lagted  untn  ^  fourth  century. 

Our  space  is  quite  inadequate  to  deal  with  Manichseism,  which  may  be 

briefly  defined  as  an  attempt  to  combine  Christianity  with  Zoroastrianism . 

Ormuzd  and  Ahriman  appeared  as  Light  and  Darkness,  each  pre- 
ManichEeism     .  .  . 

"  siding  over  a  distinct  kingdom  and  engaged  in  perpetual  contest. 

Manes,  or  Mani,  a  Persian  magian  converted  to  Christianity,  was  its  founder, 

Manes,      about  270,  and  was  cruelly  martyred  in  277.     His  teaching  spread 

or  Mam.    wide]y  through  Asia,  and  reached  Africa  and  Rome.     Although 

repressed  by  the  Christian  emperors,  Manichseism  survived  as  a  distinct  sect 

till  the  sixth  century. 

Manichseism  resembled  the  gnostic  sects  in  describing  Christ's  body  as 

only  an  appearance,  and  consequently  rejecting  the  accounts  of  His  birth  and 

early  life.     As  primal  man  He  dwelt  in  the  sun  by  His  power  and  the  moon 

by  His  wisdom.     Hence  these  two  were  worshipped  as  being  His  habitations. 

The   Old    Testament  was   rejected,   and    the   Gospels  were   only  partially 

accepted,  as  having  arisen   much  later   than  the  time  of  Christ  and  the 

apostles,  and  as  having  been  greatly  corrupted.     Mani  himself  claimed  to 

be  the  Paraclete,  and  propounded  his  teaching  as  a  revelation.    In  morals  the 

higher  order  of  Manichaeans,  "the  perfect,"  professed  asceticism,  idleness, 

and  celibacy  ;  the  hearers  might  live  an  ordinary  life,  though  they  might 

not  destroy  animals. 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED.  747 

The  Manichseans  had  an  elaborate  organisation — a  chief  priest,  successor 
of  Mani,  twelve  apostles,  seventy-two  bishops,  and  priests,  deacons  and 
evangelists.  Their  very  simple  worship  included  turning  to  the  sun  in 
prayer  ;  anointing  with  oil  instead  of  baptism  of  the  "  perfect,"  to  whom 
the  Eucharist  was  administered  ;  and  fasting  on  Sunday. 

These  were  rather  teachings  conflicting  with  Christianity  than  heresies 
within  its  pale.  We  now  come  to  heresies  which  claimed  to  express  the 
true  view  regarding  most  important  aspects  of  truth  about  the  Divine  Being 
in  His  various  manifestations.  The  discussions  upon  these  developed  the 
Catholic  doctrine  about  the  Trinity  of  the  Godhead,  and  about  the  union  of 
the  Divine  and  human  natures  in  Christ.  The  Monarchians,  ■llJC 
who  rose  into  prominence  towards  the  end  of  the  second  century,  MonarcMans. 
denied  the  divinity  of  Christ,  or  else  described  it  as  a  power  which  filled 
the  human  Jesus.  Yet  they  mostly  believed  in  His  miraculous  birth  by  the 
power  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  in  the  residence  1  *  Divine  power  in  His  nature 
from  His  conception.  Theodotus  of  Byzantium  was  an  e?-iy  leader,  and  was 
excommunicated  at  Rome  by  Bishop  Victor  (about  a  _».  200). 

A  distinct  form  of  Monarchism  originated  with  Paul  of  Samosata, 
bishop  of  Antioch  from  a.d.  260.  He  described  both,  the  Logos  and  the 
Holy  Spirit  as  powers  or  manifestations  of  God,  not  distinct  Per-  pauiof 
sons.  The  Divine  Logos,  he  taught,  dwelt  more  fully  in  Christ  Samosata- 
than  in  any  previous  teacher.  He  was  deposed  in  269  by  a  council  of 
Syrian  bishops,  but  was  protected  by  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra,  and  only 
finally  deposed  after  his  sentence  had  been  confirmed  by  the  Italian  bishops. 

A  form  of  Monarchism  which  explained  the  three  Persons  of  the 
Trinity  as  only  the  threefold  aspect  of  the  Divine  Being,  was  termed  Patri- 
passian  by  Tertullian,  because  it  was  inferred  that  this  view  Tbe  Patri- 
logically  involved  the  belief  that  it  was  God  the  Father  Himself  pa-ssians. 
who  suffered  upon  the  cross.  Praxeas  brought  this  doctrine  to  Koine  from 
Asia  Minor  near  the  end  of  the  second  century,  and  was  at  the  same  time 
a  strong  anti-Montanist.  He  urged  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  a 
belief  in  three  Gods  ;  and  his  mode  of  explaining  his  own  teaching  was  that 
the  one  God,  who  as  Father  was  Spirit,  as  Son  was  flesh  ;  and  that  the 
Father  sympathised  and  suffered  with  the  Son.  He  was  condemned  by  the 
Roman  Church,  and  went  to  Carthage,  where  Tertullian  wrote  a  book 
against  him.  Noetus  of  Smyrna  had  his  own  special  form  of  this  heresy, 
to  which  Zephyrinus,  Callistus  (Calixtus  I.),  and  Sabellius  were  won.  Cal- 
listus  thus  expressed  his  view  :  "  The  Father,  who  was  in  the  Son,  took 
flesh  and  made  it  God.  Father  and  Son  were  therefore  the  name  of  the 
one  God,  and  this  one  person  cannot  be  two ;  thus  the  Father  suffered  with 
the  Son." 

Sabellius,  however,  went  farther  than  Callistus,  by  whom  he  was  excom- 
municated a.d.  218,  and  was  the  most  original  and  profound  of  the  Monar- 
chians.    He  taught  that  the  unity  of  God  unfolded  itself  in  three 
different  forms  at  successive  periods,  and  after  the  completion  of 
redemption   returned   into   unity.      The   Father   is   revealed   in   the   law, 


748  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

the  Son  in  the  incarnation,  the  Holy  Spirit  in  inspiration.  The  Logos  he 
imagined  as  the  one  God  in  transition  to  the  Trinity,  the  three  Persons 
being  only  successive  aspects  of  the  Logos,  or  world-ward  side  of  the 
Divine.  His  views  led  to  the  enunciation  of  the  Nicene  Creed.  After  his 
excommunication  at  Rome,  he  appears  to  have  preached  in  Egypt,  where 
he  was  condemned  in  261,  at  a  council  called  by  Dionysius,  bishop  of 
Alexandria ;  and  it  is  significant  that  the  terms  of  his  condemnation  de- 
clared the  subordination  of  the  Son  to  the  Father  in  a  form  almost  identical 
with  the  subsequent  Arian  heresy. 

The  Montanists,  an  ascetic  sect,  arose  in  Phrygia  about  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  under  the  preaching  of  Montanus,  a  priest  of  Cybele. 
The  He  believed,  or  gave  out,  that  he  was  himself  the  medium  of  the 
Montanists.  paraciete  or  Comforter  promised  by  Christ ;  and  during  the  per- 
secution by  Marcus  Aurelius  he  proclaimed  the  immediate  coming  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and  the  commencement  of  the  millennial  kingdom  of  Christ, 
and  he  and  his  followers  prepared  for  it  by  a  life  of  severe  discipline  and 
a  spirit  of  enthusiastic  martyrdom.  Most  of  the  Asiatic  Churches  regarded 
this  announcement  as  made  by  demoniacal  influence,  and  excommunicated 
the  Montanists.  In  the  "West  it  met  with  more  favour,  being  supported  by 
Tertullian,  and  many  Africans  and  Roman  Christians,  by  Irenseus  and  the 
Churches  of  Gaul.  Praxeas  and  Caius,  however,  obtained  its  condemnation 
at  Rome ;  but  the  powerful  advocacy  of  Tertullian  greatly  raised  its 
importance,  and  led  to  renewed  and  enlarged  belief  in  the  work  of  the 
Comforter.  On  other  than  these  special  views,  the  Montanists  were  ortho- 
dox in  doctrine,  acknowledging  the  entire  authority  of  both  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  and  agreeing  with  the  Church  in  their  views  of  the  Trinity. 

By  a  natural  transition  we  come  to  the  Millenarians  or  Chiliasts,  who 
believed  in  the  speedy  second  coming  of  Christ  to  reign  in  person  a  thousand 
The  years  before  the  general  resurrection  and  last  judgment.  The 
Millenarians.  ]y[ontanists  were  among  the  most  fanatical  believers  in  this,  but 
it  gradually  died  after  the  adoption  of  Christianity  by  Constantine,  to  be 
revived  again  in  more  recent  times. 

The  Christian  Churches  (assemblies  of  Christians)  only  gradually  ac- 
quired fixed  local  habitations,  and  the  word  "  ecclesia "  was  applied  to 
Churches  mee^irigs  of  believers  from  its  current  use  for  other  meetings. 
1  Cor.  v.  18,  which  speaks  of  the  Christians  "  coming  together 
in  the  church,"  shows  how  the  meeting  place  became  identified  with  the 
meeting.  Still  for  a  long  time  the  Church  met  anywhere  it  could,  and 
private  houses  were  generally  used,  though  it  was  often  necessary  to 
assemble  in  desert  places,  and  at  catacombs  and  other  burial  places.  We 
do  not  find  mention  of  special  buildings  for  Christian  worship  until  about 
the  end  of  the  second  century,  when,  in  addition  to  the  name  ecclesia,  they 
were  called  "  the  Lord's  houses,"  and  "  houses  of  God."  The  name  "  Lord's 
house"  referred  specially  to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  In  French  ecclesia 
appears  as  eglise,  in  Welsh  as  eglwys ;  but  the  Anglo-Saxon  cyrice,  cyrc, 
English  church,  Scotch  kirk,  German  Kirche,  supplanted  it.     Whether  this 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED. 


749 


word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  for  "Lord's  house,"  or  from  a  primi- 
tive Aryan  word  meaning  enclosure,  is  doubtful. 

During  the  second  half  of  the  third  century  many  churches  were  built, 
often  of  considerable  architectural  pretensions,  and  provided  with  gold  and 


INTERIOR    OF    S.    CLEMENT'S,    HOME    (TWELFTH    CENTURY). 
(Built  above  a  sixth-century  basilica.     The  choir,  probably  dating  from  the  sixth  century,  is  here  an  enclosure 

within  tlie  nave.) 

silver  vessels.     The  church  at  Nicomedia,  destroyed  by  Diocletian,  was  one 

of  the  grandest. 

In  its  application  to  persons,  the  "  Church  "  signified  the  whole  body  ot 

Christians,  those  dwelling  in  any  town  or  neighbourhood  constitut- 

.  The  Church 

ing  the  Church  in  that  place.     Of  course  admission  to  the  Church 

had  to  be  guarded,  and  exclusion  had  to  be  practised  as  necessity  arose. 


75o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Baptism  constituted  the  rite  of  admission,  accompanied  by  a  profession  of 
faith.     To  ensure  the   soundness  of  the   latter,  previous   instruction  was 
needed,  and  in  the  second  century  classes  of  "  catechumens  "  were 
formed,  in  which  two  or  three  years  might  be  spent  before  bap- 
tism.    The  latter  rite  was  often  administered  on  the  eve  of  Easter  and  Whit 
Sunday.     A  confession  of  faith  had  to  be  made  at  baptism,  in- 
cluding the  chief  heads  of  the  Christian  faith,  and  the  devil  was 
formally  renounced.     The  sign  of  the  cross  was  made  upon  the  forehead, 
the  kiss  of  peace  was  given  by  the  minister,  and  usually  baptism  was  by 
immersion.     The  rite  was  not  restricted  to  adult  converts,  but  was  also 
administered  to  the  children  of  Christian  parents,  this  practice  being  derived 
from  the  apostles.     Tertullian  was  a  prominent  opponent  of  infant  baptism, 
believing  that  it  brought  children  too  soon  into  a  condition  of  responsibility, 
and  that  deadly  sins  committed  after  baptism  could  not  be  forgiven.     But 
the  tendency  to  very  early  baptism  (on  the  second  or  third  day)  was  strongly 
marked  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century.     Sponsors  not  only  took  the 
vows  on  behalf  of  infants,  but  appeared  as  sureties  for  adults.     Of  course  in 
the  case  of  children  the  catechumen  stage  had  to  follow  baptism. 

Confirmation,  in  the  case  of  adults,  originally  followed  baptism  at  once, 

the  presbyters  laying  their  hands  on  them  and  anointing  them  with  holy  oil. 

In  the  second  century  this  rite  was  usually  performed  by  bishops, 

but   infants  as  well    as  adults  were  confirmed,  and  afterwards 

the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered,  even  to  infants  in  some  churches. 

Simplicity  characterised  the  Christian  meetings  during  the  first  two 
centuries.  The  meeting  places  had  an  elevated  seat  for  the  minister  to  read 
and  preach,  a  plain  table  for  the  communion,  and  a  basin  of 
water  for  baptism  ;  but  during  the  second  century  the  table  came 
to  be  called  the  "  altar,"  and  it  was  enclosed  within  railings,  together  with 
the  reading  desk  and  the  seats  for  the  clergy.  Justin  Martyr  in  his 
Apology  gives  the  following  most  interesting  account  of  Christian  worship 
in  his  time.  "  On  Sunday  a  meeting  is  held  of  all  who  live  in  the  cities 
and  villages,  and  a  section  is  read  from  the  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles,  and  the 
writings  of  the  Prophets,  so  long  as  the  time  permits.  "When  the  reader  has 
finished,  the  president x  in  a  discourse  (homily)  gives  the  admonition  and 
exhortation  to  imitate  these  noble  things.  After  this,  we  all  rise  and  offer 
prayer.  At  the  close  of  the  prayer,  bread  and  wine  and  water  are  brought. 
The  president  offers  prayers  and  thanks  for  them  as  he  is  able,  and  the 
congregation  answer  Amen.  Then  the  consecrated  elements  are  distributed 
to  each  one  and  partaken  of,  and  are  carried  by  the  deacons  to  the  houses 
of  those  absent.  The  wealthy  and  the  willing  then  give  contributions, 
according  to  their  free  will,  and  this  collection  is  deposited  with  the 
president,  who  therewith  supplies  orphans  and  widows,  the  poor  and  needy, 
prisoners  and  strangers,  and  takes  care  of  all  who  are  in  want."  Other 
accounts  give  fuller  descriptions  of  the  singing  of  Psalms,  of  the  songs  in 
the  New  Testament,  and  of  specially  composed  hymns,  both  of  praise  and 
1  The  presiding  presbyter,  or  bishop. 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED.  75 T 


doctrine.  Antiphonal  or  responsive  singing  was  early  introduced.  Of  these 
hymns  there  remain  the  fine  hymn  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  the 
morning  and  evening  hymns  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century  the  Lord's  Supper  was  separated 
from  the  ordinary  Sunday  service,  and  only  full  members  were  allowed  to 
remain.     Both  bread  and  wine  were  given  to  all  communicants,  t^  Lord's 
water  being   mixed   with   the  latter.      The  Love-feasts  of  the     SuPper. 
early  Churches  originated  out  of  the  common  social  meal,  but  soon  became 
more  or  less  perverted  to  occasions  of  ostentation  on  the  part  of  the  richer 
members.     They  at  first  combined  a  meal  with  a  special  religious  service. 
Collections    were  made    for    the  poor  or  for    necessitous    Churches ;    the 
"  kiss  of  love "  preceded   the  breaking  up    of  the   meetings.      As  special 
buildings  came  into  use  for  worship,  it  was  felt  that  they  should  not  be  used 
for  such  common  meals ;  and  this  practice  was  forbidden  by  councils  in  the 
fourth  century.     The    Love-feasts  continued  to  be  held  in  the 
evening,  after  the  Eucharist  had  been  transferred  to  the  morning  ; 
and  they  often  became  little  more  than  a  meal  given  to  the  poor. 

The  great  controversies  which  have  surrounded  the  Eucharist  or 
Holy  Communion  date  in  essence  from  near  the  apostolic  age.  Thus 
Ignatius,  in  answer  to  those  who  denied  that  the  Eucharist  was  Eucharistic 
the  bod}7,  of  Christ,  affirmed  that  it  was  "  the  flesh  of  the  crucified  doc*rine. 
and  risen  Lord,  a  medicine  of  immortality,  an  antidote  to  death,  giving 
eternal  life  in  Jesus  Christ."  Both  Justin  Martyr  and  Irenseus  speak  of  the 
descent  of  Christ  into  the  consecrated  elements  as  being  like  His  incarnation. 
Tertullian  says  that  the  words  of  Christ,  "  This  is  My  body,"  mean  "  This  is 
the  figure  or  symbol  of  My  body  " ;  but  he  also  says  that  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  are  really  received  into  the  body  of  the  communicant. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  describes  the  wine  as  a  symbol  or  allegory  of  the 
blood  of  Christ,  explaining  that  the  recipient  receives  the  spiritual,  not  the 
ph}rsical3  blood  of  Christ.  But  the  early  fathers  in  general  were  strongly 
influenced  by  Jewish  ideas,  and  regarded  the  Eucharist  as  in  some  sense 
a  sacrifice,  which  superseded  the  former  sacrifices.  In  the  second  century 
the  fathers  mainly  regarded  it  as  a  thank-offering ;  but  the  African  fathers, 
and  especially  Cyprian,  in  the  third  century,  inclined  to  look  upon  it  as  a 
sin-offering. 

Discipline  was,  on  the  whole,  strict  in  the  early  Church.  Excom- 
munication was  the  great  weapon  against  offences  ;  but  it  might  Discipline 
almost  always  be  taken  off,  after  a  shorter  or  longer  period  of 
probation,  instruction,  fasting  and  pra37er.  Tertullian  expresses  the  view 
that  this  penance  was  a  satisfaction  rendered  to  God.  Sometimes  penance 
was  continued  throughout  life,  and  full  restoration  was  by  some  of  the 
stricter  bishops  denied  to  some  offenders  even  in  the  hour  of  death.  But 
ultimately  it  was  agreed  that  the  Church  should  grant  absolution  and  re- 
storation to  any  penitent  upon  his  deathbed. 

Easting  early  became  an  aid  to  prayer  and  a  means  of  self-discipline. 
Partial  fasting  on  Wednesdays   and   Fridays,   and   the  great   fast   before 


752  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Easter,  in  memory  of  the  forty  days'  fasting  of  Jesus,  were  observed  in  the 

second  century.     At  first  this  was  of  very  varying  length ;  and  it 

ng'     was  only  later  that  a  forty  days'  fast  was  settled,  through  the 

influence  of  the  Roman  Church.     The  Montanists  often  fasted  fourteen  days 

at  a  time,  eating  only  bread  and  salt  and  drinking  water. 

Tertullian  is  the  first  writer  who  records  the  giving  up  of  ordinary 
business  on  the  Lord's  Day  :  but  fasting  was  forbidden  on  that  day  of  joy  ; 
also  prayer  was  made  standing,  not  kneeling,  as  on  other  days.      Many 
Christians  kept  both  the  Jewish  and  the  Christian  Sabbath.     Easter  was  of 
course  the  most  important  festival,  combining  the  influence  of 
the  Jewish  Passover  and  the  Christian  resurrection.     This  double 
significance  led  to  a  long  dispute  as  to  the  proper  time  of  keeping  Easter. 
One  party  held  to  the  Passover  date,  the  14th  of  Nisan,  irrespective  of  the 
Quarto-     day  °f  ^ne  week  ;  these  were  termed  the  Quartodecimans.     The 
decimans.    other  party,  and  especially  the  Roman  Church,  insisted  on  the 
fact  that  Christ  was  crucified  on  a  Friday,  the  day  preceding  the  Jewish 
Sabbath,  and  rose  again  on  the  | Sunday,  on  which  therefore  the  anniversary 
ought  always  to  be  kept.     About  a.d.  160  it  was  agreed  between  Polycarp 
and  Anicetus,  bishop  of  Rome,  to  permit  differences  of  practice  on  this 
point.      About   170   the   Laodiceans,    opposed   by  other  Asiatic  Churches, 
observed  the  Jewish  Passover  by  eating  the  Paschal  lamb ;  and  the  con- 
troversy became  so  acute  that  in  196  the  Roman  bishop  Victor  tried  to  get 
the   whole   question  of  Easter   settled,  and   councils  of  bishops  in  various 
countries  adopted  the  Roman  practice  ;  but  the  Asiatic  Churches  maintained 
their  usage  till  the  Council  of  Nicsea. 

The  period  between  Easter  and  Pentecost  ("Whitsuntide)  was  observed 
as  a  continued  festival,  during  which  prayer  was  always  made  standing, 

the  communion  was  received  daily,  and  fasting  was  given  up. 
Whitsuntide. 

'  Ascension  Day  was  apparently  first  observed  in  a  special  manner 

in  the  third  century.     Christmas  and  saints'  days  were  not  kept  till  later. 

Coming  now  to  the  official  members  of  the  Church,  the  growth  of  a 

hierarchy  or  governing  priestly  class  followed  a  natural  and  rapid  course  of 

«.  »«.  evolution  in  these  early  centuries.      At  first  the  exercise  of  the 
Growth  of  the  J 

priestly     ministry  (outside  the  ranks  of  the  apostles)  was  a  direct  conse- 
quence of  gifts,    believed   to   be   imparted   by   the  Holy  Spirit. 
Those   marked   out   as  specially  qualified  for   giving   instruction,   leading 
worship,  and  administering  the  affairs  of  the  Church  were  inducted  to  their 
ministry  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  by  the  apostles  and  the  elders  already 
appointed,    in    a   Church   meeting.     Various   expressions   describing   these 
ministers,  such  as  prophets,  evangelists,  pastors,  teachers,  bishops  or  over- 
seers, presbyters  or  elders,  deacons,  etc.,  are  found  in  the  New  Testament, 
but  not  as  yet  quite  defined  in  their  functions  or  rank.     The  terms  bishop 
and  presbyter  (elder)  are  mostly  used  interchangeably ;  but  the  latter  term 
alone  is  used  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  and  where  we  read  of 
bishops  of  a  Church  it  is  always  in  the  plural.     The  emergence 
of  the  office  of  bishop  as   the  chief  officer  of  a  large  Church  or  group  of 


CHRISTIANITY  PERSECUTED.  753 

churches  was,  however,  very  speedy,  although  the  two  terms,  bishop  and 
presbyter,  are  used  as  synonymous  by  Clement  of  Rome,  Polycarp,  and  even 
by  Irenseus.  Out  of  various  possible  modes  of  organisation,  one  gradually 
emerged  which  appeared  best  suited  to  the  conditions  of  the  Church.  But 
the  idea  of  the  priesthood  of  all  Christian  believers  remained  active  for  a 
considerable  time ;  and  Tertullian  says  that  where  there  were  no  ministers, 
any  Christian  administered  the  sacraments,  as  a  priest  to  himself  alone. 

But  Ignatius,  in  his  epistles,  already  recognises  the  full  dignity  of  the 
office  of  a  bishop,  and  the  three  orders  of  bishop,  priest  and  deacon ;  and 
by  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  the  ministry,  the  priestly  order,  the 
clergy,  are  ranked  as  a  distinct  order,  to  which  admission  could  only  be  had 
by  ordination.  Minor  orders,  such  as  those  of  sub-deacon,  acolyte,  exorcists, 
reader,  were  also  in  existence.  In  proportion  as  the  clergy  were  distin- 
guished from  the  people,  they  were  maintained  at  their  expense,  by  means  of 
weekly  collections  and  other  gifts.  With  all  their  ideas  of  commission  hy 
Divine  calling,  yet  the  people  chose  their  own  ministers,  though  they  might 
accept  the  nomination  of  the  bishop  or  priests  ;  and  it  is  remark-  Popular 
able  how  the  consent  of  the  entire  congregation  was  held  eleotion- 
necessary  to  an  appointment  during  the  first  three  centuries,  and  the 
election  of  Cyprian  to  the  bishopric  of  Carthage  by  popular  acclaim  is  a 
strong  case  in  point.  By  the  end  of  the  third  century  the  power  of  the 
bishops  was  largely  increasing ;  the  episcopal  office  in  its  entirety  was 
regarded  as  the  continuation  of  the  apostolical  office,  and  the  bishop  was 
the  "  vicar  of  Christ  "  to  the  churches  he  ruled.  "  Blessed  are  they  who  are 
one  with  the  bishop,  as  the  Church  is  with  Christ  and  Christ  with  the 
Father,''  says  Ignatius.  An  unbroken  episcopal  succession  was  most  highly 
valued.  Cyprian  describes  bishops  as  the  channel  or  medium  through  which 
the  Holy  Ghost  is  bestowed  on  the  Church  in  unbroken  succession.  "  The 
bishop,"  he  says,  "  is  in  the  Church,  and  the  Church  is  in  the  bishop,  and  if 
any  one  is  not  with  the  bishop,  he  is  not  in  the  Church."  But  he  regards 
the  entire  order  of  bishops  as  exercising  an  undivided  episcopate,  and  each 
bishop  as  representing  in  his  diocese  the  authority  of  the  whole  order.  So 
the  way  was  prepared  for  the  idea  of  the  visible  unity  of  the  Catholic 
Church. 

The  word  which  we  render  "  parish  "  at  first  signified  the  sphere  of  a 
bishop's  action  ;  the  term  diocese  arose  in  Constantine's  time.     Bishops ,  of 
central  meeting-places  were  termed  metropolitans,  and  those  of  Pariall  and 
the    most    important    churches,    such    as     those     of    Antioch,     Diocese. 
Alexandria,  and  Rome,  were  early   known   as   archbishops  or   patriarchs. 
Gradually  the  superior  influence  of  the  Church  and   Bishop  of 
Rome  grew  in  accord  with  its  central  position  and  its  being  the  Archbishop, 
seat  of  the  empire,  and  of  the  supposed  bishopric  of  St.  Peter,   Patriarcl1- 
and   also  its   supposed   foundation   by  St.  Paul.     Irenaeus,  at   the  end  of 
the  second  century,  gives  the  Church  of  Rome  precedence  as  x^e  Bishopric 
being  the  chief  centre  of  apostolical  tradition  derived  from  Peter     of  Rome- 
and  Paul.     Cyprian  calls  the  Church  of  Rome  "  The  chair  of  St.  Peter  and 

3  c 


754 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  chief  church,  the  source  of  the  unity  of  the  priesthood,  the  root  and 
mother  of  the  Catholic  Church,"  yet  he  writes  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome  as  his 
brother  and  colleague,  not  as  Father  (Papa,  or  Pope).  This  latter  was  not 
used  as  the  special  title  of  the  bishops  of  Rome  till  the  fifth  century. 

The  unity  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church  was  held  by  the  great  fathers  of 
the  second  and  third  centuries  as  an  indisputable  and  natural  fact,  spring- 
Unity  of  the  ing  from  unity  with  Christ.     During  the  conflicts  with  heresy, 
church,     the  need  for  the  exclusion  of  the  heretics  became  prominent. 
Tertullian's  sentence,  "  Outside  the  Church  there  is  no  salvation,"  has  already 
been  quoted.     Irenseus  wrote :  "  The  Church  is  the  dwelling-place  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  on  earth  ;  where  the  Church  is,  there  is  also  the  Spirit  of  God  ; 
and  where  the  Spirit  of  God  is,  there  is  the  Church  and  all  grace."    As  yet  this 
unity  had  not  been  evidenced  in  any  universal  council ;  but  it  was  believed 
that  the  Councils  or  synods  which  were  assembled  from  time  to  time  in 
important  centres  were  specially  guided  by  Divine  grace  in  their  decisions. 
In  some  of  these  presbyters  and  even  the  laity  took  part.      Thus  in  the  first 
ages  the  main  outlines  of  the  whole  scheme  of  the  Church  were  elaborated 
as  necessity  arose  ;  and  it  is  astonishing  to  find  how  much  the  ground  of 
recent  controversies  on  church  organisation  was  anticipated  by  the  wisdom 
of  the  first  three  centuries. 


GROUND    PLAN    OF    ST.    SOPHIA,    CONSTANTINOPLE. 


INTK1U0B    SECTION    OF 


SOPHIA,    CONSTANTINOPLE. 


CHAPTER  V. 
CIntetiamtp  as  a  £>tate  Cfnurb :  Jfourtf)  Cniturjn 

The  Emperor  Constantine— The  Edict  of  Milan— Constantinople— The  Donatists— Arius  and  Arian- 
ism— The  Council  of  Nicsea— Athanasius— Later  victories  of  Arianism— Death  of  Arius -Exile 
of  Athanasius— Julian  the  Apostate— Athanasius  in  power— His  writings  and  character— The 
Athanasian  Creed— Arianism  in  the  West— Council  of  Constantinople— Ambrose— Hermits— St. 
Anthony— St.  Symeon  Stylites— Pachomius,  Founder  of  Monasteries— St.  Martin  of  Tours— 
Eusehius— Basil— Gregory  of  Nyssa— Gregory  Nazianzen— St.  John  Chrysostom— Epiphanius, 
Cyril,  Ephraem— Lactantius— Jerome— Christianity  beyond  the  Empire— The  Goths— Ulfilas— 
Christianity  as  a  State  Church— Influence  of  the  Emperors— Power  of  Bishops— Power  of 
Clergy— Deacons— Exarchs  and  Primates— The  See  of  Rome— Rise  of  the  Papal  Power. 

rp HE  Emperor  Constantine  had  strong  leanings  to  the  old  gods  and  the 
-L  old  Roman  religion,  and  it  was  not  till  32-i  that  he  formally  professed 
Christianity,  and  recommended  his  subjects  to  adopt  it.  Yet  he  dedicated 
his  new  City  of  Constantinople  (324)  jointly  to  the  God  of  the  Tbe  Emperor 
Martyrs  and  the  Goddess  Fortune,  while  his  coins,  stamped  on  constantine. 
the  one  side  with  the  monogram  of  Jesus,  on  the  other  bore  an  image  of  the 
Sun  God.  He  kept  the  Roman  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus  (Chief  Pontiff) 
and  was  not  baptised  till  he  was  near  death.  Consequently  some  deny  to 
Constantine  the  title  of  Christian ;  yet  he  undoubtedly  was  its 


p 


steadfast  protector  and  promoter.  For  details  of  his  celebrated 
(and  probably  fabulous)  dream,  in  which  he  saw  a  cross  in  the 
heavens  with  the  legend,  "  By  this  conquer,"  followed  by  the 
appearance  of  Christ,  we  must  refer  to  secular  history.  To  this  dream  is 
traced  his  adoption  of  the  monogram-cross  on  his  standard  called  Ldbarum. 
the  cross  representing  the  two  leading  letters  X  (CH)  and  P  (R)  in  the 
Greek  name  of  Christ.  This  monogram  was  very  largely  used  on  the 
shields  and  helmets  of  soldiers,  on  coins  and  guns,  as  an  amulet,  etc.,  but 
it  almost  certainly  dates  from  an  earlier  time  than  Constantino's. 

We  may  here  give  some  of  the  clauses  of  the  Edict  of    Milan  (313) 
which  first  granted  universal  toleration  in  religion.     It  granted  "  both  to 
the  Christians  and  to  all,  the  free  power  of  following  the  religion  The  Edict  of 
which  each  chose,  and  that  none  who  should  give  his  mind  to      Miian. 
the  rites  of  the  Christians,  or  to  that  religion  which  he  thought  fittest  for 

7c  5 


756 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


himself,  should  at  all  be  denied  its  exercise."  Later,  Constantino  exempted 
Christian  ministers  from  all  military  or  civic  services,  abolished  numerous 
laws  and  customs  that  were  specially  objectionable  to  Christians,  gave 
facilities  for  setting  Christian  slaves  free,  made  bequests  to  churches  legal, 
and  contributed  largely  to  their  building ;  had  his  sons  educated  in 
Christianity,  ordained  the  civil  observance  of  Sunday,  and  removed  the 
symbols  of  the  Roman  gods  from  his  coins.  Among  his  principal  advisers 
were  Hosius,  Bishop  of  Corduba  (Cordova),  in  Spain,  as  early  as  313 ;  and 

later,  Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Csesarea, 
the  great  church  historian,  and  Lac- 
tantius,  often  called  the  Christian 
Cicero. 

Constantinople  was  from  the 
first  a  Christian  city,  adorned  with 
constanti-  churches  and  crucifixes, 
nopie.  an(j  pictures  from  sacred 
history.  Constantino  not  only  at- 
tended Christian  worship,  but  him- 
self wrote  and  delivered  addresses 
strongly  in  favour  of  Christianity, 
calling  himself  the  Bishop  of  bishops. 

"We  must  pass  lightly  over 
TheDonatists.„.  . r  ,         °.      J . 

Constantme  s  action  m  re- 
ference to  the  Donatist  schism  in 
Africa.  His  intervention  was  first 
sought  by  the  Donatist  party,  and 
after  the  Council  of  Aries  (314),  and 
the  Emperor  himself  at  Milan  (315), 
had  pronounced  against  the  Donat- 
ists,  and  for  the  Catholic  party  which 
held  the  Romish  Church,  yet  he  was 
so  far  tolerant,  when  they  stood  firmly 
to  their  principles,  as  to  grant  them 
full  liberty  of  faith  and  worship. 

A  more  famous  controversy  led 
to  the  summoning  of  the  first  of  the 
Arius  and  great  Christian  Councils 
Arianism.  known  as  oecumenical,  that 
of  Nicsea,  in  325.  This  was  the  Arian  controversy,  which  centred  about  the 
teaching  of  Arius  (256-336),  a  native  of  Libya,  who  first  became  notable  by 
attacking  the  moderation  of  Peter,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  towards  the 
lapsed.  Arius,  then  a  deacon,  was  excommunicated  by  Peter,  but  was 
restored  and  ordained  presbyter  by  his  successor,  Achillas.  A  still  later 
bishop  of  Alexandria,  named  Alexander,  was  charged  with  Sabellianism 
by  Arius,  who  brought  forward  views  which  may  be  traced  to  those  of  Paul 
of   Samosata,   and   maintained   that   the   Son   was  created  by  God  out  of 


ATHANASIUH. 


CHRISTIANITY  AS  A    STATE    CHURCH. 


757 


mMa  IeMSmS-hs 


Atlianasius. 


nothing,    and   afterwards   created  the  world,  and   was   invested    in    large 
measure  with  Divine  power.     Against  him  Alexander  maintained  the  unity 
or  identity  of  substance  (Homoousia)  of  the  Father  and  the  Son.     Having 
been  condemned  by  a  Council  of  Egyptian  and  Libyan  bishops,  Arius  went 
to  Nicomedia,  where  the  Bithynian  bishops  declared  his  views  orthodox. 
Thence  he  issued  works  of  various  kinds  in  support  of  his  belief,  and  the 
whole  Church  was  shaken  so  much,  that  in  324  the  Emperor  Constantino 
addressed  the  Alexandrian  Church  in  terms  of  great  solicitude,  begging  for 
the  return  of  peace.      This  proving 
unavailing,       Constantine  The  council 
conceived  the  plan  of  call-    of  Nic£ea- 
ing    a    general    council,    which    as- 
sembled at  Nicsea  in  325.    The  Latin 
Churches   sent   only   seven   bishops, 
and    Sylvester,    of    Rome,   was   not 
present,  though  represented  by  two 
presbyters.     In   all  there  wrere  over 
318  bishops  at  Nic?ea,  including  the 
Patriarchs  Alexander  of  Alexandria, 
and  Eustathius  of  Antioch.     In  the 
debates  which  followed,  Atlianasius, 
Archdeacon  of  Alexandria, 
became  conspicuous  as  an 
antagonist  of  Arius.     The  party  of 
Arius  was  in  a  great  minority,  but 
he    defined   his  doctrine  with  great 
clearness,  not  only  maintaining  the 
finite  existence  of  the  Son,  but  also 
denying  that  He  was  immutable  or 
incapable  of  sin.     A  moderate  party, 
led  by  Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  was  in 
favour  of  declaring    the  divinity  of 
Christ  in   words   derived    from   the 
New   Testament ;    but   the  majority 
insisted   on   declaring    the   full   Ho- 
moousian  doctrine,  and  embodied  it 
in  the  famous  Nicene  Creed,  as  far  as 
the  words  "  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost " ; 
the  rest  of  the  Creed  having  been  added  by  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in 
381.     Arius  was  banished  to  Illyria,  his  books  were  burnt,  and  other  severe 
penalties  were  decreed  against  him  and  his  followers.  The  power  of  the  State 
was  thus  formally  used  against  heretics  for  the  first  time.     Yet  when  Con- 
stantine was  approaching  death,  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  induced  him 
to  recall  Arius,  who  drew  up  a  creed  which  satisfied  the  Emperor,  victories  of 
and  the  semi-Arian  party  of  Eusebius  regained  their  influence  at        a   sm' 
Court.    At  Alexandria,  Atlianasius  became  bishop  on  the  death  of  Alexander, 


ST.    GKEGORY    OF    NY88A. 


75S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


and  refused  to  re-admit  Arms  to  communion,  as  he  had  been  condemned  by 
the  oecumenical  council.  But  after  several  attacks  had  been  made  against 
him,  Athanasius  was  banished  by  the  Emperor  to  Treves  (336) ;  his  Church 
still  refused  to  receive  Arius.  The  latter  was  about  to  be  received  back  by 
Death  of  the  Church  of  Constantinople,  when  he  was  suddenly  taken  ill  and 
Arius-  died  (336).  He  was  acknowledged  to  be  of  an  unblemished  moral 
character,  modest  in  demeanour,  and  ascetic  in  life.  The  controversy  became 
even  fiercer  after  his  death ;  an  Arian  bishop  was  afterwards  appointed 
to  Alexandria,  and  Athanasius  was  condemned  by  successive  synods  and 
Exile  of  councils,  and  exiled  more  than  once  (343,  356),  while  the  Arians 
Athanasius.  vi0ient]y  persecuted  the  Catholics.  Meanwhile  the  followers  of 
Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  after  his  death,  became  a  distinct  party  called  the 
//omojousians,  the  term  expressing  the  belief  that  the  essence  or  substance 
of  the  Son  was  like,  though  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  Father  ;  they  also 
held  that  the  Son  was  like  the  Father  in  all  things,  and  was  not  a  creature, 
but  begotten  as  a  Son  before  all  worlds.  This  doctrine  was  adopted  by  the 
majority  of  Eastern  bishops.  The  Arians  became  more  pronounced  than 
Arius,  emphasising  the  view  that  the  Son  was  a  creature,  and  unlike  the 
Father  both  in  substance  and  in  will.  A  series  of  councils  vainly 
endeavoured  to  compose  these  theological  differences. 

The  Emperor  Julian,  a  grandson  of  Constantius  Chlorus,  though 
educated  in  Christianity,  renounced  it  before  being  named  Caesar  in  355, 
Julian  the  and  when  he  succeeded  to  the  empire  in  361,  he  proclaimed  his 
Apostate.  pagan  faith,  while  granting  universal  toleration.  But  he  took 
away  from  Christianity  all  the  peculiar  honours  granted  by  Constantine, 
and  renewed  the  worship  of  the  old  gods  at  great  cost.  He  encouraged  the 
Jews,  as  being  enemies  of  Christianity,  and  forbade  Christians  to  teach 
rhetoric  and  grammar  in  schools.  He  even  attempted  to  remodel  the  pagan 
priesthood,  and  to  moralise  the  old  mythology.  Comparatively  few  persons, 
except  his  immediate  flatterers,  followed  Julian  in  his  return  to  heathenism, 
and  his  name  was  branded  as  Julian  the  Apostate. 

The  impartiality  which  Julian  boasted  had  one   important  effect,  in 
taking  away  from  the  Arians  the  advantages  they  had  gained.     The  exiled 
Athanasius  Catholic  bishops  returned  to  their  dioceses  (361),  and  Athanasius 
in  power.    was  restored  to  his  see  of  Alexandria,  only  to  be  again  banished 
on  a  frivolous  pretext  in  362.     But  Julian's  death  in  363  restored  the  supre- 
macy to  Christianity,  and  the  new  emperor  Jovian  adopted  the  Nicene  creed 
and  gave  Athanasius  a  leading  place  in  his  councils.      The  great  bishop 
remained  in  possession  of  his  see  till  his  death  in  373.     Most  of  his  writings 
were  in  defence   of  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the    Trinity.     They  include 
His  writings  "  Orations  against  the  Arians,"  a  treatise  on  "  the  Incarnation  of 
and       the  Word,"  and  "  Epistles  in  defence  of  the  Nicene  Creed,"  all 
written  in  a  clear  and  cogent  style.    All  historians  bear  testimony 
to  his  singular  ability,  conscientiousness,  and  judiciousness,  his  fearlessness 
in  the  midst  of  opposition,  his  patience  and  perseverance,  which  was  fitly 
summed  up  in  the  motto  "  Athanasius  against  the  World."     The  creed  to 


CHRISTIANITY  AS  A    STATE    CHURCH. 


759 


which  his  name  is  attached  probably  expresses  his  views,  but  it  is  not  known 
to  have  existed  before  the  sixth 


,;:7 


~~^  ■■ 


The 

century  or   even   later,   and   it  Athanasian 

Creed 
was  first  used  in  Church  ser- 
vices in  Gaul  in  the  seventh  century,  at 
Rome  in  the  tenth  century.  The  Greek 
Church  only  received  it  after  altering  the 
article  on  the  Procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost. 

After  many  fluctuations  and  much 
controversy,  Arianism  was  suppressed 
within  the  Roman  empire  by  Arianism  in 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century  tneWest- 
by  the  coercive  action  of  the  Emperors 
Theodosius  and  Yalentinian  II. ;  but  many 
of  the  Teutonic  converts  to  Christianity 
adopted  Arianism,  which  they  only  slowly 
gave  up,  the  Lombards  retaining  it  till  662. 

Theodosius  the  Great  (379-395)  on 
his  baptism  (380)  issued  an  edict  that 
none  should  be  recognised  as  Council  of 
Catholic  Christians  but  those  constanti- 
who  adopted  the  faith  in  the 
co-essential  Trinity.  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen,  who  had  distinguished  himself  as  an 
orthodox  teacher,  was  made  bishop  of 
Constantinople  (but  soon  resigned)  at  the 
council  of  Constantinople  (381),  to  which 
none  but  believers  in  the  Nicene  Creed 
were  summoned.  This  council  added  to 
the  creed  the  paragraph  describing  the 
nature  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  as  proceeding 
from  the  Father  (the  words  "  and  the 
Son  "  were  added  at  the  council  of  Toledo 
in  Spain,  a.d.  589),  and  His  equality  with 
the  Father  and  the  Son.  This  council 
also  condemned  the  Apollinarian  heresy, 
which  taught  that  Christ  possessed  a  real 
body,  but  that  the  "rational  soul  "  in  Him 
was  replaced  by  the  Divine  Logos. 

In  the  West  a  remarkable  man,  Am- 
brose,   prefect   of  Liguria,  was   called   to 

be  bishop  of  Milan  in  37-4  by     , 

i  i  -nil        Ambrose, 

the  popular  voice,  though  only 

a  layman  and  a  catechumen.     He  thereupon  sold  his  property  for  the  poor, 

and  led  an  ascetic  life.     He  was  the  first  bishop  who  censured,  withstood, 


ST.    ANTHONY. 


760 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


and  overawed  emperors,  and  maintained  the  superior  rights  of  the  Church. 
Miracles  are  reported  in  connection  with  his  important  actions.  He  refused 
to  receive  the  Emperor  Theodosius  to  communion  after  his  massacre  of 
the  Thessalonians  in  390  until  after  he  had  spent  eight  months  in  penance 
and  seclusion,  and  had  granted  an  edict  forbidding  capital  punishment  to 
take  place  till  at  least  thirty  days  after  the  sentence.  He  died  in  397,  two 
years  after  Theodosius.  His  influence  on  Christian  hymnology  and  liturgical 
sayings  was  great,  and  several  of  his  hymns  are  extant.  He  procured  the 
confiscation  of  the  revenues  of  heathen  temples  and  the  withdrawal  of  most 
of  the  privileges  of  their  priests  arid  vestals.  In  382  the  emperor  Gratian 
removed  from  the  meeting-place  of  the  Eoman  senate  the  altar  of  the  goddess 
Victory,  on  which  the  senators  took  the  oath  of  fealty,  and  on  which  offer- 
ings were  made  at  every  meeting. 
The  old  sacrifices  were  forbidden,  and 
many  temples  were  destroyed.  In 
Alexandria  the  Serapeum  and  most 
other  temples  throughout  Egypt 
were  destroyed.  In  392  Theodosius 
issued  a  comprehensive  edict  against 
heathenism  of  every  description 
throughout  the  empire,  and  he  also 
exercised  strict  discipline  against 
Christian  heretics,  the  Manichseans, 
Arians,  and  all  others  not  recognised 
as  true  Catholics.  The  old  religion 
however  continued  to  have  many 
adherents,  as  is  made  evident  by  the 
frequent  decrees  against  them  during 
the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century ; 
and  the  Goths,  who  had  become 
Christians,  when  they  invaded  Greece 
and  Italy,  destroyed  many  temples 
and  altars  which  survived,  and  were 
more  zealous  against  heathenism 
than  the  Roman  Christians. 

During  all  this  period  monasticism  had  been  spreading.  From  the 
earliest  times  of  Christianity  there  had  been  a  strong  tendency  towards 
withdrawal  from  public  life  to  attain  greater  sanctity.  Some  of 
the  gnostic  sects  strongly  believed  in  asceticism,  celibacy,  and 
solitude.  Hermits  were  not  infrequent,  especially  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  in 
the  third  century.  Paul  of  Thebes  was  the  first  who  was  very  noted, 
uavmg  retired  to  the  desert  of  Upper  Egypt  in  251  in  his  twenty-third  year; 
he  is  said  to  have  lived  ninety  years  alone. 

St.  Anthonjr  is  the  great  founder  of  monasticism.  Born  of  Coptic 
parents  about  251,  in  Lower  Egypt,  in  270  he  sold  the  estate  left  by  his 
parents  and  gave  the  proceeds  to  the  poor,  and  adopted  an  ascetic  life,  with 


ST.    GREGOKY    NAZIANZEN. 


Hermits. 


CHRISTIANITY  AS  A   STATE   CHURCH. 


761 


the  rule,  "  Pray  without  ceasing,"  though  continuing  to  work.  Later  he 
lived  in  a  tomb,  in  a  ruined  castle  near  the  Red  Sea,  and  in 
a  cave  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea.  In  all  these  retire-  '  °ny" 
ments  he  was  attacked  by  sensual  temptations,  and  was  said  to  be  personally 
■  assailed  by  the  devil.  Ever  cheerful,  he  gave  advice  and  consolation  to  all 
comers,  and  was  said  to  have  worked  many  miracles.  He  hated  heresy, 
especially  Arianism,  and  in  351,  when  100  years  old,  appeared  in  support 
of  Athanasius,  at  Alexandria,  and  converted  many  heretics  and  heathens. 
He  died  in  356 ;  and  his  life,  written  by  Athanasius,  proved  a  powerful 
stimulus  to  the  monastic  life. 

St.  Symeon  Stjdites  was  the  first   of  a  type   of  solitary  monks  who 

practised  forms  of  voluntary  pain.     He  was  a  shepherd  who  is  said  to  have 

fasted  throughout  Lent  for  twenty-six 

successive   years.     In  423  st.  symeon 

he  betook  himself  to  a  soli-       y  1  es" 

tary  place  forty  miles  east  of  Antioch, 

where  he  stood   for  thirty-six  years 

on  the  top  of  a  pillar  surrounded  by 

a    railing,    sometimes    leaning,    and 

often  bowing  in  devotion.    The  pillar 

was   gradually  increased   in  height, 

till  at   last   it  was  thirty-six  cubits 

high.     Food  was  taken  up  to  him  by 

his  disciples  by  means  of  a  ladder. 

Here   he   preached   twice  a  day   to 

those  who  resorted  to  him,  and  gave 

counsel  to  kings  and  emperors.     He 

died  in  459. 

Developing  the  idea  of  monasti- 

cism  to  which  St.  Anthony  had  given 

such  vivid  life,  Pachomius,  Pachomiug> 

also  born  in  Lower  Egypt,  founder  of 
r         -1     -1    •       on-  •        monasteries, 

founded  111  62>o  a   society 

P  -i  •    1  j      •  ,  ,  -vr-,  ST.    JOHN    CHRYSOSTOM. 

ot  monks  on  an  island  m  the  Nile. 

The  order  grew  till,  when  the  founder  died,  in  348,  there  were  eight  or  nine 
societies,  numbering  3,000  members.  The  members  were  not  bound  by 
rigid  vows,  and  varied  manual  labour  was  mingled  with  religious  exercises. 
Three  lived  in  each  cell,  eating  in  common  but  in  silence,  making  their 
wants  known  by  signs.  Pachomius  also  established  a  cloister  of  nuns  under 
his  sister,  whom  he  did  not  allow  to  visit  him,  saying  that  she  should  be 
content  to  know  that  he  was  still  alive.  In  the  East,  especially  in  Pontus 
and  Cappadocia,  monasticism  grew  rapidly,  and  Basil  and  Gregory  Nazianzen 
made  the  monasteries  centres  of  religious  education.  In  the  West 
Athanasius  first  started  monasticism  into  vigorous  life,  and  it  wasst.  Martin  of 
attended  with  fewer  vagaries  of  asceticism  than  in  the  East.  St.  Tours- 
Martin  of  Tours,  a  zealous  destroyer  of  temples,  founded  the  first  monastery 


762  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

in  Gaul,  near  Poitiers,  and  while  Bishop  of  Tours,  led  a  monastic  life  at  the 

head  of  eighty  monks.     He  was  reported  to  have  conflicts  with  the  devil, 

and  to  have  three  times  raised  the  dead  to  life. 

We  cannot  dwell  on  the  many  names  of  eminent  Churchmen  during 

the  fourth  centu^  who  by  their  writings  and  teachings  settled  the  great 

Catholic  doctrines.     Eusebius  of  Csesarea  (270-340)  was  the  great 
Eusebius.  .  .  .  .         .  ,  .         . 

ecclesiastical  historian  of   his  time.     His  Life  of  Constantine  is 

extremely  eulogistic.  His  "  Prceparatio  Evangelica"  and  "  Demonstratio 
Evangelica"  are  of  high  importance,  and  storehouses  of  learning.  Basil 
the  Great  (329-379),  Bishop  of  Csesarea  in  Cappadocia,  an  ascetic, 
and  founder  of  a  hospital  for  lepers,  whom  he  did  not  fear  to 
kiss,  was  a  noble  example  of  Christian  fortitude.  When  threatened  with 
confiscation,  banishment,  and  death  by  the  Emperor  Valens  for  his  resistance 
to  Arianism,  he  said :  "  Not  one  of  these  things  touches  me.  His  property 
cannot  be  forfeited  who  has  none.  Banishment  I  know  not,  for  I  am 
restricted  to  no  place,  and  am  the  guest  of  God,  to  whom  the  whole  earth 
belongs.  For  martyrdom  I  am  unfit ;  but  death  is  a  benefactor  to  me,  for 
it  sends  me  all  the  quicker  to  God,  in  whom  I  live  and  move."  Among  his 
writings  were  365  epistles.  Though  Catholic  as  to  Arianism,  he  did  not 
take  the  highest  ground  about  the  Deity  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  thus 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  high  Catholics. 

Gregory  of  Nyssa  was  the  younger  brother  of  Basil,  and  a  voluminous 
and  acute  writer.    Among  his  more  important  works  were  a  great  catechism 
Gregory  of  °f  Christian  doctrine,  and  a  book  on  "  The  Soul  and  the  Resur- 
Nyssa.      rection."     He  believed  in  the  final  redemption  of  all  intelligent 
creatures.      Gregory  Nazianzen  (330-391),  the  bosom  friend  of  Basil,  was 
Gregory     most   noted   for  the   eloquence  of   his   orations,    especially   five 
Nazianzen.  delivered  at  Constantinople  in  defence  of  the  Nicene  belief.     He 
is  esteemed  only  second  to  John   Chrysostom,  who  was  born  at  Antioch 
st.  John    a.d.  347,  and  chosen  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  398.      His 
Chrysostom.  eloquence  won  him  his  surname  Chrysostom  (golden-mouthed) ; 
and  he  was  unsparing  in  denouncing  the  hypocrisy  of  the  court  of  the 
Emperor  Arcadius,  successor  of  Theodosius  I.,  and  the  vices  of  his  age.     He 
was  more  than  once  banished  by  court  influence,  and  died  during  a  com- 
pulsory journey  to  the  east  of  the  Black  Sea,  in  407.     He  wrote  more  than 
600  homilies,  242  letters,  and  many  other  works. 

Epiphanius  (died  403),  a  Jewish  convert,  wrote  three  important  works 

against  heresies.     Cyril,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  (died  386),  wrote  an  important 

„  .  .  catechetical   work  on  Christian  theology.     Ephraem  the  Syrian, 

Epiphanius,  §  .  .  r_ 

Cyril,      the  great  divine  and  poet  of  the  Syrian  Church  (died  379),  wrote 

commentaries  in  Sj'riac  on  the  whole  Bible,  and  hymns  that  were 

long  popular. 

Lactantius   (died   330)   was   the    earliest   great   Father   of    the   Latin 

Church,  and  the  tutor  of  Constantino's  son  Crispus  in  Gaul.     His  "  Divine 

.    .     .,      Institutes "  is  a  great  refutation  of  heathenism  and  defence  of 
Lactantius.  ...  ° 

Christianity,  full  of   eloquence.      Hilary   of  Poitiers  (died  368), 


CHRISTIANITY  AS  A    STAIE    CHURCH.  76; 


called   the   Athanasius  of  the  West,  wrote  a  great  work  on  the  Trinity. 

Hieronymus,  commonly  known  as  St.  Jerome  (340-420),  one  of  the  greatest 

and  most  learned  of  the  Fathers,  combined  with  his  great  ability 

and  zeal,  much  bitterness,  pride,  love  of  power,  and  irritability. 

Born  011  the  borders  of  Dalmatia  and  educated  at  Rome  in  profane  learning. 

on  receiving  Christian  baptism  about  370  he  became  an  ascetic,  and  travelled 

to   the  East,    coming   under    the    influence   of    Gregory    Nazianzen,    and 

acquiring  much  Greek  and  Hebrew  learning.     In  382  he  went  to  Rome  and 

assisted  Bishop  Damasus  in  his  correspondence.     By  this  bishop's  suggestion 

Jerome  began  to  revise  the  Latin  version  of  the  Bible,  which  became  the 

foundation    of    the    Vulgate,    and    which    he    afterwards    completed    at 

Bethlehem,  translating  the  Old  Testament  directly  from  the  Hebrew.     He 

was  a  successful  promoter  of  monasticism  at  Rome,  and  had  many  disciples 

among  noble  ladies  whom  he  incited  to  celibacy,  beneficence  and  asceticism, 

and  whom  he  praised  extravagantly.     The  widow  Paula  and  her  maiden 

daughter   Eustochium    were   among   his   intimates,    and    were    made   the 

occasion  for  reproaching  him.     He  left  Rome  for  the  East  in  3S5,  followed 

by  these  ladies,  and  in  386-7  they  settled  at  Bethlehem,  already  a  centre  of 

religious  devotees.     His  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures  was  denounced  as  a 

corruption,  and  as  a  daring  innovation.      He  died  in  420,  leaving,  besides 

his  translations,  commentaries  on  many  books  of  the  Bible  and  numerous 

letters  and  religious  tracts. 

Early  in  the  fourth  century  Christianity  was  introduced  into  Ethiopia 

(Ab3rssinia),   and   Frumentius,  ordained    by   Athanasius,    became   the  first 

bishop  of  Axum.     In  the  middle  of  the  century  the  Gospel  was       .      nlt 

preached  in  Arabia,  and  even  reached  India.     In  Persia  it  main-  beyond  the 

tained  the  ground  gained  in  earlier  centuries,    and    Christians       mPire- 

were  tolerated  for  long  periods  or  persecuted,  according  as  peace  or  war 

prevailed  between  Persia  and  the  Roman  Empire.     The  Goths,  first  evaiir 

gelised    by    Roman    captives,    were    represented    by   a   bishop, 

Theophilus,  at  the  Council  of  Nicsea.     Ulfilas,  his  successor  (348), 

descended  from  Cappadocian  captives,  led  a  large  number  of  Christian  Goths 

across  the  Danube  to  ask  protection  from  the  emperor  (355)  from  tyranny  at 

home ;  and  his  labours  in  Moesia  were  invaluable.     He  invented 

'  .  ....  Ulfilas. 

an  alphabet  for  the  Moeso-Gothic  language,  reduced  it  to  writing, 

partially  translated  the  Scriptures  into  it,  and  was  largely  instrumental  in 

spreading  Arianism  among  the  Gothic  people,  who,  when  they  conquered 

Rome,  cruelly  persecuted  the  orthodox  Catholics. 

Christianity  as  a  State  Church  largely  influenced  politics,  and  was  itself 

in  turn  influenced  by  the  State.     It  was  not  that,  as  in  so  many  other  cases, 

State  and  religion  rested  upon  one  common  basis,  the  ruler  being  Christianitv 

either  ex-officio  priest  or  inseparably  connected  with  the  priestly       as  a 

1  mi        nv   ■  i.-  •     i.    -u        j\-       1    •  i.1  ^  State  Church, 

class.       The  Christian  priest  based  his  claims  upon  the  unseen, 

upon  a  Divine  revelation  independent  of  any  earthly  power,  and  had  a 

standpoint  from  which  he  could  impartial^  judge,  censure,  denounce,  or 

approve  of  earthly   potentates  :    and  he  did  not  fear   death  or  temporal 


764  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

penalties  in  comparison  with  his  hope  of  heaven  and  dread  of  hell.  Naturally 
the  clergy  wished  to  direct  public  events  to  favour  the  ends  they  believed 
righteous  ;  but  they  not  infrequently  fell  under  the  temptation  to  gain  court 
influence  of  influence  by  servile  behaviour.  Consequently  the  emperors  as- 
the emperors.  sume(j  a  sor{.  0f  guardianship  of  the  Church,  and  an  attitude  of 
watchfulness  against  the  spread  of  erroneous  opinions,  which  really  acted  as 
a  check  to  freedom  of  thought  and  opinion.  But  the  emperors  were  seldom 
original  thinkers  in  religion,  and  depended  upon  one  or  other  party  in 
religious  thought  or  political  questions.  Yet  they  did  not  hesitate  to  sum- 
mon councils  of  the  Church  and  even  to  preside  at  them,  and  to  enforce  their 

Power  of    decisions  as  if  they  were  State  laws.      Religious  disputes  were 

bishops.  again  and  again  brought  for  decision  to  the  imperial  courts,  and 
one  party  at  least  always  found  it  advantageous  to  have  the  support  of  the 
physical  force  wielded  by  the  Empire.  The  bishops  even  gained  a  sort  of 
civil  authority  in  regard  to  religious  questions  referred  to  them,  for  the 
governors  and  magistrates  were  ordered  to  carry  out  their  decisions. 

With  this  influence  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  clergy  began  to  claim 
exemption  from  civil  law,  and  to  demand  that  they  should  be  judged  only  by 
their  spiritual  peers.  But  they  also  exerted  a  humanising  effect  over  the 
laws  and  their  administration,  and  often  interceded  for  offenders,  gaining 

Power  of    respite  for  them  that  they  might  by  prayer  and  penance  make 

clergy,     peace  with  heaven,  protecting  those  who  resorted  to  the  churches 

for  asylum.      Even  in  these  respects  abuses  crept  in,  and  some  made  gain 

out  of  their  intercessions,  or  protected  gross  criminals  without  reason.     As 

the  Church  increased  in   wealth  and  influence,  many  entered  the  ministry 

from  motives  of  ambition,   especially  in  the  great  cities,  and   there  was  a 

tendency  to  seek  gifts,  legacies,  etc.,  from  the  wealthy.      Bub  many  bishops 

and  clergy  showed  conspicuous  munificence  and  self-denial,  and  by  their 

labours  for  the  poor,  by  building  hospitals,  redeeming  captives  and  other 

pious  works,  showed  the  reality  of  their  Christian    profession. 
Deacons.  .  J  r 

Deacons  gained  more  and  more  influence,  and  had  enlarged 
spiritual  functions,  being  sometimes  permitted  to  preach  and  baptise,  though 
as  yet  forbidden  to  administer  the  Eucharist.  One  of  their  number  presided 
in  each  church,  was  termed  archdeacon,  and  often  succeeded  to  the  bishopric. 
The  marriage  of  the  clergy  became  less  frequent  in  this  century,  especially 
in  the  West. 

As  the  clergy  rose  in  esteem,  so  the  bishops  became  more  and  more 
elevated  above  the  clergy,  and  were  less  subject  to  popular  election.  Em- 
perors, other  bishops,  canons  which  fixed  the  qualifications  of  bishops, 
accusations  by  factions,  all  had  much  influence  in  these  appointments.  The 
Exarchs  and  superior  bishops  of  Constantine's  thirteen  dioceses  gained  the  title 
Primates.  0f  Exarchs  in  the  East  and  Primate  in  the  West.  We  have 
already  seen  that  the  bishops  of  Rome,  Antioch,  and  Alexandria  were 
recognised  by  the  Council  of  Nicasa  as  presiding  over  the  Western,  the 
Eastern  and  the  African  Churches  respectively.  The  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople (381)  assigned  to  that  diocese  precedence  next  to  Rome.      It  was  not 


CHRISTIANITY  AS  A    STATE    CHURCH. 


765 


till  451  that  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  gave  to  these  four  chief  bishops  the 
title  of  Patriarch  and  Pope  (Papa).  The  See  of  Rome  at  first  The  see  of 
gained  its  dignity  more  as  being  the  bishopric  of  the  ancient  Rome- 
capital  of  the  Empire  than  as  the  See  of  St.  Peter.  The  council  which  met 
at  Sardica  in  Illyria  in  343  granted  that  bishops  might  appeal,  if  they 
desired  it,  from  a  synod  to  Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  but  if  this  required  to  be 
granted,  it  was  not  generally  acknowledged  as  a  right.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury the  Churches  generally  held  to  their  local  and  provincial  rights  against 
all  attempts  of  the  Roman  bishops  to  exercise  authority  over  them,  and  the 
Eastern  and  African  bishops  took  their  own  independent  course.  But  the 
transfer  of  the  seat  of  empire  to  Constantinople  and  elsewhere  made  the 
bishop  of  Rome  more  prominent,  and  by  reason  of  frequent  appeals  for  advice 
and  decision  from  conflicting  parties  in  the  East,  by  the  habit  of  referring 
questions  to  Rome  throughout  the  West,  and  by  constantly  taking  the 
orthodox  side,  the  Roman  bishop  became  more  and  more  a  pontiff,  exercising 
a  sort  of  imperial  power  in  the  Church.  Letters  (decretal  epistles),  Rlse  of  tije 
sent  from  Rome  in  answer  to  applications,  gave  directions  andPapal  Power- 
even  commands,  and  were  written  in  the  name  of  the  bishop,  who  gradually 
became  known  as  the  Pope.  The  fourth  century  placed  the  Church  in  a 
very  different  position  as  an  established  Church  from  that  which  it  had 
occupied  in  the  preceding  three  centuries. 


AXCHOKll'i:. 


bT.    AUGUSTINE    AND    MONICA. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

£l)e  Clwrri)  m  tl)e  jftft!)  airti  &>ixt\)  Centuries 

St.  Augustine— His  "  Confessions  " — His  conversion — Made  Bishop  of  Hippo — His  influence — Pelagius— 
Coelestius — Pelagianism  condemned— Semi-pelagianism— Theodore  of  Mopsuestia — Nestorius — 
Cyril— The  Council  of  Ephesus— The  Nestorians— Eutychesand  Dioscurus— The  Monophysite  con- 
troversy—The "  Robher-synod  "—Council  of  Chalcedon— Later  Monophysite  proceedings— Theo- 
doric— Justinian— Fifth  general  council— The  Monothelites— Sixth  general  council— The  Syrian 
Jacobites  —  The  Copts  —  The  Abyssinian  Church  —  The  Armenian  Church  —  Doctrines  —  The 
Mar onites— Christian  progress  among  Goths,  etc.— Conversion  of  Clovis— Increased  power  of  the 
Pope— Leo  I.— The  Pope  above  human  judgment -Relations  with  emperor— Development  of 
Clericalism— Monastic  life— St.  Benedict— The  Benedictine  Order — Basilican  churches — Memorial 
churches— Consecration— Relics— Crosses  and  crucifixes— Pictures  and  images — Worship  of  the 
Virgin— The  Saints  —  Pilgrimages— Opposition  to  new  practices  —  Jovinian — Vigilantius  —  The 
Creeds — Eastern  Liturgies — Western  Liturgies. 

TT1ROM  this  time  forward  we  find  a  marked  distinction  between  the 
_1_        questions  agitating  the  Church  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  pre- 

st.  Augus-  saging  the   separation  which  took  place  later.     We  will  speak 

tine.       ftrs£  0f  ^q  controversies  which  surround  the  famous  name  of  St. 

Augustine,  since  he  partly  belongs  to  the  fourth  century.     Aurelius  Augus- 


THE   CHURCH  IN  THE  FIFTH  AND   SIXTH   CENTURIES.      767 

tinus  was  born  not  far  from  Hippo,  in  Numidia,  in  354,  his  mother,  Monica, 
being  one  of  the  most  devout,  affectionate,  and  intellectual  women  who 
have  ever  lived.     His  education  was  considerable,  but  his  wayward  life  had 
more  influence  upon  his  subsequent  thoughts.    It  is  recounted  in  the  deeply- 
felt  "Confessions"  written  about  400,  and  acknowledged  as  a   His"Con- 
masterpiece  of   truthfulness    and   enthralling  interest.      "  Thou    fusions." 
hast  made  us  for  Thyself,"    it  begins,  "  and  our  heart  is  restless  till  it  rest 
in  Thee."     From  nineteen  to  twenty-six  he  was  a  Manichsean,  but  at  last 
found  the  doctrines  untenable,  and  the  lives  of  the  leaders  insincere.     After 
teaching  grammar  and  rhetoric  at  Carthage  he  went  to  Rome  in  383,  where 
he    became  sceptical,  in  384  migrating  to  Milan,   still  teaching  rhetoric. 
Here  he  was  a  hearer  of  Ambrose,  became  a  catechumen,  studied  St.  Paul's 
writings,  heard  of  the  lives  of  St.  Anthony  and  other  recluses,  and  finally  (in 
September,  386),  was  suddenly  converted  by  the  reading  of  Rom.     Hiscon- 
xiii.  13,  14,  "  Put  ye  on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  make  not  pro-     version, 
vision  for  the  flesh  to  fulfil  the  lusts  thereof."     While  on  her  way  back  to 
Africa  with  her  son,  Monica  died   at  Ostia ;  and  Augustine,  after  a  stay  at 
Rome,  returned  to  Carthage  in  388,  was  ordained  presbyter  in  391,  and 
Bishop  of  Hippo  in  393,  which  bishopric  he  held  for  thirty-five  Made  Bishop 
years,  gaining  a  position  second  to  none  in  the  African  Church.    ofHlPP°- 
He  died  in  430,  during  the  siege  of  Hippo  by  the  Vandals.     Among  his 
voluminous  works,   personal,  philosophical,  apologetic,  doctrinal,  practical, 
and  polemic,  we  must  mention,  besides  his  "  Confessions,"  his  "  Retracta- 
tions," written  in  427,  his  "  City  of  God,"  contrasting  the  transitory  cities 
of  earth  with  the  eternal  city  of  God,  his  "  Discourse  on  the  Apostles' 
Creed,"  his  books  "  On  the  True  Religion,"  and  on  "  Heresies,"  and  many 
controversial  tracts  and  discourses. 

Under  the  influence  of  St.  Augustine  the  canon  of  Scripture  was  settled 
in  its  present  form  (including  the  Apocrypha)  at  the  Councils  of  Hippo  (393) 
and  Carthage  (397).  His  exposure  of  Manichaeism  gave  that  system  its  death- 
blow ;  and  through  him  the  doctrine  of  the  double  procession  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  from  the  Father  and  the  Son  completed  the  Nicene  view  of  the 
Trinity.  He  took  the  Catholic  side  against  the  Donatists,  with  His  influ. 
their  strict  exclusiveness  and  painful  asceticism,  and  was  in  ence- 
favour  of  using  compulsory  measures  to  reclaim  them  from  their  errors. 
His  influence  on  the  development  of  almost  all  the  main  Catholic  doctrines 
was  great,  and  has  never  ceased.  Against  Pelagius,  he  asserted  the 
supreme  importance  of  the  Divine  influence  in  man's  redemption,  deriving 
all  human  desire  for  good  from  divine  grace,  so  that  the  entire  glory 
belonged  to  God. 

Pelagius,  a  British  monk,  born  about  350,  was  an  ascetic  who  especially 
exalted  the  human  self-reliant  element  and  the  power  of  man's  free  will  in 
his  elevation.     He  visited  Rome,  Africa,  Palestine,  etc.,  and  was    pel    iug 
opposed  by  both  Jerome  and  Augustine,  and  by  Orosius,  a  pupil 
of  Jerome's.     The  latter  accused  Pelagius  at  a  Synod  in  Palestine  ;   but  the 
dispute  was  referred  to  Rome.     Ccelestius,  a  convert  of  Pelagius  at  Rome, 


763 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


developed  his  system  intellectually,  and  the  heresies  with  which  he  was 

„  ,    „        charged  were  as  follows :    that  Adam  was  created  mortal,  and 

would  have  died  if  he  had  not  sinned ;  that  Adam's  fall  injured 

only  himself,  and  that  children  were  born  uninfluenced  by  his  fall  ;  and  that 

though   unbaptised,  children   dying  in   infancy  receive  eternal  life  ;  that 


there  were  sinless  men  before  Christ ;  and  that  the  human  race  does  not  die 
through  Adam's  fall.  Coelestius  was  condemned  twice  by  African  synods, 
Peiagianism  and  Pope  Innocent  I.  endorsed  the  condemnation.  Zosimus, 
condemned.  ^  SUCcessor,  at  first  approved  of  Coelestius  and  Pelagius,  and 
later  condemned  them,  ordering  all   who   maintained  their   views  to   be 


THE    CHURCH  IN  THE  FIFTH  AND   SIXTH   CENTURIES.     769 


excommunicated.  Coslestius  was  further  condemned  by  the  third  oecu- 
menical Council  at  Ephesus  (431).  But  the  Eastern  Church  did  not  adopt 
Augustine's  views,  and  held  a  position  (semi-pelagian)  midway  between 
Pelagianism  and  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  free  and  irresistible  semi-peia- 
grace  and  absolute  predestination.  John  Cassian,  a  founder  of  eianlsm- 
cloisters  for  men  and  women  at  Marseilles,  was  the  loader  of  semi-pela- 
gianism  in  the  West,  and  it  obtained  wide  favour  in  the  Gaulish  Church. 

The  Christological  controversies  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  which 
absorbed  so  much  attention  in  the  East,  though  they  also  affected  theology 
in  the  "West,  were  attended  by  so  much  non-religious  intrigue,  and  were  so 
intimately  connected  with  affairs  of  civil  history,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
recount  them  even  in  outline.  "We  must  barely  mention  the  most  notable 
names  connected  with  them,  and  the  conclusions  settled  by  councils  of  the 
( Jhurch. 

In  contradistinction  to  the  Apollinarians  (p.  759),  who  represented  Christ 

as  having  the  divine  Logos  in  place  of  a  rational  human  soul,  Diodorus, 

Bishop  of  Tarsus,  and  Theodore,  Bishop  of  Mopsuestia  in  Cilicia  Theodore  of 

<from  393  to  428),  ascribed  to  Christ  a  two-fold  personality,  with  Mopsuestia. 

perfectly  distinct  divine  and  human   natures.      Nestorius,   however,  who 

became  patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  428,  gave  his  name  to  this 

•  Nestorius 

party,  the  Nestorians.      Their  views  led  to  the  naming  of  the 

mother  of  Christ  ':  Theotokos,"  "'  mother  of  God,"  while  the  opposite  party 

termed  her  "  mother  of  man."      Nestorius  proposed  the  term   "  mother  of 

Christ,"   but  was  quite  as  bitCerly  attacked  as  the  Arians  had 

been.     Cyril,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  was  his  unbending  opponent. 

The  turbulent  but  indecisive  oecumenical  Council,  which  met  at  Ephesus 

in  431  under  Theodosius  II.  and  Valentinian  III.,  stigmatised  x^  council 

Nestorius  as  a  heretic,  and  he  was  deposed  ;   and  two  years  later,  of  Ephesus. 

433,  the  more  moderate  Nestorians  agreed  to  accept  the  term  "  mother  of 

God,"  in  consequence  of  the  union  without  confusion  of  the  divine  and 

human  natures  in  Jesus  ;   and  at  the  same  time  condemned  Nestorius,  who 

■died  in  439.     His  doctrines  were  still  taught  in  the  theological  school  of 

Edessa  in  Northern  Mesopotamia  until  its  dissolution  by  the  emperor  Zeno 

in  489. 

After  their  virtual  expulsion  from  the  empire,  the  Nestorians  travelled 

widely,  disseminating  their  rendering  of  Christianity  in  Persia,  India,  and 

"China,  and  later  in  Arabia,  S}rria,  and  Palestine.      In  the  sixth        The 

century  their  liturgy  was  translated  from  Greek  into  Syriac,  as  Nestorians. 

still  in  use.     They  were  considerably  favoured  by  the  Moslems,  and  had 

much  success  among  the  Mongols.     In  the  thirteenth  century  the  Roman 

Church  began  a  long  series  of  more  or  less  successful  missionary  efforts 

among  them,  by  which  many  were  converted,  especially  in  lool,  and  these 

are  under  a  patriarch  of  the  Chaldeeans,  nominated  by  the  Pope.      Those 

who  remain  true  to  their  ancient  theological  position  are  under  a  patriarch 

of  their  own;  the  Church  is  but  a  remnant  of  its  former  self,  numbering 

about  70,000  in  the  Kurdish  mountains  and  around  Lake  Urumiah.     They 

3  D 


77° 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


reject  the  name  and  the  doctrine  of  Nestorius,  and  call  themselves  Chal- 
dseans.  American  missionaries  have,  in  the  last  fifty  years,  made  great 
efforts  to  counteract  the  Eomish  propaganda,  and  have  printed  a  translation 
of  the  Bible  and  other  books  in  their  Aramaic  language  ;  and  there  are 
now  a  number  of  self-supporting  Protestant  Churches  formed  by  Nestorian 
converts. 

Although  in  past  times  the  Nestorians  produced  a  considerable  litera- 
ture, little  has  survived  except  the  Eituals  and  hymns.  There  are  three 
liturgies— those  of  Nestorius,  of  Theodore,  and  the  Apostles.  Forms  for 
daily  worship  are  appointed  to  be  said  four  times  a  day,  consisting  mostly 
of  prayers,  psalms,  and  readings  of  the  Scriptures.  In  all  essentials  the 
Nestorians  conform  to  the  Catholic  doctrines,  except  in  those  points  affected 

by  their  special  beliefs  as  to  the 
twofold  personality  of  Christ. 
They  recognise  the  Bible  as  their 
sole  rule  of  faith  ;  and  they  have 
never  practised  image-worship 
and  confession,  or  believed  in 
purgatory.  Their  patriarch  and 
bishops  abstain  from  animal  foodr 
and  are  celibates.  They  have  a 
special  annual  commemoration  of 
the  dead.  They  have  many  and 
prolonged  fasts  during  the  yearr 
which  are  strictly  observed. 
They  believe  in  apostolical  suc- 
cession, and  derive  their  orders 
from  the  original  foundation  of 
the  Church  in  Persia  by  two  of 
the  seventy  disciples  sent  forth 
by  Christ.  In  recent  years  cor- 
dial communication  has  been 
opened  up  between  the  Church 
of  England  paid  the  Nestorians, 
in  order  to  instruct  the  latter  in  Anglican  doctrines,  in  the  hope  of 
inducing  them  to  make  acknowledgments  such  as  would  enable  the  two 
Churches  to  enter  into  cordial  communion.  An  interesting  body  of 
Nestorians  still  exists  on  the  Malabar  coast  of  India,  named  after  St. 
Thomas,  to  whom  they  attribute  their  conversion.  They  use  a  Syriac 
liturgy,  and  acknowledge  the  spiritual  headship  of  the  Nestorian  patri- 
arch. 

The  next  great  controversy,  the  Eutychian,  had   for   its   theological 
leader  Eutyches  of  Constantinople,  who  held  that  Christ  after  His  incar- 
Eut  cues    nati°n  nad  only  one  nature,  which  was  the  nature  of  God  become 
man.     Thus  it  might  be  said,  "  God  is  born,  God  suffered,  God 
was  crucified  and  died."     Dioscurus,  Bishop  of  Antioch  (444-451), 


NESTORIAN    CROSS. 


and 
Dioscurus. 


THE    CHURCH  IN  THE  FIFTH  AND   SIXTH  CENTURIES.    771 


was  the  leader  in  action  of  this  "  Monophysite  "  (one  nature)  party.     Euty- 
ches,  attacked  by  Theodoret,  was  deposed  by  a  synod  at  Con-       The 
stantinople  (448),  which  declared   that  Christ   after   His  incar- Monophysite 

controversy, 
nation  consisted  of  two  natures  in  one  substance  and  one  person. 

This  belief  was  approved  by  Leo  L,  bishop  of  Eome  (440-461).     A  Council 

held  at  Ephesus  in  449  was  so  turbulent  as  to  be  called  "  the  The ..  Robber 

Synod  of  Robbers  "  ;  it  absolved  Eutyches  on  his  repeating  the     synod." 

Nicene  Creed,  and  deposed  and  excommunicated  Theodoret  and  even  Leo, 

its  decrees  being  ratified   hy  the  emperors    Theodosius   and   Valentinian. 

After  further  intrigues,  the  fourth  oecumenical  Council  was  held  at  The  councu 

Chalcedon,  opposite  to  Constantinople,  in  451,  and  was  attended of  Chalcedon. 

by  about  GOO  Eastern  bishops,  and  by  two  delegates  sent  by  Leo  of  Rome. 

The  proceedings  of  the  "Robber  Synod"  were  annulled,  Dioscurus  andEuty- 

ches  were  banished,  and  the  Nicene  Creed  was  adopted,  with  an  addition 

which  acknowledged  Christ  "in  two  natures,  without  confusion,  without 

severance,  and  without  division."     Finally,  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 

was  declared  to  rank  second  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  but  with  equal  rights. 

Leo,  however,  claimed  supremacy  for  the  See  of  Rome,  in  virtue  of  St. 

Peter,  its  alleged  founder. 

The   Chalcedon   declaration  was   at  once   impugned   widely,  and   its 
opponents,  who  maintained  the  oneness  of  Christ's  nature,  though  acknow- 
ledging  that   it  was  composite,  were  known   as   Monophysites.      Later 
They  proclaimed  that  "  God  has  been  crucified,"  and  altered  the  Monophysite 
Catholic  Sanctus  to  this  form:  "  Holy  God  !  Holy  Almighty  !  Holy 
Immortal !  who  hast  been  crucified  for  us,  have  mercy  upon  us !  "     New 
commotions  and  divisions  arose ;  an  attempted  compromise  by  the  emperor 
Zeno,  tacitly  giving  up  the  Chalcedon  declaration,  failed  ;  and  fresh  division 
of  parties  arose.  Meanwhile  the  Arian  Theocloric,  the  great  Gothic   Theodoric 
king  of  Italy,  had  proclaimed  the  tolerance  of  all  religious  rites, 
and  asserted  that  "we  cannot  impose  religion  by  command,  since  no  one  can 
be  made  to  believe  against  his  will." 

Justinian,  who  came  to  the  throne  of  Constantinople  in  527,  aimed  at 
restoring  the  glories  of  Church  as  well  as  Empire,  reclaiming  heretics,  and 
settling  the  orthodox   doctrines.     He  rebuilt  the  church  of  St.    JustiniaiL 
Sophia  (see  p.  555),  and  again  rebuilt  its  dome  after  an  earth- 
quake in  557  ;  for  its  service  he  appointed  sixty  priests,  one  hundred  deacons, 
forty  deaconesses,  and  other  officials  in  proportion. 

The  decrees  of  the  four  general  councils  were  made  part  of  the  imperial 
laws.  Justinian  condemned  the  Nestorian  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  and  the 
writings  of  Theodoret  against  Cyril,  in  the  decree  of  the  "  Three  Tiith  general 
Articles,"  which  ultimately  led  to  the  summoning  of  the  fifth  Councl1- 
general  Council  at  Constantinople  in  553,  with  no  Western  representatives  ; 
but  its  most  important  result  was  to  assert  the  independence  of  the  Eastern 
empire  and  Church  of  the  bishop  or  Pope  of  Rome.  The  Monophysites  were 
not  reconciled  to  the  Catholics  ;  but  when  Justin  II.  (565-578)  issued  an 
edict  of  toleration,  the  party  gradually  died  out  within  the  empire,  though 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


it  remained  active  beyond  the  empire  in  the  Coptic,  Syriac,  and  Armenian 
Churches. 

The  Monothelite  (one  will)  controversy  in  the  next  century  turned  on 
another  subtle  attempt  to  define  the  nature  of  Christ.  Sergius,  Patriarch  of 
The  Constantinople,  and  Theodore,  an  Arabian  bishop,  put  forward  the 
Monotheiites.  view  tliat  in  Christ  there  was  but  one  will,  and  one  life-giving 
operation,  the  Divine,  controlling  the  human.  In  649  Martin  I  Pope  from 
649  to  (355,  held  a  council,  at  which  the  doctrine  of  two  natural  wills  and 
operations,  the  Divine  and  the  human,  in  Christ  was  declared  ;  and  at  the 

sixth  general  sixth  general 
council.  Council,  held  at 
Constantinople  in  G80-1  — 
the  last  recognised  as  such 
by  all  Christendom  —  the 
Monothelite  doctrine  was 
condemned,  and  the  doc- 
trine of  two  wills  was 
finally  affirmed.  "  These 
two  natural  wills  are  not 
contrary,  but  the  human 
follows  the  Divine  and 
Almighty  will,  not  resist- 
ing or  opposing '  it,  but 
rather  being  subject  to 
it."  At  the  same  time  the 
Pope  Honorius  I.  (625-40) 
was  condemned  for  his 
declaration  in  favour  of 
one  will. 

Of    the    Monophysite 

Churches  still  existing,  the 

The  Syrian    Jacobite  is  the 

Jacobites.    ieast  numerous. 

It  accepts  the  decrees  of 
the  "Robber  Synod"  of 
Ephe.sus,  and  rejects  the 
Chalcedon  declaration.  It  is  scattered  over  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Baby- 
lonia, numbering  fewer  than  250,000  members.  It  was  founded  by  Jacobus 
Baradaeus  of  Telia,  consecrated  bishop  in  541  or  543,  and  thenceforward  an 
active  propagator  of  Monophysite  doctrines  for  forty  years.  The  head  of 
the  Church,  called  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  lives  at  Diarbekir.  The  members 
and  indeed  the  clergy  are  as  a  rule  very  illiterate  and  ignorant.  Many 
Jacobites  have  in  recent  years  entered  into  the  Roman  Catholic  communion, 
under  patriarchs  at  Aleppo  and  Damascus,  and  these  have  improved  greatly 
in  education  and  religious  knowledge. 

The  Copts  of  Egypt  are  very  closely  connected  with  the  Syrian  Jacobites, 


ABYSSINIAN    PRIEST    AND   DEACON. 


THE    CHURCH  IN  THE  FIFTH  AND   SIXTH  CENTURIES.    773 


dating  the  origin  of  their  monophysite  faith  from  Baradams.     They  have 

now  about  130  churches  and  monasteries.  They  have  a  patriarch, 
_  .  ,  ,  ,  ,  i  mi  .•  •  The  Copts, 

bishops,  arch-priests,  deacons,  and  monks.  Iney  practise  circum- 
cision at  the  age  of  eight  years.  They  are  but  a  remnant  of  the  ancient 
Coptic  Church,  having  undergone  very  severe  persecution  from  their  Moslem 
conquerors,  and  many  having  embraced  Islam.  As  early  as  the  time  of 
Pachomius,  the  Psalms  and  other  Scripture  books  were  translated  into 
Coptic ;  and  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  Bible,  several 
apocryphal  gospels,  gnos- 
tic works,  homilies,  mar- 
tyrologies,  etc.,  exist  in 
that  language. 

The  Abyssinian 
Church  was  founded  b}* 
Frumentius,  a  me  Abyssin- 
Tyrian  mer-  iancnurch. 
chant,  ordained  by  Atha- 
nasius  in  327,  and  after- 
wards first  Bishop  of 
Axutn,  in  Abyssinia.  Per- 
haps owing  to  the  long 
residence  of  Jews  in  Abys- 
sinia, Christianity  is  there 
more  mingled  with  Judaic 
elements  than  airywhere 
else.  Circumcision  of  male 
infants,  as  well  as  infant 
baptism,  is  practised ;  the 
Jewish  Sabbath  is  kept 
in  addition  to  Sunday  ;  a 
great  annual  festival  is 
kept,  when  the  whole  na- 
tion is  re-baptised ;  and 
pork  and  other  "  unclean  " 
food  is  strictly  abstained 
from. 


ABYSSINIAN"    TABOT,    OR    AKK. 


The  Abyssinian  Christians  are  zealous  for  the  Monophysite  doctrine. 
They  revere  saints,  religious  pictures,  and  the  cross,  but  not  the  crucifix  or 
images.  The  common  people  are  very  ignorant,  and  their  religious  notions 
are  almost  entirely  superstitious,  and  their  morals  are  little  influenced  by 
Christianity.  Yet  religious  controversy  is  rife  among  them,  and  it  is  said 
that  there  are  something  like  seventy  different  opinions  held  in  Abyssinia 
respecting  the  union  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ.  The  churches  in  the 
province  of  Tigre  are  square  buildings,  while  in  Lasta  and  Amhara  they 
are  circular.     Men  and  women  enter  b}*  separate  doors.     There  is  an  outer 


774 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


court  formed  by  the  projecting  eaves  of  the  roof,  and  supported  by  posts 
outside  the  main  wall ;  in  this  the  congregation  meet  to  sing  psalms. 
There  is  a  chamber  on  the  north-west  termed  the  "  house  of  bread  "  in 
which  the  priests  make  the  "bread  and  wine  for  the  sacrament.  There  is 
a   second  court  decorated  with  paintings  of  the  Virgin    and    saints,  and 

Scripture  scenes ;  and 
an  inner  court,  to  the 
east,  which  only  the 
priests  may  enter,  con- 
taining the  ark,  usually 
of  four  upright  wooden 
posts,  with  a  shelf  mid- 
way, on  which  one  or 
more  volumes  of  the 
Bible,  and  crosses  and 
censers  are  kept,  and  a 
stone  slab  at  the  bot- 
tom, carved  with  mystic 
lines,  and  inscribed  with 
the  name  of  the  patron 
saint  of  the  church. 
The  ark  is  kept  screened 
from  view  by  a  curtain, 
and  it  is  specially  re- 
verenced.   Bells  are  not 


used,  but  the  congrega- 
tion is  summoned  by 
two  pieces  of  stone  hung 
in  the  churchyard  be- 
ing knocked  together. 

The  Abyssinian 
"Abuna,"  or  chief 
bishop,  is  appointed  and 
consecrated  by  the  Cop- 
tic Patriarch  of  Alexan- 
dria. He  must  be  celi- 
bate, though  the  priests 
generally  are  married. 
The  numerous  monas- 
teries and  churches 
have  valuable  endowments ;  and  the  priests  also  receive  large  gifts  and  fees 
for  the  numerous  offices  they  perform  in  relation  to  almost  every  depart- 
ment of  life.  They  are  on  the  whole  unlearned,  and  do  not  allow  the 
people  to  read  the  Gospel  for  themselves,  but  confine  them  to  the  Psalms. 
Funerals  are  celebrated  with  much  religious  pomp.  The  whole  of  the 
Psalms  are  recited ;  the  funeral  procession  halts  seven  times  on  its  way  to 


CARVED    STONE    WITH    CROSS,    THE    GOSH    M.    RHITHAR    MONASTERY, 
ARMENIA. 


THE    CHURCH  IN  THE   FIFTH  AND   SIXTH  CENTURIES.    775 


the  churchyard,  when  incense  is  burned  and  prayers  are  offered ;  and 
prayers  for  the  dead  are  repeated  frequently  within  forty  days  after  burial. 
Anniversary  memorial  services  are  obligatory,  and  are  gone  through  with  a 
dummy  figure  on  a  bier.  Altogether  the  Abyssinian  Church  is  one  of  the 
most  degraded  forms  into  which  Christianity  has  degenerated. 

The  Armenian  Church  was  founded  by  Gregory  "  the  Illuminator," 
prince  of  the  reigning  family  of  Armenia  at  the  end  of  the  third  century. 
His  successors  took  the  title  of  Patriarch,  and  later  of  Catholicos.  The  Arme. 
The  Bible  was  translated  into  Armenian  in  the  first  half  of  the  nian  Cburch- 
fifth  century,  and  does  not  follow  any  known  text  of  the  Septuagint  or 
the  New  Testament.  Armenian  bishops  took  part  in  several  of  the  Church 
Councils.  Being  unrepresented  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (461),  the 
Armenian  Church  never  accepted  its  decisions,  and  in  491  their  Patriarch 
annulled  them.  From  this  point  the  Armenian  gradually  lost  touch  with 
the  orthodox  Church,  though  they  in  later  times  denied  that  they  held 
the  Eutychian  doctrine.  Their  bishops,  however,  attended  the  5th,  6th, 
and  7th  general  Councils.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  entrance  of  Jesuits 
into  Armenia,  who  made  many  converts,  occasioned  much  dissension.  The 
Catholic  Armenians  became  a  distinct  community  at  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

The  Armenian  Church  now  receives  protection  from  the  Czar  of  Russia, 
and  its  doctrines  are  almost  identical  with  those  of  the  Greek  Church,  deny- 
ing the  special  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  They  have  the 
seven  sacraments  :  (1)  baptism  by  immersion,  with  anointing  with 
holy  oil,  followed  by  the  eucharist ;  (2)  confirmation,  at  once  after  baptism ; 
(3)  the  eucharist  administered  in  both  kinds  to  all,  without  mixture  of 
water  with  the  wine  ;  (4)  penance— confession  with  fasting  ;  (5)  ordination, 
by  anointing  with  holy  oil  ;  (6)  marriage  ;  (7)  extreme  unction — the 
anointing  being  only  for  priests,  while  others  only  have  prayers  said  over 
them.  The  liturgy,  of  very  early  origin,  contains  the  Nicene  Creed  with  a 
damnatory  clause,  and  prayers  of  John  Chrysostom  and  Basil.  The  dead 
are  prayed  for,  though  the  Church  does  not  believe  in  purgatory  nor  grant 
indulgences.  Besides  Sundays  and  the  usual  holy  days  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  the  Armenians  observe  ten  national  saints'  days.  They  keep 
Christmas  on  the  Gth  of  January.  The  priesthood,  strangely  enough  in  a 
Christian  Church,  is  hereditary ;  during  the  lifetime  of  the  father  or  grand- 
father, the  heir  of  a  priestly  family  may  follow  a  secular  calling,  leaving 
it  at  the  death  of  the  priest  he  is  heir  to.  But  he  may  only  marry  before, 
not  after  ordination.  Only  the  monks,  called  black  clergy,  can  obtain  the 
higher  offices.  The  four  Armenian  patriarchs  have  their  seats  at  Constanti- 
nople, Jerusalem,  Sis  (Nisibis)  in  Cilicia,  and  Etchmiazin,  near  Mount  Ararat. 
The  Church  is  entirely  maintained  by  voluntary  offerings  of  the  people. 

The  Maronites,  of  Lebanon,  numbering  a  quarter  of  a  million,  originated 
more  especially  from  the  Monothelite  development  of  the  "  one       The 
nature  r'  controversy.     The  name  is  derived  from  Maro,  a  fourth-  Maronites- 
century  saint,  to  whom    a   great   monastery  in  the  valley  of  the  Orontes 


776 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


was  dedicated,  presided  over  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  century  by 
another  John  Maro.  His  preaching  and  zeal  diffused  Monothelite  doc- 
trines throughout  the  Lebanon  district,  in  which  many  Christian  refugees 
from  the  Mahommedans  gathered  together.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
twelfth  century  the  Maronites  were  for  the  most  part  reconciled  with  Borne, 
but  they  retain  their  own  Syriac  ritual,  communion  in  both  kinds,  and 
married  priests.  They  have  a  large  number  of  monasteries  and  convents. 
The  people  are  very  superstitious,  and  have  suffered  much  from  the  Druses, 
who  massacred  them  cruelly  in  1860.  (See  page  578.)  The  College  founded 
at  Rome  for  the  education  of  Maronites  has  produced  a  remarkable  family 


WEST    ENTRANCE,    MONASTERY    OF    ST.    MACAR,    ARMENIA. 

of  Oriental  scholars,  the  Assemanni.  A  small  remnant  of  the  Maronites  still 
reject  communion  with  Rome. 

In  the  West  the  Goths,  Vandals,  and  other  Teutonic  peoples  had 
accepted  Christianity  to  an  extent  which  was  considerably  softening  their 
Christian  ferocity,  and  making  possible  their  union  with  the  Latin  nations, 
gress  among  Retaining  many  of  their  old  superstitions,  often  accepting 
Christianity  merely  at  the  bidding  of  their  princes,  and  pro- 
fessing Arianism  for  the  «ame  reason,  they  persecuted  and  plundered  the 
Catholics  wherever  they  went.  Belisarius  (534),  the  great  general  of 
Justinian,  in  turn  destroyed  the  Arian  Vandals,  especially  in  Africa. 

Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  was  baptised  in  406  by  Bishop  Remigius 
(died  533),  at  Rheims,  and  took  the  Catholic  side.     Being  at  this  time  the 


THE    CHURCH  IN  THE   FIFTH  AND   SIXTH    CENTURIES.   777 

only  Catholic  monarch,  all  other  Christian  sovereigns  being  Arians  or 
Monophysites,  his  successors  on  the  Prankish  and  afterwards  conversion 
on  the  French  throne  received  the  title  of  Eldest  Son  of  the  ofclovls- 
Church.  Clovis  was  not  much  less  scrupulous  in  serving  the  ends  of  the 
Church  than  he  had  been  before  his  conversion,  but  thought  to  atone  for 
crimes  by  liberal  gifts  to  churches  and  monasteries.  He  died  in  511,  the 
year  in  which  the  first  Frankish  Church  Council  met  at  Orleans.  But  the 
purity  of  religion  degenerated  greatly  in  the  Frankish  kingdom.  Incredible 
miracles  were  alleged,  superstitious  and  showy  worship  increased,  while 
crime  did  not  diminish. 

Meanwhile  the  Popes  of  Rome,  at  first  oppressed  b}'  the  power  of  the 
Exarchs  of  Ravenna,  who  now  acted  as  imperial  viceroys  in  Italy,  were 
raising  their  pretensions  and  consolidating  their  power,  being  the 
only  strong  authority  left  in  Rome  itself.     Innocent  I.  (400-417 1  power  of  the 
asserted  jurisdiction  over  Eastern  Ulyricum,  and   claimed  that  all 
the  Western  Church  should  conform  its  usages  to  those  of  Rome.     Zosimus 
(417-8),  Boniface  I.  (418-423),  and  Celestine  I.  (423-432),  still  further  ad- 
vanced their  claims;  but  Leo  I.,  the  Great  (440-461),  was  the  most 
successful  asserter  of  the  papal  rights,  claiming  unbroken  apostolic 
tradition  on  behalf  of  everything  done  by  the  Church  at  Rome,  gaining 
the  submission  of  the  African,   Spanish,   and  Gaulish  Churches,  and  pro- 
curing from  the  Emperor  Valentinian  III.  a  law  which  declared  the  Bishop 
of  Rome  ruler  of  the  whole  Church  (445).    At  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  his 
legates  took  equal  presidency  with  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  in 
other  ways  he  paved  the  way  for  the  most  advanced  claims  of  medieval  Popes. 

During  the  Gothic  rule  over  Italy,  the  Popes  became  more  evidently 
the  pivot  of  the  Catholic  Church.    Theocloric.  called  upon  to  decide  between 
rival  Popes,  Symmachus  and  Laurentius,  decided  for  the  former  ;  and  when 
moral  charges  were  brought  against  Symmachus,  summoned  a  Council  of 
Italian  bishops   in  501  or   503,  which    acquitted  Symmachus,  because  of 
difficulties   which    "must    be  left  to  the  Divine  judgment."       Ennodius. 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Pavia,   in  a  Defence  of   the  Council,  developed  the 
principle  that  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  was  above  human  juclg-    The  p 
ment,  and  only  responsible  to  God ;  and  this  view  was  adopted  above  human 
\>y  the  sixth  Roman  Council,  held  by  Symmachus.     The  papal  JU  smet 
elections,  with  their  intrigues,  bribery,  and  strife,  gave  little  countenance  to 
the  idea  of  human  perfection  surrounding  the  papacy.     The  Popes  became 
dependent  upon  the  Emperors  for  their  confirmation  in  power,  in    Relations 
return  for  which  the  Popes  received  new  temporal  privileges.    The    with  the 
papal  ascendency  was  maintained  by  appeals  from  all  quarters,     mper 
answered  by  "  decretal  epistles/'  given  as  from  apostolical  tradition,   and 
asserted  as  being  of   universal  authority.      These  epistles,  together  with 
the    decisions   of   the  Councils  of    the    Church,    were  collected    about   the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century  by  Dionysius  Exiguns,  forming  a  standard  text 
of  Church   law.     Dionysius  also  framed  the  new   cycle  for    the  dates  of 
Easter,  adopted  at  Rome  in  525.  and  settled  the  system  of  dating  from  the 


773 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Christian  era,  which  he  placed  four  or  five  years  too  late.  The  most 
important  events  in  Christian  history  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 
are  the  renunciation  of  Arianism  by  the  Spanish  Church  at  the  Council  of 
Toledo  in  580,  the  election  of  Gregory  the  Great  as  Pope  in  590,  the 
mission  of  Augustine  to  Britain  in  59(3,  and  the  baptism  of  Ethelbert,  king 
of  Kent,  in  597.  But  these  events  usher  in  the  dawn  of  the  medieval 
period,  contemporary  with  the  rise  of  Mohammedanism. 

There  are  a  multitude  of  interesting  details  about  the  development  of 

Church  order,  government,  and  practice,  in  the  fifth   and  sixth  centuries, 

Development  which   we  must   pass  lightly  over.     The   tonsure,  a  shaving  of 

of  clericalism.  more  or  }ess  0f  the  crown  of  the  head,  was  commonly  adopted 

by  the  clergy  in  the  sixth  century. 
Schools  of  divinity  arose  at  Alexandria, 
Antioch,  Edessa,  and  other  great 
centres,  as  well  as  in  important  mon- 
asteries. Bishops  alone  ordained 
ministers,  and  largely  appointed  them 
to  their  churches.  Lay  patronage, 
however,  was  granted  by  Justinian  to 
founders  of  churches  in  541.  Celibacy 
of  the  clergy  became  common ;  though 
not  required  by  any  general  Council, 
there  was  a  growing  assumption  that 
no  man  could  marry  after  becoming  a 
deacon.  Abuses  soon  arose  which  had 
to  be  corrected  by  special  laws.  Un- 
fortunately, monasticism  itself,  with 
its  strict  professions,  had  a  prejudicial 
influence  on  general  Christian  mor- 
ality, it  being  thought  that  it  was  not 
necessary  for  ordinary  people  to  aim 
at  the  correct  conduct  required  of  a 
monk.  As  the  Church  grew  in  State 
favour,  it  became  infected  by  the  worldliness  of  courts,  and  increased  the 
pomp  of  its  worship  and  the  dignity  of  its  surroundings,  while  too  often 
showing  glaring  imperfections  and  impurity  in  conduct. 

Monasteries  naturally  became  the  refuge  of   those  who  sought  purity. 
The   person  of   monks  impressed  the  Goths  and    Teutons,    who  endowed 

monasteries   in  compunction   for   their  sins,   and    from    fear    or 
Monastic  life.  ,.  iii  ■  •       i      -i  -i  •  i  ii 

veneration    held     monastic   buildings   and   revenues   as  well  as 

monks  sacred  from  spoliation  and  injury.      Yet  even  in  the  monastic  life 

degeneracy  crept  in  ;  and  when  St.  Benedict  (born  in  480  near  Nursia,  in 

[taly)  began  his  remarkable  career,  there*  was  much  need  of  reform.  In  early 

youth  he  became  an  ascetic,  and  his  piety  grew  famous  and  was 

'  associated  with  many  wonders  and  reputed  miracles.     Resorted 

to  by  many  desiring   instruction,  Benedict  founded  twelve  monasteries  of 


ST.    BENEDICT. 


THE    CHURCH  IN  THE  F1ETH  AND   SIXTH  CENTURIES.    779 


twelve  monks  each  in  the  hills  forty  miles  east  of  Rome.  Driven  by  envy 
to  leave  this  locality,  Benedict  in  528  founded  the  monastery  of  Monte 
Cassino,  which  became  the  most  famous  and  powerful  in  the  Roman  com- 
munion. Never  ordained  a  priest,  his  influence  far  transcended  his  nominal 
position,  and  his  system  was  established  all  through  Western  Europe  before 
his  death,  in  543. 

Benedict  was  the  first  who  enjoined  a  vow  of  permanent  monastic 
residence  and  discipline,  marked  by  ceaseless  striving  after  perfection  of 
•character  and  conduct,  chastity,  labour,  poverty,  great  niodera- The  Benedi€_ 
tion  in  food,  and  entire  obedience  to  the  abbot,  the  superior  of  the  tine  order. 
monastery.  The  giving  up  of  all  private  property  to  the  monastery  formed 
a  nucleus  of  corporate  property,  which  rapidly  increased,  and  enabled  the 
Order  to  be  hospitable  to  strangers  and  the  poor,  and  to  set  on  foot  many 
works  of  mercy  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  and  literary  enterprise.  The  educa- 
tion of  the  young  by  the  monks  was  made  very  important.  Benedict  had 
the  judgment  to  allow  in  his  "  Rule  "  for  different  modes  of  life  suitable  for 
•different  climates,  races,  and  circumstances.  Episcopal  supervision  and  the 
abbot's  rule  being  granted,  all  the  monks  were  held  equal,  and  they  chose 
their  own  abbots.  The  monasteries  were  so  planned  that  every  necessity  of 
life  could  be  provided  for  within  its  walls,  and  no  monk  might  quit  the  build- 
ing except  by  special  leave.  Vanity  was  checked  by  forbidding  a  monk 
to  do  any  work  in  which  he  showed  a  tendency  to  pride  himself  on  his  skill. 

Within  three  centuries  there  were  scarcely  any  monks  in  Western 
Europe  who  had  not  adopted  the  Benedictine  rule.  They  were  not  organ- 
ised as  a  body  corporate,  but  gradually  individual  monasteries  formed  so- 
cieties or  "congregations,"  of  which  there  were  at  one  time  more  than  150, 
in  addition  to  the  monasteries  remaining  independent.  Fifty  Benedictine 
monks  have  become  popes,  the  first  being  Gregory  the  Great  (5(J0-604).  In 
the  14th  century  it  was  reputed  that  there  had  been  37,000  Benedictine 
monasteries,  and  in  the  fifteenth  there  were  15,000.  After  the  Reformation 
they  were  reduced  to  5,000,  and  now  do  not  number  more  than  about  800. 
The  congregations  of  Benedictines  differ  in  many  respects  from  one  another, 
being  only  united  by  the  essential  vows  of  the  order.  In  Protestant  and 
heathen  countries  their  principal  activit}T  is  missionary. 

The  temples  of  the  old  gods  did  not  furnish  the  models  for  the  new 
Christian  churches,  one  reason  perhaps  being  that  their  small  and  dark 
inner  sanctuaries  were  ill-adapted  to  the  public  nature  of  Basiiican 
Christian  rites.  The  Roman  law  courts  and  business  places  known  cllurclies- 
as  Basilicas,  open  from  end  to  end,  were  more  suitable,  and  were  either 
actually  given  to  the  Church  by  Constantine.  or  were  taken  as  the  models 
of  new  buildings.  We  cannot  give  details,  but  the  general  style  of  these 
•churches  is  seen  in  the  figures  we  give  of  St.  Paul's  outside  the  walls  at 
Rome  and  St.  Apollinaris  in  Classe  at  Ravenna.  The  apse,  the  semi- 
circular recess  at  the  upper  end  in  which  the  judges'  and  officials'  chairs 
were  set,  was  used  for  the  bishop's  and  priests'  seats  and  the  Lord's  table. 
It  was  known  as  the  sanctuary  or  presbytery,  and  its  wall  was  often  covered 


7So  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


with  mosaic  pictures  of  sacred  subjects.     The  "  LorcTs  table  "  was  already 

in  the  fourth  century  termed  "  the  place  of  sacrifice,"  translated  by  Jerome 

"  altar,"  wood  being  gradually  replaced  by  stone  in  its  construction,  and  the 

space  beneath  it  being  often  used  to  receive  the  relics  of  the  saint  or  martyr 

to  whom  the  church  was  dedicated.     liaised  on  steps,  enclosed  by  pillars, 

with  veils  hung  between,  covered  with  a  canopy  or  baldachino,  decorated 

with  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones  and  carvings,  it  is  not  surprising  that 

the  altar  on  which  the  mysterious  consecration  of  the    elements  of   the 

Eucharist  was  performed,  was  specially  venerated,  and  that  the  laity  were 

kept  at  a  distance  from  it  by  rails.     The  part  next  to  it,  the  choir,  had  a 

raised  floor,  was  set  apart  for  the  readers  and  choir,  and  included  the  desk 

Memorial    or  pulpit.     Memorial  churches,  on  the  model  of  Roman  circular 

churches,    tombs,  were  circular  or  polygonal,  often  domed,  and  from  these  the 

Byzantine  type  of  architecture  developed,  of  which  the  church  (now  mosque ) 

of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople  (pp.  555,  754, 755)  is  the  finest  representative. 

All  churches  were  specially  consecrated  to  divine  service :  and 

'  the  possession  of  relics  of  some  saint  was  early  held  of  primary 

importance.     The  consecration  service,  at  first  simple,  became  a  complex 

one,  with  special  ritual,  and  it  was  essential  that  the  Eucharist, 

consecrated  by  the  bishop,   should  be  placed  with  other  relics 

in  a  chest.     The  sacredness  of  churches  was  further  assured  by  forbidding 

arms  to   be   worn   in   them  ;  hence   they   became   places  of  asylum  from 

violence ;  but  ordinary  criminals,  Jews,   slaves,  and   other  special  classes 

were  excluded  from  its  protection.     The  loss  of  the  relics  took  away  the 

sacredness  of  the  building. 

Crosses,  carved  and  sculptured  in  various  forms,  were  conspicuous 
ornaments  of  churches,  and,  as  the  material  symbol  of  redemption,  became 
crosses  and  venerated  and  even  worshipped  as  having  some  mystic  virtue ; 
crucifixes.  allc]  jn  obedience  to  the  same  tendency  to  believe  in  charms,  the 
sign  of  the  cross  was  often  made  in  order  to  preserve  from  danger.  The 
Emperor  Julian  sneered  at  the  Christians  for  reverencing  the  cross,  and 
in  the  sixth  to  the  eighth  centuries  numerous  Christian  writers  defended 
its  adoration,  and  adduced  marvellous  narratives  to  show  the  benefit  of  so 
doing.  In  fact,  forms  of  service  for  the  adoration  of  the  cross  are  to  be 
found  in  ancient  liturgies,  both  Roman  and  Greek.  "With  the  figure  of 
Christ  crucified  added,  the  cross  became  a  crucifix,  though  in  the  beginning 
purely  symbolical  and  not  realistic  in  its  representation.  At  first  the  type 
of  the  "  Lamb  of  God  "  was  used,  and  the  crucifix  was  only  ordained  to  be 
set  up  in  churches  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople  in  691.  Even  before  the 
fourth  century  pictures  had  come  into  use  in  churches ;  but  separate  pictures 
Pictures  and  and  images  of  Christ  and  sacred  personages,  at  first  regarded  as 
images,  contravening  the  second  commandment,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries  were  commonly  set  up,  especially  those  of  the  mother  of  Jesus 
with  her  infant  son.  Leontius,  bishop  of  Neapolis  in  Cyprus,  thus  defended 
image-worship  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century :  "I,  worshipping  the 
image  of  God,  do  not  worship  the  material  wood  and  colours ;  God  forbid  ; 


THE    CHURCH  IN  THE  FIFTH  AND   SIXTH  CENTURIES.    7S1 


but  laying  hold  of  the  lifeless  representation  of  Christ,  I  seem  to  myself  to 
lay  hold  of  and  to  worship  Christ  through  it." 

We  have  already  recounted  the  controversies  about  the  veneration  of 
Mary  as  ':  Mother  of  God,"  which  developed  a  tendency  to  think  of  her  on 
the   same   level    as   Jesus   Himself;  and  it  was  a    Monophysite  worship  of 
Patriarch  who  first   placed   her   name  in  all  the  prayers  of  his  the  Vu-sin- 
liturgy.     In  Justinian's  reign  she  was  invoked  for  the  prosperity  of  the 
State;  and  the  tendency  to  pray  for  the  aid  of  a  female  mediator,  which 
had  been  strong  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  religions,  was  transferred  to  the 
Virgin  Mary.     The  surviving  feeling  for  the  old  religion,  too,  welcomed  the 
veneration  of  saints  and  martyrs  in  the  place  of  the  deified  heroes;   and 
prayers  and  vows  to  them  became  common.     Relics  were  manufactured 
to  meet  the  demand,  as  well  as  stories  of  spurious  miracles;  and  marvellous 
biographies   of    saints,    some   with   a   foundation   of    fact,  others  entirely 
fictitious,  were  written  and  circulated.     The  title  of  "saint,"  at  first  and  of 
right  belonging  to  every  Christian,  as  separated  from  a  worldly 
life,  was  gradually  confined  exclusively  to  those  who  were  con- 
spicuous for  their  holy  life  or  martyr's  death.     Names  were  inscribed  in  the 
roll  of  saints,  and  read  out  as  deserving  of  commemoration,  by  authority  of 
the  bishop,  and  later  of  the  metropolitan,  synod,  or  even  Emperor.     Days 
were  set  apart  for  commemorating  them,  often  the  anniversaries  of  their 
martyrdom,  and  thus  ecclesiastical  calendars  came  into  use. 

Holy  places  also  grew  into  reverence,    beginning  with  the  scenes   of 
Christ's  life  and  death.     Constantino's  building  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  and  the  '-finding  of   the  true  cross"  by  his  mother Pilgrimages 
Helena  powerfully  stimulated  the  idea  of  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem. 
Fragments  of  the  supposed  true  cross  were  spread  throughout  Christendom, 
and  were  venerated  as  most  sacred  relics. 

There  were  not  wanting  opponents  of  the  new  practices  of  monasticism, 

invocation  of  saints,  worship  of  relics  and  images,  etc. ;   but  their  voices 

were  overpowered  by  the  strength  of  the  supporters  of  the  tendency  0pp0siti0I1 

of  the  times.     Aerius,  an  Armenian  (fourth  and  fifth  centuries),     to  new 
'  _  .         practices. 

Helvidius,  Jovinian  andVigilantius  in  the  Western  Church  are  the 

most  notable  of  these  early  Protestants.     The  three  latter  were  all  violently 

attacked  by  Jerome,  who  was  very  indignant  at  the  success  of        , 

J  '  •  rv\    •     •  ■£    Jovinian. 

Jovinian  at  Rome,  who  taught  that  all  baptised  Christians,   it 

their  conduct  was  consistent  with  their  professions,  were  equal  in  Christian 

privileges,    and   that   neither   celibacy   nor   monasticism  placed  them  on  a 

special  pedestal.     Jovinian  was  excommunicated  and  banished  from  Rome 

about  390 ;  and  he  appears  to  have  died  before  406.     Yigilantius,  born  just 

north  of  the  Pyrenees,  became  acquainted  with  Jerome  in  his  house  Vi^lantius 

at  Bethlehem,  and  excited  his  ire  by  his  opposition  to  the  worship 

of  departed  saints  and  their  relics.     Vigilantius  thought  it  was  better  for  a 

man  to  seek  objects  of  charity  around  his  own  home,  rather  than  give  his 

property  entirely  to  the  poor  or  to  the  monks.     The  strength  of  Jerome's 

antagonism  is  a  measure  of   the  difficulty  such  a  teacher  had.  in  getting 


7S2  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

heard  by  those  who  were  most  influential  in  the  Church ;  and  Vigilantius 
and  his  fellows  were  doomed  to  failure. 

The  creeds  of  the  Church  were  practically  settled  in  this  period.  The 
Nicene  Creed,  though  mainljT  determined  as  we  have  already  related,  was 
based  on  an  ancient  baptismal  creed  found  in  the  "Apostolical 
Constitutions,"  and  it  was  as  a  baptismal  creed  that  it  continued  to 
be  used  before  it  was  inserted  in  any  liturgy.  In  511  Timotheus,  bishop  of 
Constantinople,  ordered  that  it  should  be  recited  at  every  congregation ;  and 
about  this  time  it  was  inserted  in  the  principal  Eastern  liturgies.  The 
Council  of  Toledo  in  589  ordered  that  it  should  be  recited  before  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  the  liturgy. 

The  Apostles'  Creed,  often  regarded  as  the  oldest,  from  its  name,  was 
only  adopted  as  a  written  creed,  in  the  Western  Church,  later  than  the 
Nicene.  It  no  doubt  represents  a  very  early  baptismal  creed,  having  various 
versions,  which  do  not  appear  to  have  been  early  put  into  writing. 

The  Athanasian  Creed,  which  is  rather  an  argumentative  and  declaratory 
psalm,  declaring  the  necessity  of  holding  the  Catholic  faith  as  essential  to 
salvation,  was  never  a  baptismal  creed,  nor  was  it  the  product  of  a  Council. 
It  is  of  Western  though  unknown  origin,  probably  in  the  fifth  century ;  it 
is  first  met  with  in  the  Gaulish  Church,  where  its  use  spread  into  the  whole 
Latin  Church  and  part  of  the  Greek.  In  G7G  we  find  it  required  of  every 
cleric  to  assent  to  this  creed,  at  the  Council  of  Cressy  (Christiacum). 

No  fewer  than  a  hundred  ancient  liturgies  are  known,  the  majority 
belonging  to  the  Eastern  Churches,  centring  round  the  metropolitan 
Eastern  Churches  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Constantinople, 
Liturgies.  Ephesus,  and  Rome.  There  are  none  which  ascend  to  the 
apostolic  age,  though  ascribed  to  apostles  or  evangelists,  such  as  St.  James 
or  St.  Mark  ;  but  they  mostly  took  written  form  in  the  fourth  to  the  sixth 
centuries.  The  Liturgy  of  St.  Clement,  probably  the  oldest,  dates  from  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  It  is  given  in  the  "  Apostolical  Constitu- 
tions," and  contains  distinct  services  for  catechumens  and  full  members,  very 
simple  services,  without  even  the  Lord's  Prayer,  any  creed,  or  the  mention  of 
saints'  names.  The  Liturgy  of  St.  James  is  the  oldest  of  those  proceeding  from 
Jerusalem,  and  arose  in  the  fourth  century  ;  it  includes  the  Nicene  Creed, 
with  the  terms  Homoousios  and  Theotokos,  and  with  commemoration  of  the 
mother  of  God  and  all  saints,  "  that  we  through  their  prayers  and  interces- 
sions may  obtain  mercy."  From  this  were  developed  the  liturgies  named 
after  St.  Basil  and  St.  Chiysostom — the  latter,  not  originally  associated  with 
his  name,  being  still  regularly  used  in  the  Sunday  services  of  the  Greek 
Church,  while  that  of  St.  Basil,  a  longer  form,  is  reserved  for  Lent  and  some 
special  occasions.  A  free  translation  into  Syriac  from  the  Liturgy  of  St. 
James  is  still  used  in  various  forms,  in  the  monophysite  Eastern  Churches. 
The  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark  (Alexandrian),  used  in  Egypt  till  the  twelfth 
century,  contains  the  Nicene  Creed  as  enlarged  at  Constantinople,  and  is 
probably  derived  from  the  Liturgy  of  Cyril.  The  Liturgy  of  Edessa,  also 
termed  that  of  Thaddseus,  originated  with  and  is  used  by  the  Nestorians. 


THE    CHURCH  IN  THE   FIFTH  AND   SIXTH  CENTURIES.    7 S3 


The  Western  liturgies  include  the  Ephesian  forms,  connected  with  the 
name  of  St.  John,  and  used  in  the  early  Churches  of  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain  : 
the  Liturgy  of  St.  Ambrose,  still  used  in  the  diocese  of  Milan,  and  western 
containing  many  of  Ambrose's  compositions,  as  well  as  others  by  Litur£ies. 
Simplicius,  his  successor  ;  and  the  Roman,  or  Petrine.  The  latter  is  very 
ancient  in  its  leading  features,  but  extant  copies  are  not  found  of  earlier 
date  than  the  461.  The  whole  liturgy  constitutes  the  Missal.  The  edition 
ascribed  to  Pope  Gregory  the  Great,  modified  more  than  once,  obtained 
precedence  over  every  other,  and  was  adopted  by  the  Council  of  Trent. 

We  have  thus  traced  the  Church  through  the  early  stages  of  conflict, 
and  its  establishment  as  part  of  the  Roman  imperial  system,  to  its  gradual 
elevation  above  the  civil  power.  We  are  now  at  the  dawn  of  the  medieval 
period,  terminated  by  the  Reformation.  The  greatest  facts  of  this  period 
are  the  final  separation  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches,  the 
encroachments  of  Mohammedanism,  and  the  evangelisation  of  the  heathen 
peoples  of  Europe. 


THE    CATHEDRAL,    BAMBERG,    BATABIA  :     FOUNDED    1004. 


POPE    G11EG011Y    THE    GREAT. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Christianity  to  tfte  Reparation  bettomi  <£a$t  anti  JMtst. 

(seventh  to  tenth  centuries.) 

Pope  Gregory  I.— Mission  of  Augustine  to  England— The  early  British  Church — St.  Patrick — St. 
Columha— Independent  spirit  of  Celtic  Church— Columban  and  St.  Gall— St.  Boniface,  the  Apostle 
of  Germany — Charlemagne  and  the  Papacy— The  Holy  Roman  Empire— Alcuin— The  Eastern 
Church— The  Controversy  about  Images— John  of  Damascus— Seventh  (Ecumenical  Council— The 
Caroline  Books  against  Images— Council  of  Frankfort— Leo  the  Armenian— Theodore  the  Studite 
—The  Empress  Theodora— Photius  and  Ignatius— Eighth  Council  (Roman)— Eighth  Council 
(Greek)— Last  disputes  between  East  and  West— Adoptionism— The  Isidorian  Decretals— The 
Real  Presence— Paschasius— Ratramn— John  Scotus— Predestination— Gottschalk— Scotus  on 
"Predestination"— Hincmar— Council  of  Quiercy— Christianity  in  North  and  East  Europe— 
Anskar— Olaf— Cyril  and  Methodius — Vladimir— St.  Stephen  of  Hungary— the  Wends,  Lithu- 
anians, and  Pomeranians. 

THE  chief  doctrines  of  the  Christian  Church  being  settled,  and  the  ground 
plan  of  its  organisation  being  complete,  it  enters  upon  its  "  middle 
age,"  lasting  till  the  Reformation,  and  marked  in  the  central  point  by  the 
final  separation  of  the  Eastern  from  the  Western  Church.  The  great  period 
Pope  of  the  Papacy  begins  with  the  remarkable  Pope  Gregory  I.,  the 
Gregory  i.  Q-j^a^  Born  at  Rome  in  540,  he  was  elected  Pope  in  590,  when 
assaults  of  heretics,  corruptions  of  members,  etc.,  had  greatly  weakened  the 
<  'hurch.  In  his  own  words  the  Church  was  "  an  old  and  shattered  ship, 
admitting  the  waters  on  all  sides,  its  timbers  rotten,  and  shaken  by  daily 
storms."  He  literally  reorganised  the  Church,  re-arranged  the  liturgy,  es- 
tablished the  Gregorian  form  of  chanting,  and  asserted  the  supremacy  of 
Rome  throughout  the  West  and  in  Africa.  While  recognising  the  Patriarchs 
of  Alexandria  and  Antioch  as  his  equals,  he  strictly  objected  to  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople  calling  himself  oecumenical  bishop,  and  also  renounced 

784 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  TO  TENTH  CENTURIES.     785 


the  title  for  himself;  yet  at  the  sixth  general  council,  681,  the  title  was 
granted  to  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  claimed  by  the  then  Pope, 
and  usually  taken  by  succeeding  Popes. 

On  the  whole,  Gregory  was  tolerant  towards  heretics,  and  succeeded  in 
reconciling  several  Arian  Churches  by  emphasising  the  first  four  councils  and 
reckoning  the  fifth  as  less  important.  Pie  was,  however,  zealous  against  the 
Donatists  and  in  uprooting  the  remains  of  heathenism.  He  was  a  strong 
supporter  of  monasticism,  and  his  "  Pastoral  Rule  "  long  guided  the  Western 
bishops.      His   850   letters    show  remarkable  practical  wisdom. 

r»'  j?  1  •       n         -\-n~w-\-\-\-\  i  pi  •         Mission  of 

Before  his  death,  in  o04,  he  had  heard  of  the  success  of  the  mis-  Augustine 
sion  to  England  on  which  he  had  despatched  Augustine  in  596.  t0  England- 
Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  was  baptised  at  Canterbury  on  "Whitsunday,  597, 
followed  by  many  of  his  subjects.  Augustine  became  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  and  metropolitan  of  England,  and  the  old  British  church  near 
EthelbeiVs  palace  was  his  cathedral.  Augustine  also  founded  the  Bene- 
dictine Abbey  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  at  Canterbury,  afterwards  more 
famous  under  the  name  of  Augustine  himself. 

Long  before  the  Anglo-Saxon  invasion,  Christianity  had  been  widely 
diffused  in  Great  Britain,  probably  from  Gaul ;  and  we  find  it  recorded  011 
undoubted  authority,  that  three  British  bishops,  Eborius  of  York,    rhe  eajl 
Restitutus  of  London,   and  Adelfius  of   Caerleon,  attended    the      British 

Cliurcli. 

Council  of  Aries  in  314,  and  others  were  present  at  the  Council  of 
Sardica  in  347,  and  of  Ariminum  in  360;  and  after  this  time  various  notable 
churchmen,  such  as  St.  John  Chrysostom  and  St.  Jerome,  refer  to  the  British 
Church.  We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  originator  of  the  Pelagian 
heresy  was  a  British  Christian,  and  bishops  from  Gaul  visited  Britain  in  429 
and  447  to  counteract  his  influence,  and  to  spread  the  gospel  among  the  native 
Britons,  now  being  deserted  by  the  Roman  legions.  Gaulish  monks  from 
the  great  abbey  founded  by  St.  Martin  of  Tours  at  Marmoutier,  preached  the 
monastic  life  in  Cornwall,  Wales,  Ireland,  and  Scotland. 

Christianity   was  introduced  into  Ireland  in    the  latter   part   of   the 
fifth   century  by  Patricius,  or  Patrick,   a   Briton   born   near   Dumbarton, 
in  Scotland  of   Christian  parentage.      In  Ireland  the  tribe  be-  gt  Patriclc 
came  the  unit  of  ecclesiastical  life.      In  fact,  the  chief  became 
a  sort  of  abbot,   and  the  converted  tribesmen  and  women  devoted  them- 
selves to  fasting  and  prayer,  and  often  to  celibacy.      The  chiefship  and 
abbacy  went   together   by  hereditary  descent.      It  is  remarkable  how  the 
monastic  life  took  hold  of  the  Celts,  who  were  so  much  in  love  with  it  that 
they  went  far  and  wide  to  propagate  it,  visiting  many  parts  of  Britain,  and 
leaving  their  mark  from  Naples  to  Iceland,  and  extending  as  far  as  Franconia 
and   Carinthia.      St.  Columba  (521-597),  a  native  of  Donegal,  of  gt  Columba 
Irish  blood  royal,  founded  monasteries  and  churches  in  Ireland, 
and  in  563  went  to  Scotland  to  convert  the  Picts.      He  received  a  grant  of 
the  island  of  Iona  in  563,  and  there  set  up  the  famous  church  and  monastery 
which  for  150  years  was  the  head  of  the  national  Church  of  Scotland.     His 
Church,  established  at  first  outside  the  influence  of  Rome,  became  opposed 

3  E 


7S6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


to  the  Roman  Church  in  several  points,  such  as  the  date  of  keeping  Easter, 
a  matter  held  to  be  of  great  importance,  and  refused  to  yield  obedience 
to  the  Roman  pontiff.  The  abbot  of  Iona,  though  usually  only  a  presbyter, 
exercised  the  authority  as  of  a  pope  over  the  numerous  bishops  under  his 
jurisdiction. 

Scotland,  Ireland,  and  "Wales  produced  numerous  saints  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  centuries,  and  they  converted  a  considerable  portion  of  England 
which  had  not  yet  been  reached  directly  from  Rome.  The  monks  of  the 
Celtic  Church  are  credited  with  having  been  better  missionaries  than  parish 
priests,  and  their  Church  gradually  waned  before  the  more  systematic  efforts  of 
independent  *ne  Roman  emissaries.  In  the  seventh  century  the  Irish  accepted 
spirit  of  the  Roman  date  for  Easter,  followed  by  the  Welsh  in  the  middle 
'of  the  eighth.  The  monasteries  of  the  Celtic  foundations  long 
kept  up  their  independence  of  diocesan  bishops ;  but  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury their  subjection  was  finally  accomplished.  The  interesting  details  of 
medieval  English  Church  history  must  be  sought  in  more  extended  works, 
especially  the  conflicts  of  the  temporal  with  the  ecclesiastical  power,  and  of 
England  with  Rome ;  but  England  did  not  in  these  times  do  anything  in 
development  of  the  main  features  of  Christianity. 

Meanwhile  the  Scoto-Irish  monks  were  represented  on  the  Continent  by 
such  men  as  Columban,  who  established  monasteries  under  strict  rule  in  the 
coiumban  Vosges,  maintaining  his  independence  of  the  Pope  ;  he  afterwards 
and  st.  GaiL  travelled  widely  in  Europe,  dying  in  615.  His  disciples  also 
founded  monasteries,  the  most  famous  being  that  of  St.  Gall  in  Switzerland. 
Other  British  missionaries  evangelised  Frisia  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries. 

The  greatest  missionary  sent  out  from  England  in  Anglo-Saxon  times 

was  Winfrid,  afterwards  known  as  St.  Boniface,  the  apostle  of  Germany 

(680-755),  born  at  Crediton  in  Devonshire.     In  716  he  began  to 

St  BonifciCG 

the  apostle  preach  in  Frisia,  and  in  718  received  authority  from  Pope  Gregory 
of  Garmany.  jj  ^o  preacj1  ^o  all  the  German  tribes.  This  he  did  with  great 
success,  destroying  objects  of  heathen  worship,  and  founding  churches  and 
monasteries.  Gregory  III.  in  732  made  him  archbishop  and  primate  of 
Germany.  After  the  great  victory  of  Charles  Martel  over  the  Saracens 
in  732,  that  monarch  seized  church  treasures  and  possessions  to  reward 
his  followers ;  and  the  imperfection  of  the  hold  which  Rome  had  on  the 
Frankish  Church,  as  well  as  the  numerous  disorders  that  were  prevalent,  in- 
duced Pope  Zacharias  in  741  to  commit  to  Boniface  the  task  of  reforming 
it.  He  secured  the  assent  and  authority  of  the  State  for  his  reforms,  but 
was  not  able  to  enforce  the  obedience  of  the  Frankish  bishops  to  metropoli- 
tans or  to  the  Pope.  The  Scoto-Irish  preachers,  too,  gave  him  much 
trouble;  and  we  learn  that,  in  addition  to  their  rejection  of  Roman  obedience, 
they  discountenanced  saint  and  relic  worship,  and  pilgrimages.  He  is  said 
to  have  crowned  Pepin  King  of  the  Franks  in  742  ;  but  this  is  doubtful.  On 
June  5th,  755,  his  tent  at  Dokkum  in  West  Friesland  was  surrounded  by 
armed  pagans,  who  massacred  the  whole  party  of  fifty-two,  Boniface  having 
forbidden  resistance. 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  TO   TENTH  CENTURIES.    787 


The  connection  of  the  Frankish  kingdom  with  the  Papacy  had  in  751 
been  strengthened  by  Pepin's  accepting  coronation  at  the  hands  of  Pope 
Stephen  II.,  who  in  755  received  from  that  king  the  famous  Ciiarlemagne 
Donation  of  Pej)in,  conquered  from  Astulf us,  king  of  the  Lombart  Is,  and  the 
and  constituting  the  beginning  of  the  Papal  States.  Karl  the  apacy" 
Great  (Charlemagne)  in  77-1  extended  the  Donation  to  correspond  with 
the  old  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  at  his  several  visits  to  Rome  paid  the 
utmost  respect  to  the  See  of  St. 
Peter  and  to  the  Pope.  Pope  Leo 
III.  on  his  accession  (795)  offered 
to  Karl  the  allegiance  of  the  Ro- 
man citizens,  sending  him  the 
banner  of  Rome  and  the  keys  of 
St.  Peter's  alleged  tomb.  Only  a 
few  years  later  (800)  Karl  was 
called  on  to  pronounce  judgment 
on  serious  charges  against  the 
Pope ;  and  his  court  declared  the 
Pope  above  all  human  judgment. 
On  Christmas  Day,  800,  Leo 
crowned  Karl  in  St.  Peter's,  and 
did  homage  to  him  as  „,  „  , 
Emperor  of  the  West,  Roman  Em- 
thus  renouncing  all  pire' 
connection  with  Constantinople 
and  setting  up  what  became  after- 
wards known  as  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire. 

From  this  point  we  shall  not 
follow  the  details  of  ecclesiastical 
relations  with  the  civil  power, 
which  developed  into  forms  utter- 
ly alien  to  the  spirit  of  Christ's 
teaching.  We  can  only  note  those 
points  in  which  further  develop- 
ments were  given  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  Church  or  the  forms 
and  appurtenances  of  religious 
observance  or  creeds. 

Karl  successively  forced  Christianity  on  the  Saxons,  the  Frisians,  the 
Bavarians,  the  Avars  of  Pannonia,  and  the  Bohemians  ;  and  missionaries 
followed  in  the  wake  of  the  conquerors.  Alcuin,  an  Englishman, 
directed  these  latter  efforts.  Karl  did  much  to  spread  education 
and  reform  religious  administration  according  to  the  Roman  system.  He 
built  among  others  the  cathedral  of  Aachen  (Aix-la-Chapelle),  where  he  died 
in  841. 


STATUE    OF    ST.    BONIFACE. 


78S  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Meanwhile,  in  the  East,  Mohammedanism  had  been  making  rapid  pro- 
gress, and  winning  from  Christian  dominion  and  profession  large  territories. 
me  Eastern  The  patriarchates  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  and  Alexandria,  and  the 
Church,     "bishoprics  dependent  on  them,  became  merely  nominal.      In  the 
eighth  century  the  great  controversy  on  images  rose  into  prominence,  and 
the  Emperor  Leo  III.  followed  his  edict  of   723  for  the  forcible 
controversy  baptism  of  Jews  and  Montanists  by  one  forbidding  the  growing 

images' worship  of  images  or  pictures  by  Christians  (724),  which  the  fol- 
lowers of  Mahomet  charged  against  them  as  idolatry.  The  so-called  images 
were  mostly  mosaics  or  pictures  on  a  flat  surface,  sometimes  appearing  in 
relief  by  the  arrangement  of  silver  or  other  metals  by  which  they  were 
setoff;  and  image- worship  in  the  East  by  no  means  signifies  worship  of 
modelled  or  carved  figures.  The  decree  of  Leo  led  to  a  rebellion,  which  was 
suppressed,  and  all  images  were  then  ordered  to  be  taken  down  or  coated 
over  with  plaster. 

John  of  Damascus,  author  of  the  "  Correct  Exposition  of  the  Orthodox 

Faith,"  came  forward  as  an  able  defender  of  images.      He  urged  that  the 

John  of     revelation  of  God  in  the  flesh  in  the  person  of  Christ  had  made 

Damascus.   }mages  lawful,  in  order  to  represent  to  those  of  later  times  what 

His  disciples  and  hearers  had  seen.     Images,  he  said,  were  for  the  unlearned 

what  books  were  to  the  learned.     He  did  not  adore  the  matter  of  the  images, 

but  the  Author  of  matter,  who  for  his  sake  became  material  that  by  matter 

He  might  work  out  man's  salvation.    Images  of  saints  were  lawful  as  memorials. 

He  refused  to  acknowledge  the  Emperor's  right  to  interfere  in  the  matter  ; 

the  ordering  of  the  Church  belonged  to  its  pastors.      Popes  Gregory  II.  and 

III.  similarly  attacked  Leo,  who  in  return  transferred  Greece  and  Illyria  to 

the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople  (733).     A  council  held  at  Constantinople 

in  754,  but  unattended  by  any  patriarch  or  any  Western  representatives, 

utterly  condemned  the  use  of  images  and  pictures  for  religious  purposes,  but 

declared  it  lawful  to  invoke  the  Virgin  and  the  Saints.      The  then  Emperor 

Constantine  V.  substituted  paintings  of  secular  subjects  for  sacred  images  and 

pictures,  and  cruelly  treated  all  who  disobeyed  his  edicts.    On  his  death  in  775 

the  chief  influence  in  the  East  came  to  Irene,  wife  of  Leo  IV.,  his  successor. 

She  was  a  great  supporter  of  images ;   and  during  the  minority  of  her  son, 

Constantine  VI.,  780-797,  she  proclaimed  liberty  of   conscience.     A  general 

Seventh     council  (the  seventh  oecumenical  and  second  of  Nicsea)  was  sum- 

(Ecumenicai  moned,   and    Pope  Adrian   I.    not    only   recognised   the    newly 

appointed  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Tarasius,  but  sent  legates 

to  the  council   (787).     This  council  declared  that  images  and  pictures  of 

Christ  and  the  Virgin,  as  well  as  of  angels  and  saints,  should  be  set  up  for 

kissing  and  reverence,  although  not  for  true  worship,  which  belonged  to 

God  alone.     They  were,  however,  to  be  honoured  like  the  Cross,  the  Gospels, 

etc.,  with  incense  and  lights,  because  the  honour  paid  to  the  image  passed 

on  to  the  original.      There  was  still  a  strong  iconoclast  element  among  the 

clergy  and  laity,  and   especially  in  the  army,  which  had  served  under  the 

iconoclast  emperors. 


79° 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  Churches  north  of  the  Alps  felt  the  decision  in  favour  of  images 

as  a  great  blow  to  their  efforts  at  uprooting  the  worship  of  the  old  Teutonic 

idols ;  and  Alcuin,  as  it  is  believed,  wrote  the  famous  "  Caroline 

Tfa.6  Caroline 

books  ag-ainst  books  "  in  Karl's  name,  refuting  the  arguments  of  the  council 
images.  an(^  exp0Sing  the  fallacy  of  its  position.  He  took  the  strong 
intellectual  position  that  "  those  persons  must  have  faulty  memories  who 
need  to  be  reminded  by  an  image,  and  cannot  raise  their  minds  above  the 
material  except  by  the  aid  of  a  created  and  material  object."  These  lessons, 
he  said,  cannot  be  taught  by  the  images  themselves,  for  the  merits  of  the 
saints  are  not  external  and  cannot  be  seen  ;  and  the  unlearned  are  the 
very  class  who  will  be  drawn  to  pay  real  divine  worship  to  the  images. 
Great  objection  is  taken  to  the  adoption  of  opinions  without  apostolic 
warrant,  which  were  condemned  by  the  Fathers  and  early  councils.  The 
moderate  conclusion  reached  is,  that  these  images  should  be  permitted 
and  not  destroyed,  but  that  their  worship  ought  not  to  be  enforced.  The 
council  of  Council  of  Frankfort  (794),  presided  over  by  Karl,  aided  by 
Frankfort.  Alcuin,  at  which  German,  English,  and  Lombard,  as  well  as 
Frankish  bishops  were  present,  with  two  legates  from  Rome,  condemned 
what  is  termed  "  the  late  synod  of  the  Greeks,"  and  refused  all  adoration 
and  service  of  images.  Thus  the  path  was  paved  for  the  Roman  Church 
to  throw  in  its  lot  completely  with  the  new  "Western  empire,  and  sever 
itself  definitely  from  the  East. 

The  iconoclast   controversy   was   once   more   revived    by  Leo  V.,  the 
Armenian,  Emperor  of  the  East  (813-820),  who  in  814  ordered  a  general 
Leo  the     removal  of  images,   and  seated    an  opponent   of  images  in  the 
Armenian,  patriarchate  of  Constantinople.      Theodore,  head  of  the  Studite 
monastery  at  Constantinople,  strongly  opposed  the  Emperor,  was  scourged, 
Theodore  the  imprisoned  in  a  dungeon,  and  threatened  with  death.     Appealed 
studite.     t0    by    ]1im?  Pope  Paschal  I.    strongly    supported    the    image- 
worshippers,  and  ordained  priests  for  the  Eastern  Churches  which  refused 
the  iconoclast  priests.     Leo  V.,  in  return,  persecuted  the  image-worshippers 
most  rigorously,  and  in  consequence  lost  his  life  by    a  conspiracy  which 
seated  Michael  II.  on  the  throne,  who  recalled  the  image- worshippers,  and 
replaced  Theodore,  though  forbidding  discussions  and  allowing  each  party 
to  follow  their  own  views.     Finally  Michael  asked  the  aid  of  Louis,  son  of 
The  Empress  Karl  the  Great,  in  discouraging  image-worshippers  at  Rome  (824). 
Theodora.    Yet  after  several  fluctuations,  the  worship  of  images  was  restored 
in  Constantinople  in  842  by  the  empress  Theodora,  mother  of  the  infant 
Michael  III. ;  and  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent,  the  anniversary  of  the  restora- 
tion, is  celebrated  at  the  present  day  in  the  Greek  Church  as  the  Feast  of 
Orthodoxy. 

There  was  yet  another  controversy  in  the  East  about  images,  which 

led  to  a  dispute  as  to  two  rival  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Photius  and 

Photius  and  Ignatius,  who  were  required  by  Pope  Nicolas  I.  (858-867)  to  come 

Ignatius.    to  Rome  for  a  decision  between  them,  the  Pope  claiming  that 

the  Roman  Church  was  "  the  head  of  all,  on  which  all  depend."      The 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  TO  TENTH  CENTURIES.    791 


conversion  of  the  Bulgarians  was  complicated  by  the  doubt  about  image- 
worship,  the  king  receiving  different  advice  from  East  and  West.  Finall}' 
the  Latin  clergy  were  driven  out  of  Bulgaria,  and  a  Greek  archbishop  was 
sent  by  the  iconoclast  patriarch  Ignatius,  and  Bulgaria  became  firmly 
attached  to  the  Greek  Church.  Meanwhile  Photius  held  a  council  which > 
anathematised  Pope  Nicolas  ;  in  his  letter  of  invitation  he  accused  the  men 
of  the  West  of  corrupting  the  gospel  with  pernicious  novelties,  teaching  a 
different  system  of  fasting,  forbidding  the  clergy  to  marry,  ami  denying 
the  right  of  pres- 
byters to  confirm. 
The  greatest  ob- 
jection, however, 
was  the  "adultera- 
tion "  of  the  creed 
with  spurious  ad- 
ditions, affirming 
that  the  Holy 
Ghost  proceeds 
from  the  Son, 
which  he  called 
blasphemy  against 
God  the  Father. 
The  violence  of 
Photius  is  further 
shown  by  his  call- 
ing the  Romans 
apostates  and  ser- 
vants of  Anti- 
christ. But  later 
Photius  was  him- 
self deposed  and 
anathematised. 
The  eighth  general 
council,  according 
to  the  Romans, 
held  at  Constanti- 
nople   in    869,    at 

which  the  Pope  was  represented  by  two  bishops,  and  at   which  also  the 
patriarchs   of  Antioch,   Jerusalem,   and    Alexandria   were  repre-      mshth 
sented,  again  condemned    the  iconoclasts,  and  finally  established     c^™1 
image- worship  in  the  East.     This  council  agreed   that  pictures 
and  images  were  useful  for  the  instruction  of  the  people,  and  ought  to  be 
worshipped  with  the  same  honour  as  the  books  of  the  Gospel.     The  strange 
whirligig  of  Eastern  affairs,  however,  in  878  restored  Photius  once  more 
to  the  patriarchate ;  and  while  he  requested  the  co-operation  of  Rome  in 
another   council,  he    strongly  asserted    his    independence   in    that   council 


CHAKLEMAGNE. 


792  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Eighth     (called  the  eighth  by   the   Greek   Church,   879)   which  rejected 

council     the   acts  of  the  council  of  869   against  Photius.     A  little  later, 

(Greek).  .  .  &  ' 

communion  was  again  restored  between  the  Greek  and  Roman 

Churches. 

No  other  event  of  supreme  interest  marks  the  history  of  the  Eastern 
Church  for  some  centuries  ;  it  had  to  make  strenuous  efforts  to  maintain  itself 
against  the  advancing  power  of  Mahometanism.  In  the  eleventh  century 
iast  disputes  tlie  EmPeror  Basil  H-  proposed  to  Pope  John  XVIII.  that  the  COll- 
between  East  flicting  claimsof  Rome  and  Constantinople  should  be  met  byallow- 
and  West  • 

mg  to  each  patriarch  the  title  universal  or  oecumenical  bishop  ; 

but  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Michael,  denounced  the  heresies  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  especially  the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  Eucharist, 
and  in  1053  closed  the  Latin  churches  and  monasteries  at  Constantinople, 
while  Pope  Leo  IX.  was  a  prisoner  with  the  Norman  conquerors  of  Naples 
and  Sicily.  In  1054  he  sent  legates  to  Constantinople  to  seek  a  settlement, 
but  Michael  would  not  even  discuss  with  them,  and  they  left  Constantinople 
after  laying  a  solemn  excommunication  of  him  on  the  altar  of  St.  Sophia. 
No  later  efforts  of  reconciliation  were  successful,  and  from  this  point  no  inter- 
communion has  existed  between  the  Roman  and  the  Eastern  Church. 

In  the  West  the  controversy  about  images  continued  both  in  writing 
and  in  the  discussions  of  councils,  and  there  was  considerable  opposition  to 
images  within  the  Frankish  Church  till  the  end  of  the  ninth  century. 

Before  proceeding  to  mention  the  chief  doctrinal  controversies  of  the 
medieval  Church,  we  must  briefly  notice  the  Western  discussion  about  the 
Adontionism  ^onship  °^  Christ,  which  was  distinct  in  its  type  from  the  Eastern 
disputes.  During  the  reign  of  Karl  the  Great,  Felix,  bishop  of 
Urgel  in  Catalonia,  taught  that  Christ  was  the  Son  of  God  by  adojrtion  only, 
not  by  partaking  of  the  Divine  substance.  After  much  controversy,  Alcuin 
wrote  a  treatise  against  Felix,  and  discussed  with  him  for  six  days  in  799, 
Felix  declared  himself  convinced,  but  was  kept  under  supervision  till  his 
death  in  818,  when  he  left  behind  him  a  paper  reasserting  the  principal 
points  of  his  teaching ;  but  he  gained  few  adherents. 

We  cannot  follow  all  the  varying  attitudes  of  the  Western  empire  and 
the  papacj'  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  in  which  now  one,  now  the 
other,  emerged  as  temporarily  supreme,  nor  the  disastrous  fall  of  successive 
Popes  into  gross  immorality  and  arbitrary  conduct.  The  Frankish  Church 
meanwhile  kept  considerably  aloof  from  Rome,  and  even  condemned 
or  excommunicated  a  Pope  when  culpable.  Pope  Leo  IV.  in  852  built  a 
wall  around  the  suburb  of  Rome  beyond  the  Tiber,  enclosing  the  basilican 
church  of  St.  Peter  (on  the  site  of  the  present  St.  Peter's)  and  the  site  on 
which  the  Vatican  Palace  now  is  ;  and  from  him  it  derived  its  name  of  the 
The  isidorian  Leonine  city.  During  this  century  a  forged  collection  purporting 
Decretals.  to  ^e  papa]  Decretals  gained  currency  under  the  name  of  Isidore, 
bishop  of  Seville,  in  the  first  part  of  the  seventh  century,  and  was  adopted 
by  the  Frankish  and  the  Roman  Church  generally.  It  purported  to  contain 
nearly  100  decretal  letters  of  bishops  of  Rome,  some  dating  as  far  back  as 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  TO  TENTH  CENTURIES.     793 


the  apostolic  times,  and  giving  accounts  of  church  councils  which  never  took 
place  ;  and  the  forgery  was  favoured  by  quotations  from  genuine  materials. 
These  forged  letters  exalt  the  power  of  the  clergy,  and  raise  bishops  almost, 
above  any  human  judgment ;  also  the  Pope's  power  is  carried  beyond  any- 
thing previously  written.  They  were  quoted  and  used  in  councils  and  by 
Church  writers  for  centuries ;  and  even  when  demonstrated  to  be  forgeries, 
still  continued  to  have  influence.  For  what  the  clergy  desired  and  believed, 
they  readily  accepted  a  plausible  authority,  without  critical  examination. 

The  belief  in  the  material  presence  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  in 
the  Eucharist  was  taught  in  831  by  Paschasius  Radbert,  a  monk  of  Corbie. 


THE    CATHEDRAL    OF    A1X-LA-CHAPELLE. 


He   held   that  after  the  consecration  of  the  elements  nothing  was  really 

present  but  the  flesh  and  blood  of  Christ,  the  same  in  which  He    _■  „    . 

•  c  1  •        /-mi  The  Real 

was  crucified  and  rose  from  the  dead.    Many  Frankish  Churchmen    Presence. 

denounced  the  doctrine,  the  most  eminent  being  Ratramn,  who  paschasius. 

said  that  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  were  only  figuratively 

presented  to  the  faithful  soul  in  the  Eucharist,  the  change  being 

not  material  but  spiritual.     John  Scotus,  the  great  Irish  theologian  of  the 

ninth  century,  taught  that  the  Eucharist  was  only  a  commemora- 

J  &  .    .  .    John  Scotus. 

tive  ordinance,  and  thus  anticipated  man}*  Protestants.     But  this 

was  denounced  as  heretical,  and  the  doctrine  of  Paschasius  was  generally 

accepted. 


794  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Another  great  controversy,  which  has  not  yet  died  out,  was  that  on 

predestination.     The  famous  Gottschalk,  a  pupil  of  Alcuin  (786-856),  son 

„    ,  of  a  Saxon  count,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  teach  that 

Predestina-  '      rr  ... 

tion.       not   only  were  the  good  predestined  to  happiness  but  also  the 

wicked  to  damnation.  This  was  going  beyond  St.  Augustine, 
who,  while  terming  those  finally  lost  "  reprobates,"  did  not  say  they  were 
predestined  to  destruction,  but  that  they  were  left  to  the  just  judgment  on 
their  sins.  Gottschalk,  though  accused  of  it,  denied  that  he  represented  God 
as  the  ordainer  of  evil,  for  His  double  predestination  was  "good"  in  either 
case  ;  God's  just  judgments  must  be  good,  and  to  those  just  judgments  the 
wicked  were  predestinated,  and  their  persistence  in  sin  was  foreknown. 
He  held  that  Christ  died  only  for  the  elect.  Gottschalk  had  to  go  through 
the  usual  persecution  suffered  by  those  who  bring  forward  any  novelty  in 
doctrine,  being  condemned  by  councils,  rigorously  treated  by  the  inflexible 
Hincmar  (Archbishop  of  Rheims  from  845  to  884),  and  cruelly  flogged  in 
the  presence  of  King  Charles  the  Bald  ;  but  he  maintained  his  opinions. 

John  Scotus,  at  the  request  of  Hincmar,  wrote  his  great  treatise  "  on 
Divine  Predestination,"  a  work  so  subtle  and  free  in  its  inquiries  that  it 
scotus  on  pre-  caused  him  to  be  accused  of  various  heresies.     He  said  it  was 
destination,  improper  to  speak  of  Divine  predestination  or  foreknowledge, 
because  to  God  all  time  is  present ;  but  if  the  term  be  used,  predestination 
must  be  eternal,  and  only  to  good.     But  the  number  of  those  who  will  be 
saved  or  lost  is  known  by  God,  and  therefore  may  be  called  predestined. 
At  the  same  time  Scotus  asserts  that  the  human  will  is  free  to  choose  good 
or  evil.     After  the  publication  Hincmar  held  a  council  at  Quiercy 
council  of   (853),  which  asserted  that  man  fell  by  the  abuse  of  his  free  will  : 
Quiercy.     ^^  q.Q(j  ^  jj^g  forejjnowledge  predestinated  some  to  life  whom 
He  chose  by  His  grace ;  but  those  whom  He  by  His  righteous  judgment 
left  in  their  lost  estate,  He  did  not  predestinate  to  perish,  but  predestinated 
punishment  to  their  sin.     The  free  will,  lost  by  the  Fall,  was  recovered 
through  Christ ;  God  would  have  all  men  saved,  and  Christ  suffered  for  all ; 
and  the  ruin  of  those  who  perished  is  their  own  fault.     After  much  further 
controversy,  Hincmar  wrote  an  elaborate  work  on  the  whole  matter,  addressed 
to  Charles  the  Bald  ("  Epistola  ad  Regem  ").    Gottschalk  was  kept  in  prison 
twenty  years  by  Hincmar's  influence,  who  refused  him  the  last  sacrament 
unless  he  would  agree  to  his  own  statements  of  doctrine.    The  old  theologian 
steadfastly  maintained  his  views,  and  died  without  sacrament ;  and  burial  in 
unconsecrated  ground  was  given  to  this  maintainer  of  independent  thought. 
A  brief  note  must  suffice  to  indicate  the   successive   introduction  of 
Christianity  into  the  northern  and  eastern  countries  of  Europe.      In  826 

,    Anskar,  a  monk  of  Corbie,  was  sent  to  evangelise  Denmark  and 
Christianity  '  »  °  „  . 

in  Nortn  and  Scandinavia,  and  became  one  of  the  most  famous  and  successful 
tast  Europe.  o£  missionaries.  By  his  influence  Denmark  and  Sweden  formally 
tolerated  and  recognised  Christianity.  Anskar  built  hospitals,  founded 
monasteries,  redeemed  captives,  and  did  much  to  diminish  the  slave  trade. 
When  miracles  were  ascribed  to  him,  he  said,  "  If  I  were  worthy  in  the  sight 


CHRISTIANITY  IN  THE  SEVENTH  TO  TENTH  CENTURIES.    795 


Anskar. 


of  my  Lord,  I  would  ask  Him.  to  grant  me  one  miracle — that  He  would 

make  me  a  good  man."      He  died   in  865,  and  his  work  was 

well  carried  on  by  his  friend  Rimbert.     A  reaction  took  place 

under  Gorm  the  Old,  king  of  Denmark,  who  however  was  compelled  by 

Henry  the  Fowler  to  put  down  human  sacrifices.    Cnut  (Canute)  as  king  of 

Denmark  established  Christianity  on  a  sure  basis,  and  definitely  placed  the 


88 


';w;«i™i^^ 


THE    BAPTISM    UF    ST.    STEPHEN    OF    UUNdAKV. 


Danish  Church  under  the  Roman.  Heathen  worship  Avas  not  put  down  in 
Sweden  till  towards  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century.  In  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  the  Finns  were  converted  ;  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  some  progress  was  made  among  the  Lapps.  Norway,  partly 
evangelised  by  Anskar's  efforts,  long  retained  much  heathenism.  Haco 
the  Good  (934-961)  followed  Christian  rites  and  brought  English  clergy  to 


7Q6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Norway,  but  was  afterwards  forced  by  his  people  to  take  part  in  the  old 
heathen  worship.  Olaf  Tryggvason  at  the  end  of  the  century 
came  forward  as  the  Christian  champion,  and  enforced  the  accept- 
ance of  baptism  all  through  Norway  (see  p.  443).  His  great-nephew  Olaf 
Haroldson  (1015-1030),  promoted  Christianity  by  similar  drastic  measures. 
Under  his  son,  St.  Magnus,  the  new  religion  was  fully  established. 

The  Apostles  of  Moravia  in  the  ninth  century  were  Cyril  and  Methodius, 

sent  from  Constantinople  in  803.     They  knew  the  Slavonic  language,  and 

cyni  and    "translated  the  liturgy  into  it,  and  adopted  it  in  public  worship. 

Methodius  Bohemia  became  Christian  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  and 
in  Moravia.    . ,        0,  ,..  .  ,  ,      ,  ,  .   ,        -, 

tne   blavomc   liturgy  was   introduced   there,  but   was  violently 

opposed  by  the  Roman  clergy,  who  ultimately  maintained  the  Latin  form. 
Christianity  advanced  into  Poland  through  Bohemia,  and  thus  became  con- 
nected with  the  Roman  Church,  while  the  Russians  were  evangelised  from 
Constantinople  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  century.  We  have  already 
viadimir  in  referred  (p.  452)  to  the  action  of  Vladimir  in  destroying  the 
Kussia.  national  god  Perun  at  Kief,  and  compelling  his  people  to  be 
baptised  Christians.  From  this  time  the  Greek  form  of  the  Church  was 
rapidly  spread,  and  the  Bible  became  known  in  Cyril's  Slavonic  version. 

The  Magyars  and   Slavonians  of  Hungary,  while  they  first  received 

Christianity  through  the  Greek  Church,  eventually  were  connected  with 

st.  Stephen  Rome  through  Waik,  baptised  Stephen,  who  was  king  of  Hungary 

ungary.  jn  ^000.     He  organised  and  endowed  Christianity  throughout  his 

kingdom,  built  hospitals  and  monasteries,  and  for  these  and   many  other 

services  was  canonised  as  the  patron  saint  of  Hungary. 

The  "Wends  and  Lithuanians  of  the  Southern  and  Eastern  Baltic,  cut 
off  by  language  and  race  from  their  Christian  neighbours,  long  resisted  the 
The  wends,  efforts  of  missionaries,  and  even  the  compulsion  of  the  sword.     In 
and  Pomer S'  ^ie  sacrec^  island  of  Riigen  (p.  453)  idolatrous  worship  continued 
mans  con-    after  it  had  been  expelled  from  the  mainland.     The  Lithuanians, 
Finns,  Pomeranians,  Esthonians,  etc.,  offered  a  stubborn  resist- 
ance m  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  and  were  largely  massacred, 
rather  than  converted,  by  soldiers  of  the  cross.     The  Pomeranians  were 
almost  exterminated  by  the  Teutonic  Knights.     In  Lithuania  heathenism 
was  re-established  in  the  thirteenth  century.     Despite  the  strenuous  efforts 
of  both  Greek  and  Roman  clergy,  it  was  not  till  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century  that  they  were  successful.      The  Roman  Church  prevailed  on  the 
union  of  Lithuania  to  Poland  by  a  dynastic  marriage. 

During  its  first  thousand  years  the  Church  of  Christ  was  nominally 
united,  though  already  practically  split  up  into  numerous  divisions.  A 
strong  body  of  doctrine  and  an  elaborate  system  of  practice  had  been 
created,  at  the  cost  of  much  division  of  opinion,  of  many  bloody  wars,  of 
much  excommunication  and  heart-burning.  The  struggle  to  create  a 
Universal  Church  had  very  largely  felt  the  influence  of  national  tastes  and 
tendencies.  The  tempting  idea  of  securing  unity  by  force  and  under  one 
spiritual  head  had  seized  many  minds.  Opinion  was  developed  into  dogma 
and  thrust  on  the  unwilling  by  force. 


ST.    ISAAC  S    CATHEDHAL,    ST.    PETERSBOBG. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
CI)C  Eastern  Cftmrb— Russian  anti  (§mfc. 

The  Orthodox  Church  in  Greece,  Bulgaria,  Roumania,  etc. — Its  History  in  Russia— Vladimir  II.  's  dying 
Injunctions— Moscow  :  The  Kremlin — The  Patriarchs— The  Troitza  Monastery— Russians  and 
Poles— The  Patriarch  Nicon— Peter  the  Great— The  Holy  Synod -Oath  of  the  Bishops— Ambrose 
—Plato— Philaret  —Missions  —Doctrines  —  Sacraments  —Membership  —The  Hierarchy  —  Liturgy 
and  Services— Monks— Parish  Priests— Style  of  Churches -Icons,  or  Images -The  Altar  Fasts 
—Yearly  Communion— Extreme  Unction— Burial— The  Czar's  Position— Dissenters— The  Old 
Believers— Other  Sects— The  Sabbatniki— The  Molokani— The  Duchoborzi— Mount  Athos. 

THE  "  Orthodox"  Eastern  or  Greek  and  Russian  Church,  although 
claiming  to  represent  the  stock  from  which  all  Christendom  has 
originated,  is  to-day  the  smallest  of  the  great  divisions  of  Christianity  ; 
and  unlike  the  Roman  Church,  it  is  subdivided  by  national 
boundaries.  The  Greek  Church  in  a  limited  sense  includes  the^c^urc^^ 
Greek  populations  of  Greece,  Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  and  elsewhere, 
with  Constantinople  for  its  ecclesiastical  centre  and  Mount  Athos  for  its 
holy  mountain.  The  patriarch  of  Constantinople  is  elected  by  a  synod  of 
bishops,  but  the  selection  must  receive  the  approval  of  the  Sultan.      The 

Church  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  is  now  acknowledged  as  inde- 

.  ...  In  Greece 

pendent  of  Constantinople,  and  is  organised  with  a  synod  of  five 

bishops,  as  in  Russia.     The  Servian  Church,  with  some  intervals  of  subjec- 


793  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

tion  to  the  see  of  Carlowitz  in  Austria,  and  to  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, has  been  independent  since  1830,  with  a  patriarch  at  Belgrade.     The 
Bulgarian   Church,    long   semi-independent    of    Constantinople    under   an 
Bulgaria    exarch,  is  now  completely  so  ;  but  the  Bulgarian  exarch  lives  at 
Roumania,  Constantinople,  and  claims  jurisdiction  over  Bulgarians  outside 
Bulgaria.     The  Roumanian  Church,  though  it  was  founded  from 
Rome,  was  long  governed  from  Constantinople  ;  but  one  of  the  first  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Roumanian   Government    in  1861.  was  to  declare   the  in- 
dependence of  the  National  Church,  which  is  now  under  a  primate  living 
at  Bucharest.     There  are  also  very  many  members  of  the  Greek  Church 
in  the  Austrian  Empire ;  the  great  body  of  the  Eastern  Church  is,  however, 
that  within  the  Russian  dominions. 

"We  have  already  referred  to  the  conversion  of  Vladimir  (buried  at  Kief 
and  afterwards  canonised),  followed  by  the  adoption  of  the  Greek  faith  as 
its  history  the  national  faith  of  Russia,  as  it  expanded  from  a  small  State  to 
in  Russia.  j(-s  present  enormous  extension.  The  spread  of  Christianity  was 
easier  in  Russia  than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe,  a  fact  with  which 
the  early  translation  of  the  Scriptures  and  liturgies  into  Slavonic  by  Cyril 
and  Methodius  doubtless  had  much  to  do.  The  close  relation  of  the  Russian 
Church  to  Constantinople  has  been  shown  by  the  fact  that  for  five  centuries 
the  metropolitans  of  Russia  were  either  Byzantines  or  closely  related  to 
Constantinople.  Jaroslaff  early  in  the  eleventh  century  introduced  into 
Russia  the  canon  law  and  Christian  education  from  Constantinople. 

Vladimir  the  Second  (who  began  to  reign  in  1113)  was  a 
dying      notable  combination  of   fierceness  with  devotion,  who  left  to  his 
mjunc  ions.  gong  ^e  following  among  other  dying  injunctions  : — 

"  0  my  children,  praise  God  and  love  men.  For  it  is  not  fasting,  nor  solitude,  nor 
monastic  life,  that  will  procure  you  eternal  life,  but  only  doing  good.  Forget  not  the  poor, 
nourish  them ;  remember  that  riches  come  from  God,  and  are  given  you  onljr  for  a  sbort 
time.  Be  fathers  to  orphans.  Be  judges  in  the  cause  of  widows,  and  do  not  let  the 
powerful  oppress  the  weak.  Put  to  death  neither  innocent  nor  guilty,  for  nothing  is  so 
sacred  as  the  life  and  the  soul  of  a  Christian.  Never  take  the  name  of  God  in  vain  ;  and 
never  break  the  oath  you  have  made  in  kissing  the  crucifix.  .  .  Be  not  envious  at  the 
triumph  of  the  wicked  and  the  success  of  treachery.  Fear  the  lot  of  the  impious.  Do 
not  desert  the  sick  ;  do  not  let  the  sight  of  dead  corpses  terrify  you,  for  we  must  all  die. 
B-eceive  with  joy  the  blessing  of  the  clergy  ;  do  not  keep  yourself  aloof  from  them  ;  do 
them  good,  that  they  may  pray  to  God  for  you.  Drive  out  of  your  heart  all  suggestions 
of  pride,  and  remember  that  we  are  all  perishable — to-day  full  of  hope,  to-morrow  in  the 
coffin.  Abhor  lying,  drunkenness,  and  debauchery.  Love  your  wives,  but  do  not  suffer 
them  to  have  any  power  over  you.  .  .  Never  take  off  your  arms  while  you  are  within 
reach  of  the  enemy.  And  to  avoid  being  surprised,  always  be  early  on  horseback. 
When  you  are  on  horseback  say  your  prayers,  or  at  least  the  shortest  and  best  of  all  : 
'  Loi'd,  have  mercy  upon  us.'  " 

For  centuries  the  metropolitan  of  Russia  lived  at  Kief  ;  but  in  1320  his 

seat  was  transferred  to  Moscow.     Here  on  the  Kremlin  hill  was  gradually 

Moscow:  The  built  that  vast  aggregation  of  palaces  and  churches  which  is  the 

Kremlin.     ceI1tre  of   Russian  reverence.     The  patriarchal    cathedral  in  its 

centre  is  the  crowning-place  of  all  the  Czars,  and  contains  the  most  sacred 


THE   EASTERN  CHURCH— RUSSIAN   AND    GREEK.  7g9 


pictures  in  Russia.  Already,  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the 
metropolitan  was  elected  without  guidance  from  Constantinople.  xne 
One  notable  metropolitan,  Philip,  suffered  martyrdom  from  Ivan  Patriarcns- 
the  Terrible,  that  strange  mixture  of  cruelty  and  temporary  fanaticism 
in  religion,  for  protesting  against  Ivan's  many  cruelties.  In  1582  the 
patriarch.  Jeremiah  created  Job,  the  metropolitan  of  Moscow,  a  patriarch  : 
and  it  was  asserted  that  thus  the  place  of  Rome  in  the  patriarchate, 
vacated  by  its  schismatic  conduct,  was  filled. 

The  extensive  foundation  of  monasteries  in  Russia  during  the  period  of 
the  Tartar  invasions  proved  a  great  factor  in  preserving  the  liberties  and 
religious  life  of  the  people.  The  most  famous  monastery  in  Russia,  that  of 
the  Troitza  (Holy  Trinity),  about  sixty  miles  from  Moscow,  was  The  Troitza 
founded  in  1338,  and  became  in  addition  to  a  monastery,  a  Monastery, 
cathedral  and  group  of  churches,  and  a  university  protected  within  walls 
like  those  of  a  fortress ;  it  has  been  enriched  by  successive  Czars  and 
multitudes  of  pilgrims,  and  it  is  now  the  greatest  place  of  pilgrimage  in 
Russia.  It  was  first  made  sacred  by  the  pious  hermit  Sergius,  who  in 
later  life  stimulated  the  Grand  Prince  Demetrius  to  his  victory  on  the 
Don  in  1380.  And  this  tradition  of  patriotism  was  well  kept  up  by  later 
generations  of  prelates  and  clergy. 

The  same  spirit  was  evoked  against  the  encroachments  of  the  Poles, 
who,  being  of  the  Roman  Church,  contributed  largely  to  make  the  Russians 
dislike  the  Western  Communion.  The  Poles  were  declared  to  Russians 
be  more  debased  and  wicked  than  idol-worshippers,  for  their  and  Poles- 
cruel  conduct  to  members  of  the  orthodox  (Russian)  Church.  They  were 
even  said  to  have  subjected  them  to  Jews,  who  would  not  let  them  build 
churches,  and  deprived  them  of  their  priests.  Church  and  State  were 
identified  in  the  contest  between  the  two  nations.  When  Moscow  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Poles,  and  Roman  masses  were  celebrated  in  the  Kremlin, 
when  patriarch  and  archbishop  were  done  to  death  or  carried  captive,  the 
monastery  of  Troitza  held  out,  and  its  defenders  were  encouraged  by 
Dionysius,  the  abbot.  When  it  conquered,  Russia  was  practically  saved, 
and  the  future  of  the  orthodox  Church  secured.  From  the  priest  Philaret, 
afterwards  patriarch  of  Moscow,  sprang  the  present  imperial  line.  Philaret 
and  his  son  Michael  Romanoff,  the  first  Czar  of  the  line,  practically  ruled 
the  nation  jointly.  Seven  years  after  Alexis  came  to  the  throne,  in  1652 
Nicon  was  made  patriarch,  and  proved  himself  the  greatest  reformer  of  the 
Russian  Church. 

Nicon  has  been  called  a  Russian  Chrysostom,  Luther,  and  Wolsey  ;  but 
he  was  of  a  rougher  type  than  these,  grim-faced,  of  red  hue,  with  bloodshot 
eyes,  and  seven  feet  high.  Of  peasant  stock,  he  showed  virtues  The  patriarch 
not  specially  due  to  his  origin,  but  to  a  rare  spirit  of  discernment  Nicon. 
and  courage.  He  endeavoured  to  root  out  abuses,  and  especially  intemper- 
ance, which  had  obtained  a  great  hold  on  the  clergy.  He  founded  hospitals 
and  almshouses,  visited  prisons,  and  relieved  the  famine-stricken.  At  his 
bidding  the  seclusion  of  women  was  made  less  stringent,  and  the  empress 


8oo  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


was,  for  the  first  time,  allowed  to  go  to  church  publicly  by  day.  He 
recognised  the  baptisms  of  the  Roman  Church,  had  Greek  taught  in  the 
schools,  spread  the  study  of  vocal  music  for  church  services,  and  set  about 
obtaining  the  best  Slavonic  translation  possible  of  the  Bible.  But  among 
his  most  striking  reforms  was  the  introduction  of  preaching.  His  homilies 
and  sermons  at  first  astounded  and  tried  the  patience  of  the  unaccustomed 
worshippers  ;  and  indeed  his  style  seems  to  have  been  by  no  means  perfect, 
in  excuse  for  which  his  having  no  model  to  learn  from  may  be  pleaded. 
But  his  methods  of  discipline  were  too  rigorous,  and  not  framed  in  the  spirit 
of  the  Founder  of  Christianity.  His  agents  scourged,  imprisoned,  and 
otherwise  cruelly  treated  priests  and  monks  found  drunk  ;  and  he  showed 
no  mercy  to  those  who  violated  his  decrees  or  his  views  of  Church  discipline. 
His  enforcement  of  the  Church  ritual  was  rigid,  and  he  banished  foreigners 
relentlessly  who  refused  baptism  in  the  Church,  or  respect  to  the  sacred 
pictures.  But  with  all  his  austerity,  he  had  instincts  for  magnificence,  as 
shown  by  his  monasteries,  his  patriarchal  palace,  and  the  state  he  kept  up. 
At  last,  even  his  most  faithful  friend,  the  Czar,  was  alienated,  chiefly,  it 
must  be  owned,  by  the  intervention  of  Nicon's  enemies.  Nicon  resigned 
his  office,  apparently  expecting  to  be  invited  back ;  but  the  see  was 
declared  vacant  (1658).  It  was  not,  however,  till  1667  that  he  consented 
to  the  election  of  a  new  patriarch.  But  his  enemies  were  not  satisfied  with- 
out his  formal  condemnation.  They  assembled  a  council  of  the  Eastern 
patriarchs — the  first  that  had  ever  met  in  Russia — together  with  the  most 
distinguished  bishops.  He  was  degraded  from  his  rank  to  that  of  a  simple 
monk,  and  banished  to  the  monastery  of  Therapontoff  to  spend  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  penance.  In  1681  the  new  Czar,  Theodore,  consented  to  a 
scheme  for  his  recall ;  but  Nicon  died  on  the  journey  to  his  own  church  of 
the  New  Jerusalem  (a  copy  of  the  Church  of  the  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem), 
in  which  he  was  finally  buried.1 

Czar  Peter  the  Great  accomplished  a  more  remarkable  change  in  the 
Russian  Church,  namely  the  abolition  of  the  Patriarchate.     Adrian  (1690- 

Peter  the  1702)  was  the  last  patriarch ;  on  his  death  a  guardian  was 
Great,  appointed.  The  archbishops  in  Russia  and  the  Eastern  patri- 
archs agreed  to  recommend  the  abolition  of  the  office ;  and  in  1720  it  was 
definitely  abolished,  and  in  its  stead  a  synod  of  prelates  was  instituted,  as 
a  governing  body,  appointed  by  the  Czar.  This  body  acts  as  the  highest 
court  of  appeal  in  Church  matters,  examines  and  censures  theological  books, 

The  Holy    superintends  all  churches  and  convents,  and  conducts  trials  for 
synod,      ecclesiastical  offences,  etc.     The  Czar  is  represented  in  the  synod 
by  a  lay  procurator  general,  and  on  receiving  the  Czar's  confirmation  the 
decisions  of  the  synod  have  the  force  of  law.2 

Peter  had  to  encounter  much  opposition  from  the  Raskolinks,  or  Russian 
Dissenters,  who  had  bitterly  opposed  the  reforms  of  Nicon.  Peter's  intro- 
duction of  pictures  by  "Western  artists,  his  improvements  in  Church  singing 

1  See  Dean  Stanley's  vivid  account  of  Nicon  in  his  "  Eastern  Church." 

2  See  "  The  Russian  Church  and  Clergy,"  North  British  Jieview,  vol.  liii. 


CHURCH    OF   THE    ASSUMPTION,    MOSCOW. 
Part  of  interior,  showing  Icons  on  pillars. 
801 


802 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Ambrose. 


and  m  the  calendar,  and  his  attempts  to  forbid  wearing  beards,  met  with 
their  most  strenuous  opposition  on  religious  grounds.  But  Peter  in  the 
mam  carried  his  people  with  him,  and  the  rebellions  which  arose  were  put 
oath  of  the  down.  He  was  able  to  introduce  some  remarkable  provisions  into 
is  ops.  tkg,  Q^k  taken  by  the  Eussian  bishops  at  consecrations,  pledging 
them  to  put  down  pious  frauds  and  culpable  indolence.  It  is  a  striking 
commentary  on  the  state  of  the  Church  as  he  found  it,  that  such  provisions 
should  have  been  needed  : — 

"  I  promise  and  vow  that  I  will  not  suffer  the  monks  to  run  from  convent  to  convent. 
I  will  not,  for  the  sake  of  gain,  build,  or  suffer  to  be  built,  superfluous  churches,  or  ordain 
superfluous  clergy.  I  promise  yearly,  or  at  least  once  in  three  years,  to  require  on  my 
visitations  that  there  may  be  erected  no  tombs  of  spurious  saints.  Impostors  who  go 
about  possessed,  with  bare  feet  and  in  their  shirts,  I  will  give  up  to  the  civil  authorities, 

that  they  may  drive  out  the  evil  spirits  from  them 
with  the  knout.  I  will  diligently  endeavour  to  search 
out  and  put  down  all  impostures,  whether  lay  or 
clerical,  practised  under  show  of  devotion.  I  will 
provide  that  honour  be  paid  to  God  only,  not  to  the 
holy  pictures,  and  that  no  false  miracles  be  ascribed 
to  them." 

Peter  was  aided  in  his  reforms  by  Theo- 
phanes,  Metrophanes,  and  Demetrius  of  Ros- 
toff,    the  author  of  "  Lives   of   the 
Eussian  Saints."     Another  saint  in 
the  next  generation  was  Ambrose,  archbishop 
of  Moscow,  who  made  a  new  translation  of 
the  Psalms    from    the    Hebrew.      His  death 
(1771)  was  violent  and   tragic,  owing  to  his 
having  ordered  the  removal  of  a  sacred  picture 
to   which  the  people  had    crowded    in   such 
numbers    as  to  endanger  the    public    health, 
during  a  severe  pestilence.     In  the  empress 
Catharine's    time  Plato,   the  metropolitan  of 
Moscow,  with  whom  two  such  unlike  men  as  Reginald  Heber  and  Diderot 
were  glad  to  converse,  was  famous  throughout  Europe.     Philaret, 
who  became  metropolitan  of  Moscow  in  1826,  revived  the  spirit 
of  asceticism,  and  of  religious  warfare  and  propagandism.     The 
conquest  of  Poland  afforded  opportunities,  which  were  taken  advantage  of, 
for  reclaiming  to  the  orthodox  religion  the  Uniats,  who  had  acknowledged 
the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  though  they  had  changed  in  little  else  from  the 
principles  of  the   Eastern   Church.      Missionary  enterprise  was 
aroused,  and  in  recent  years  missions  to  Siberia,  Kamschatka,  and 
Japan  have  been  successfully  organised.     Even  in  Western  Europe  and  in 
the   United    States,   Russian   priests    have   gathered  the    members  of  the 
Eastern  Church  into  congregations  ;  and  in  1879  a  bishop  was  appointed  to 
San  Francisco,  to  supervise  the  congregations  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  North 
America. 


PECTOEAL    ORNAMENT    OF   RUSSIAN 
BISHOP. 


Plato. 
Philaret. 


Missions. 


THE  EASTERN  CHURCH— RUSSIAN  AND   GREEK.  803 


The  Greek  Church,  as  regards  its  main  doctrines,  is  very  much  in  the 
position  of  the  early  Church,  and  accepts  the  decrees  of  the  first  seven 
councils  as  we  have  already  described  them.  Its  great  difference 
from  the  Western  Church  relates  to  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  which,  in  accordance  with  the  Nicene  and  Constantinople  decisions, 
is  from  God  the  Father  alone.  On  the  question  of  Redemption,  it  holds 
that  Christ  has  redeemed  mankind,  who  had  fallen  by  one  original  act  of 
Adam  ;  but  God's  grace  is  requisite  to  enable  man  to  accept  regeneration. 
It  repudiates  and  censures  the  idea  of  priestly  "indulgences."  It  also  rejects 
the  Romish  doctrine  of  purgatory,  believing  in  the  existence  of  two  separate 
places  for  the  souls  of  the  dead,  where  they  await  the  resurrection  and  the 
final  judgment.  But  prayers  for  the  dead  are  admitted  in  hope  that  they 
may  benefit  them,  through  the  mercy  of  God.  The  Greek  Church  also 
allows  prayer  to  the  Virgin  Maiy  and  to  saints  and  martyrs,  for  their  inter- 
cession, although  it  is  by  no  means  held  that  the}'  have  already  attained 
heaven. 

The  Sacraments  recognised  by  the  Greek  Church  are  seven,  the  same  as 
those  of  the  Latin  Church.  Four  of  these— Baptism,  the  Eucharist,  ordina- 
tion by  laying  on  of  hands,  and  penance — they  regard  as  directly 
instituted  by  Christ.  The  other  three  are  marriage,  confirma- 
tion, and  extreme  unction,  which  are  derived  from  the  New  Testament  and 
the  primitive  Church.  Baptism  is  by  immersion  of  the  body  three  times 
in  succession  ;  infants  are  baptised  on  the  eighth  day.  It  is  believed  that 
baptism  entirely  destroys  original  sin.  Confirmation  takes  place  at  once 
after  baptism,  with  anointing  by  holy  ointment.  In  the  Eucharist  both 
(leavened)  bread  and  wine  are  partaken  of  by  all  communicants,  excepting 
infants,  who  receive  only  the  wine.  It  is  believed  that  the  elements 
are  changed  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  which  are  really  received 
by  the  faithful.  The  consecrated  bread  does  not,  however,  receive  the 
same  special  veneration  as  in  the  Romish  Church ;  when  it  is  carried  to 
the  sick,  the  priests  do  not  prostrate  themselves  before  it,  nor  do  they  carry 
it  in  procession.  The  sacrament  of  penance  is  preceded  by  confession  of 
individual  sins  to  the  priest,  and  absolution  is  given,  on  condition  of  the 
discharge  of  penances  imposed,  in  the  form  "  May  the  Lord  absolve  thee !  " 

The  Church  is  regarded  as  composed  of  those  who  profess  and  believe 
the  articles  of  faith.     Outside  the  visible  Church  it  is  declared  that  there 
is  no  salvation.    The  Church  being  under  the  continual  inspiration  Membership 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,   cannot   err   in    matters   of  faith.     Bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons  form  the  ministry.     Four  patriarchs — of  Constantinople, 
Antioch,    Jerusalem,  and  Alexandria — equal  in  rank,  constitute  the  upper 
circle  of  bishops.     The  patriarchs  may  agree  to  issue  directions  for        Tbe 
the  whole  Church,  but   their  decisions  are  not  held  universally   Meraxciiy. 
binding   unless   ratified    by  a  general  council  of   bishops.     Bishops   alone 
confer  the  sacrament  of  Orders.     They  must  be  unmarried,  while  priests  or 
deacons  must  be  married,  and  may  not  marry  a  second  time. 

The  term  liturgy  is  specially  given  to  the  services  of  the  mass,  which, 


8o4 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


as  we  have  already  mentioned,  are  in  two  forms,  the  shorter,  named  after 
Liturgy  and  St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  the  longer  after  St.  Basil.  These  are, 
services,  ft  js  true,  in  Greek  or  Slavonic  according  to  the  country,  but  in 
such  antiquated  dialects  that  they  are  but  little  understood  by  the  people. 
The  daily  services  vary  enormously,  consisting  mainly  of  prayers  adapted 
to  each  day,  in  all  filling  many  large  volumes,  and  so  intricate  that  few- 


priests  are  perfect  in  them.  They  are  read  in  a  low  and  indistinct  voice, 
so  as  to  be  almost  entirely  inaudible  to  the  congregation ;  and  this  goes 
with  an  absence  of  devotional  behaviour  in  the  congregation,  and  not 
infrequently  in  the  clergy.  What  we  should  term  sermons  are  little 
known,  the  principal  substitute  for  them  being  the  recital  of  the  life  of 
some  saint,  often  full  of  fabulous  details  and  miraculous  stories. 


THE   EASTERN   CHURCH— RUSSIAN  AND    GREEK.  805 


All  the  bishops  are  monks,  and  the  entire  ecclesiastical  administration 
is  in  Russia  in  the  hands  of  the  monks,  or  "  black  clergy."  Although  in 
the  last  century  a  large  portion  of  the  property  of  the  monasteries 
was  confiscated  by  the  State,  the  monasteries  which  survive  are 
well-to-do,  receiving,  besides  State  grants,  large  sums  in  the  form  of  volun- 
tary offerings.  The  monks  are  mainly  conservative;  their  rules  are  still 
those  of  St.  Basil,  enjoining  religious  ceremonies,  prayer,  and  contemplation, 
very  unlike  the  active  labour,  either  in  industry,  art,  letters,  or  philanthropy, 
often  incumbent  on  Western  monks.  The  upper  classes  of  the  laity  call  the 
monks  in  most  frequently  to  perform  marriages,  funerals,  etc.,  and  pay  them 
proportionately  higher  fees  than  the  "  white  clergy  "  can  exact.  There  are 
btill  many  hermits  in  Russia,  greatly  revered. 

The  parish  priest  (called  papa,  or  pope,)  is  usually  the  son  of  a  parish 
priest ;  and  being  kept  in  a  strictly  subordinate  position  by  the  monks, 
he  is  antagonistic  to  the  latter  and  little  considerate  of  any-  parisn 
thing  but  the  number  of  social  or  necessary  religious  ceremonies  priests, 
he  can  perform  for  fees.  Of  intellectual  or  spiritual  knowledge  he  has 
usually  very  little.  All  wear  long  beards,  with  long  hair  parted  down  the 
middle,  long  over-garment  with  loose  sleeves,  and  a  longer  under-garment 
reaching  to  the  feet.     They  are  collectively  known  as  "  white  clergy." 

Almost  every  Russo-Greek  church  is  built  in  a  form  of  the  Byzantine 
style,1  with  a  cupola  or  dome,  surmounted  by  a  cross,  over  the  east  end,  and 
a  belfry  at  the  west.    There  is  a  large  antechapel  or  entrance-hall ;     styie  of 
a  main  building  in  which  the  worshippers  stand  (there  being  no    clmrclles- 
seats) ;  and  an  altar  enclosure,  raised  two  or  three  steps  above  the  rest  of 
the  building,  with  a  wall  or  screen  near  the  front  completely  covered  with 
icons  or  pictures  of  the  saints  within  silver  or  chased  metal  plates,  repre- 
senting the  clothing  of  the  saints,  through  which  the  painting  of     Icons  or 
the  face,  hands,  and  feet  is  visible.2     The  four  main  pillars  of     images. 
the  church  are  also  completely  covered  with  icons.     (See  our  illustration 
p.  801.)     In  front  of  each  icon  is  a  candelabrum  of  great  size,  capable  of 
containing  thirty  or  forty  candles.     In  the  centre  of  this  screen  is  a  large 
double  door,  which  is  open  during  service,  and  behind  which  the  priest 
stands  during  the  liturgy.     The  whole  space  behind  this  is  called  the  altar, 

1  We  can  only  briefly  mention  the  magnificent  Kremlin  in  Moscow, in  which  are  united 
all  the  elements  of  the  ancient  religious  life  of  Russia.  "  Side  by  side  stand  the  three 
cathedrals  of  the  marriages,  coronations,  and  funerals  of  the  Czars.  Hard  by  are  the  two 
convents,  half  palatial,  half  episcopal.  Overhanging  all  is  the  double,  triple  palace  of 
czar  and  patriarch.  Within  that  palace  is  a  labyrinth  of  fourteen  chapels,  multiplied 
by  sovereign  after  sovereign,  till  the  Imperial  residence  has  been  more  like  the  dwelling- 
place  of  a  pope  than  of  a  prince." — Stanley's  Eastern  Church. 

2  Respecting  the  adoration  of  images,  Dean  Milman  wrote :  "  The  ruder  the  art,  the 
more  intense  the  superstition.  .  .  .  There  is  more  direct  idolatry  paid  to  the  rough 
and  ill-shapen  image,  or  the  flat  unrelieved  and  staring  picture — the  former  actually 
clothed  in  gaudy  and  tinsel  ornaments,  the  latter  with  the  crown  of  i^old  leaf  on  the 
head,  and  real  or  artificial  flowers  in  the  hand — than  to  the  noblest  ideal  statue,  or  the 
Holy  Family  with  all  the  magic  of  light  and  shade.  They  are  not  the  fine  paintings 
which  work  miracles,  but  the  coarse  and  smoke-darkened  boards,  on  which  the  dim 
outline  of  form  is  hardly  to  be  traced.  Thus  it  may  be  said  that  it  was  the  superstition 
which  required  the  images,  rather  than  the  images  which  formed  the  superstition." 


8o6 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  altar. 


containing  a  square  table  called  the  throne,  which  corresponds  with  the  altar 
of  the  Roman  Church  ;  on  this  are  placed  the  gospels,  a  gilt  cross 
for  the  congregation  to  kiss,  the  box  containing  the  elements  of 
the  Eucharist,  and  a  silk  handkerchief  containing  a  very  special  piece  of  silk 
or  linen  about  fifteen  inches  square,  having  stamped  on  it  a  representation 
of  the  burial  of  Christ.  This  emblem  is  called  an  antimins,  and  is  essential 
to  the  existence  of  the  church,  being  consecrated  by  the  archbishop  of  the 


CHURCH    OF    ST.    BASIL,    MOSCOW. 

diocese,  and  conveying  his  blessing  to  the  building.  A  minute  portion  of 
some  holy  relic,  anointed  with  consecrated  oil,  is  fixed  on  that  side  of  the 
antimins  which  is  turned  towards  the  east.  The  altar  coverings  are  of 
special  value  and  symbolical  importance  ;  one  complete  linen  covering,  made 
in  the  form  of  a  cross,  symbolises  the  linen  clothes  of  the  Saviour  in  His  tomb  ; 
another  very  rich  one  signifies  the  glory  of  God.  "Within  the  altar  there  is 
another  table,  on  the  north  side,  called  the  altar  of  sacrifice,  on  which  are 


THE  EASTERN  CHURCH— RUSSIAN   AND   GREEK.  807 

placed  the  lioly  vessels,  together  with  a  spear,  in  memory  of  that  which 
pierced  the  Saviour's  side,  which  is  used  for  cutting  small  triangular  por- 
tions of  bread  for  the  sacrament,  the  spoon  for  administering  the  sacrament, 
etc.  The  priests  even  put  on  their  canonicals  in  the  altar,  and  perform  most 
of  the  service  standing  and  moving  about  in  it,  little  heard  by  the  congrega- 
tion. Infants  are  baptised  and  anointed,  when  the  ceremony  is  not  per- 
formed in  the  parents'  house,  in  front  of  the  central  doors  of  the  altar.  The 
sacrament  is  administered  at  the  steps.  Confessions  are  heard,  not  in  an 
enclosed  box,  but  in  corners  of  the  building,  face  to  face.  Priests  are 
ordained  in  the  altar  ;  marriage  and  burial  services  take  place  in  the  body 
of  the  church.  The  priestly  garments  include  the  alb,  a  kind  of  frock  with 
loose  sleeves,  laced  cuffs,  belt,  stole,  chasuble,  and  a  special  square  piece 
of  brocade  worn  by  older  priests,  hanging  from  one  shoulder  (the 
epigonatiori). 

The  fasts  of  the  Greek  Church  are  numerous,  and  far  more  rigorously 
kept  than  in  Western  Europe.  During  the  whole  of  Lent  every  article  of  food 
that  can  be  traced  to  any  animal,  except  fish,  is  proscribed  ;  and 
many  abstain  even  from  fish.     Even  milk  and  butter  are  not  used. 
In  the  fourth  week  of  Lent  special  preparation  is  made  for  the  communion 
by  those  who  only  communicate  once  or  twice  a  year,  and  long  services, 
confessions,  and  special  fastings  are  indulged  in.     All  government  officials 
are  obliged  to  attend  confession  and  communion  at  least  once  a     Yearly 
year,  and  the  marriage  ceremony  cannot  be  legally  performed  if  communion, 
either  party  has  failed  to  attend  communion   during  the  preceding  year- 
There  are  many  crimes  and  sins  which  are  punished  b}^  exclusion  from  com- 
munion from  one  year  to  twenty  years,  such  as  marrying  a  second  time  (one 
year's  exclusion),  marrying  a  third  time  (four  years),  overlaying  an  infant 
(seven  years),  fortune-telling  (six  years),  manslaughter  (ten  years),  wilful 
murder  (twenty  years),  etc.     Before  the  administration  of  the  sacrament, 
the  communicants  have  to  repeat  after  the  priest  a  special  form  of  creed, 
which  indicates  clearly  the  essential  belief  of  the  Greek  Church  : — 

"  I  believe,  Lord,  and  confess  that  Thou  indeed  art  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God, 
who  earnest  into  the  world  to  save  sinners,  of  whom  I  am  chief.  I  also  believe  that  this 
is  indeed  Thy  most  pure  body,  and  this  Thy  holy  blood.  I  therefore  -pray  Thee  to  have 
mercy  on  me,  and  to  forgive  me  all  my  sins,  voluntary  and  involuntary,  by  word,  by 
deed,  by  knowledge  or  ignorance  ;  and  grant  me  worthily  and  blamelessly  to  partake  of 
Thy  most  pure  Sacrament,  for  the  remission  of  sins  and  for  life  everlasting.  Receive 
me  this  day,  0  Son  of  God,  as  a  partaker  of  Thy  last  supper.  For  not  as  a  secret  enemy, 
I  approach,  not  with  the  kiss  of  Judas,  but  like  the  thief  I  confess  Thee,  '  Lord,  remember 
me  in  Thy  kingdom.'  And  may  the  communion  of  Thy  holy  sacrament  be  not  to  my 
judgment  and  condemnation,  but  to  the  healing  of  my  soul  and  body.    Amen." 

The  priest  then  takes  a  morsel  of  the  consecrated  bread  in  the  spoon,  with 
a  little  wine,  and  puts  it  in  the  communicant's  mouth,  with  the  words,  "  The 
servant  of  God  (So-and-so)  communicates  in  the  name  of  the  Father,"  etc. ; 
while  the  choir  sings,  "  Eeceive  ye  the  body  of  Christ ;  taste  ye  the  fount 
of  everlasting  life."     The  deacon  holds  a  handkerchief  under  the  chin  of  the 


8o8 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


communicant  to  catch  any  stray  drop,  and  wipes  his  mouth  afterwards. 
The  communicant  kisses  the  edge  of  the  cup,  and  then  goes  to  a  side  table 
and  takes  a  little  warm  wine  and  water  as  a  rinsing,  giving  an  offering 
according  to  his  means ;  he  then  goes  to  private  devotion  till  all  have  com- 
municated. The  second  general  communion  is  during  the  Assumption  Fast, 
which  extends  from  August  1st  to  13th.  There  are  two  other  fasts :  one,  the 
Petroffsky,  from  Trinity  Monday  to  St.  Peter's  Day,  29th  of  June  ;  the  other, 
the  Christmas  or  Philip  Fast,  from  15th  November  (St.  Philip's  Day)  to 
Christmas  Day.  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  almost  throughout  the  year  are 
also  fast  days. 


PALM    SUNDAY    IN    ST.    PETERSBURG. 


The  sacrament  of  extreme  unction  is  administered  to  adults,  followed 
by  confession  and  communion.  It  should  be  performed  by  seven  priests, 
Extreme  but  one  priest  may  perform  it  where  there  are  not  seven  to  be 
unction.  f0T1DcL  It  may  be  performed  in  church,  when  a  person  suffers 
from  an  incurable  disease  which  does  not  prevent  his  leaving  the  house. 
The  service  is  very  long  ;  the  oil  (mixed  with  wine,  in  remembrance  of  the 
Good  Samaritan)  is  specially  blessed,  and  the  sick  person  is  anointed,  with 
the  sign  of  the  cross,  on  forehead,  nostrils,  cheeks,  lips,  breast,  and  hands, 
while  a  prayer  for  his  recovery  is  read.  This  ceremony  is  gone  through 
seven  times,  each  time  by  a  fresh  priest  if  seven  are  present,  or  by  turns  if 


THE  EASTERN  CHURCH— RUSSIAN  AND    GREEK.  809 

there  are  two  or  more ;  the  epistles  and  gospels  read  differ  for  each  occasion. 
Mercifully,  after  so  long  a  service,  the  confession  and  communion  services 
which  follow  are  greatly  shortened.  Later  there  may  be  said  a  unique 
service  termed  "  A  form  of  prayer  to  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  to  the  most 
pure  Mother  of  our  Lord,  at  the  separation  of  the  soul  and  body  of  every 
orthodox  believer."  It  largely  consists  of  short  psalms  or  their  first  verses, 
and  other  texts  of  Scripture,  with  a  commendatory  prayer  in  which,  how- 
ever, the  Virgin  Mary  is  not  mentioned.  When  the  patient  is  very  near 
death,  a  saint's  picture  is  placed  behind  his  pillow  x  and  a  lighted  taper  at 
the  head  of  the  bed.  Violent  sobbing  and  weeping,  by  both  men  and 
women,  follow  death. 

Many  interesting  details  accompany  preparation  for  burial.  A  crucifix 
and  tall  candlesticks  are  fetched  from  the  church,  and  priest  and  deacon 
perform  a  requiem  twice  a  day,  and  a  reader  with  an  assistant 
reads  prayers  incessantly  over  the  corpse  till  the  day  of  burial. 
Visits  of  condolence  are  very  numerous  ;  alms  are  distributed  to  beggars 
by  the  well-to-do.  The  shallow  coffin,  broad  at  the  head,  narrows  to  the 
other  end,  and  stands  on  four  little  feet.  A  final  requiem  is  performed  in  the 
house  on  the  morning  of  the  funeral,  and  the  body  is  often  put  into  the  coffin 
then,  by  the  nearest  relatives,  not  by  the  undertaker  or  servants.  Every 
friend  and  member  of  the  family  attends  the  funeral.  The  relatives  kiss  and 
take  leave  of  the  deceased  at  home ;  the  coffin  lid  is  not  yet  put  on,  for  it  is 
carried  in  the  funeral  procession  next  behind  the  cross.  The  priests,  singers, 
etc.,  precede  the  coffin,  all  males  bare-headed  in  the  severest  frosts.  The 
coffin  is  taken  to  church,  and  mass  is  said,  followed  by  a  very  long  service, 
at  the  end  of  which  the  priest  places  in  the  deceased's  hand  a  printed  prayer, 
a  sort  of  absolution,  in  Slavonic,  after  having  read  it  aloud.  Then  again 
mourners,  friends,  priests,  etc.,  in  turn  kiss  the  deceased  for  the  last  time. 
The  coffin  is  carried  to  the  grave,  and  only  then  is  the  lid  fixed  on  the 
coffin,  generally  by  two  pegs.  The  priest,  taking  a  handful  of  earth,  throws 
it  on  the  coffin,  with  the  words,  "  The  earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  the  fulness 
thereof,  and  the  wide  world,  and  they  that  dwell  therein."  After  a  very 
short  chant,  and  a  blessing,  all  is  concluded  by  each  member  of  the  family 
throwing  a  handful  of  earth  on  the  coffin. 

Persons  of  means  have  evensong,  matins  and  mass  performed  every  day 
for  forty  days  after  a  death,  and  there  are  special  requiems  on  the  ninth, 
twentieth,  and  fortieth  days  at  the  grave.     On  the  last  occasion  the  funeral 

1  Dean  Stanley  thus  describes  the  influence  of  sacred  pictures  in  Russia :  "  Every- 
where, in  public  and  in  private,  the  sacred  picture  is  the  consecrating  element.  In  the 
corner  of  every  room,  at  the  corner  of  every  street,  over  gateways,  in  offices,  in  steamers, 
in  stations,  in  taverns,  is  the  picture  hung,  with  the  lamp  burning  before  it.  In  domestic 
life  it  plays  the  part  of  the  family  Bible,  of  tbe  wedding  gift,  of  the  birthday  present,  of 
the  ancestral  portrait.  In  the  national  life  it  is  the  watchword,  the  flag  which  has  sup- 
ported the  courage  of  generals  and  roused  the  patriotism  of  troops.  .  .  .  Enter  within 
any  church  such  as  those  at  Moscow,  which  best  represent  the  national  feeling.  There 
the  veneration  has  reached  a  pitch  which  gives  an  aspect  to  the  whole  building  unlike 
any  European  church.  From  top  to  bottom,  from  side  to  side,  walls  and  roof  and  screen 
and  columns  are  a  mass  of  gilded  pictures;  not  one  of  any  artistic  value,  but  all  cast  in 
the  same  ancient  mould." 


810  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

proceedings  are  almost  entirely  repeated.  Eequiems  are  again  performed 
on  the  name-day  and  anniversary  of  the  death  ;  but  requiems  are  not  per- 
formed at  all  for  little  children  before  the  age  for  confession.  As  a  fee  to 
priests,  deacons,  etc.,  accompanies  each  of  the  celebrations,  which  are  only 
a  type  of  many  more,  it  will  be  seen  how  interested  they  must  be  in  keeping 
up  the  formal  ceremonies  of  the  Church,  and  how  full  their  lives  are  of 
professional  routine. 

In  Russia  the  Czar  is  the  real  head  of  the  Church,  and  his  personality 
is  most  sacred.  At  his  coronation,  preceded  by  fasting  and  seclusion, 
The  czar's  he  first  recites  the  confession  of  the  faith  of  the  Church,  then 
position.  0ffers  Up  tjie  prayer  of  intercession  for  the  empire,  places  the 
crown  on  his  own  head,  and  then  enters  the  sanctuary  and  himself  takes 
from  the  altar  the  sacred  elements,  and  communicates  with  bishops  and 
clergy.  This  takes  place  in  the  patriarchal  cathedral,  the  church  of  the 
Assumption  or  Repose  of  the  Virgin,  crowded  with  the  most  sacred  pictures 
in  Russia,  the  burial-place  of  the  primates  (see  p.  801). 

Yet  in  Russia  there  are  millions  of  dissenters  from  the  Orthodox  Church.1 
These  Raskolinks,  or  Separatists,  to  some  extent  date  from  earlier  times, 
Dissenters    ^ut  were  most  largely  reinforced  in  the  time  of  Nicon,  by  an- 
tagonism to  all  his  innovations.     The  most  numerous   body  of 
them,  the  Staroviertz,  or  Old  Believers,  regard  themselves  as  the  really 
orthodox,  who  follow  the  Bible  and  acknowledge  only  the  early  councils. 
The  ow     They  re-baptise  their  converts  from  the  State  Church,  which  they 
Believers.   regarci  as  the  Babylon  of  the  Revelation ;  and  it  is  essential  that 
they  should  repudiate  the  heresies  of  Nicon,  especially  his  form  of  benedic- 
tion with  three  fingers  instead  of  two.     They  restore  the  word  "  holy  "  in 
the  Nicene  Creed,  before  the  description  of  the  "  Lord  and  Giver  of  life,'' 
and   maintain   the   unauthentic  expression,  "  one  baptism   l)y  fire   for  the 
remission  of  sins."     They  reverence  the  patriarchal  cathedral  at  Moscow, 
which  contains  the  icon  of  no  saint  later  than  Nicon,  and  once  a  year  many 
of  them  come  to  gaze  on  it  at  Easter.     Many  of  them  still  receive  ordained 
priests  from  the  State  Church,  while  otherwise  excluding  all  innovations. 
The  greater  number  of  the  conservative  dissenters  live  along  the  Volga  and 
the  Don.     The  total  number  of  the  Staroviertz  may  be  several  millions,  and 
they  far  outnumber  all  the  other  sects,  who  may  be  counted  by  hundreds. 

Some  sects  of  dissenters  have  no  ordained  priests,  and  their  members 

only  conduct  services  so  far  as  they  can  be  carried  without  an  altar  and  a 

other  sect    Pries^     They  still  possess  a  few  drops  of  ancient  consecrated  oil 

and  eucharistic  elements.     It  is  disputed  whether  they  should  be 

regarded  as  the  extreme  wing  of  the  Old  Believers ;  but  they  themselves 

reject  the  latter,  as  well  as  the  Orthodox  Church,  as  Antichrist.     A  number 

of  the  sects  are  extremely  ascetic.     One  is  known  as  the  Skopzi,  or  Eunuchs, 

who  believe  that  Christ  took  the  form  of  the  Czar  Peter  III.,  was  a  member 

of  their  sect,  and  has  never  died,  but  will  one  day  return  and  will  reign  over 

them.     They  disbelieve  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  meet  secretly  on 

1  See  "  The  Sects  of  the  Russian  Church,"  North  British  Review,  vol.  liii. 


THE  EASTERN  CHURCH— RUSSIAN  AND    GREEK.  Sn 

Saturday  nights,  and  keep  Easter  as  their  only  festival,  by  eating  bread  con- 
secrated by  having  been  buried  in  the  grave  of  one  of  their  apostles.  They 
believe  that  God  has  revealed  Himself  in  Christ,  who  was  not  Himself  God, 
and  that  He  also  reveals  Himself  continually  as  the  Holy  Ghost  in  them- 
selves, who  are  the  true  Christians.  One  peculiar  sect,  the  Dumb,  become 
speechless  on  conversion,  but  retain  their  other  habits,  though  the}'  refuse  the 
sacraments.     There  are  other  sects  named  Flagellants  and  Self-Burners. 

The  spiritual  or  spiritualistic  sects  are  also  numerous.     Many  conform 
outwardly  to  the  orthodox  worship,  but  really  care  nothing  for  its  forms  and 
ceremonies.      The    Sabbatniki,   who   keep   Saturday   instead   of        The 
Sunday,   regard   the  Mosaic   law  as   the  sole  Divine  revelation,  SaDDatnikl- 
consider  Christ  as  only  a  divinely  inspired  prophet,  and  look  for  a  Messiah  to 
come.     The  Duchoborzi  and  Molokani  sprang  from  a  common  stock,  but 
are  now  at  variance.     The  name  Duchoborzi  means  warriors  for  the  light 
or  Spirit ;    that  of  the  Molokani  signifies  milk-consumers,  from        The 
their  taking  milk   on  fast  days.     "The  Molokani,"  says  Sir  D.    Molokani. 
Mackenzie   Wallace,   in    his    "  Russia,"    "  take   as   their    model   the   early 
Apostolic  Church,  as  depicted  in  the  New  Testament,  and  uncompromisingly 
reject  all  later  authorities.     They  have  no  hierarchy,  and  no  paid  clergy, 
but   choose  from  among   themselves  a  presbyter  and   two  assistants,  men 
well  known  among  the  brethren  for  their  exemplary  life  and  their  knowledge 
of  the  Scriptures,  whose  duty  it  is  to  watch  over  the  religious  and  moral 
welfare  of  the  flock.     On  Sundays  they  hold  meetings  in  private  houses,  and 
spend  two  or  three  hours  in  psalm-singing,  prayer,  reading  the  Scriptures, 
and  friendly  conversation  on  religious  subjects."     Severe  moral  supervision 
is  exercised  over  the  members,  who,  however,  mutually  assist  one  another  in 
a  most  praiseworthy  manner.     They  baptise  their  children,  but  only  as  a 
symbolical  cleansing,  have  no  confirmation,  and  although  they  celebrate  the 
communion  in  memory  of  Christ,  do  not  require  participation  in  it.    Penance, 
marriage,  and  extreme  unction  are  not  counted  sacraments.    The  Duchoborzi 
have  tenets  much  more  speculative  and  mystic  than  the  Molokani,        The 
which   we   have   not  space   to   detail.      They  recognise   neither  Ducnooorzt 
priesthood  nor  sacraments,  keep  neither  Sundays  nor  festivals,  but  meet 
on  fixed  days  for  very  simple  prayer  and  worship.     They  have  a  strong 
tendency  towards  socialism,  and  are  reputed  to  be  very  moral,  and  admirable 
in  their  family  relations. 

There  are  other  sects  in  which  nervous  excitement  is  the  main  pheno- 
menon of  religion ;  but  as  these  add  very  little  to  our  ideas  about  religion 
beyond  showing  how  in  advanced  communities  we  may  meet  with  the  cha- 
racteristics of  lower  religious  grades,  we  do  not  detail  their  practices.  Some 
other  sects,  such  as  the  Mennonites,  who  are  widely  distributed  in  other 
countries  besides  Russia,  are  truly  Protestants,  and  we  therefore  do  not 
mention  them  here. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  monasteries  and  black  clergy  of  Russia. 

Those  of  Greece  follow  the  same  rule,  that  of  St.  Basil,  the  monks., 

,  '  Mount  Athos. 

performing  all  the  chief  occupations  between  them.     The  most 


8l2 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


celebrated  monasteries  of  the  Eastern  Church  are,  however,  those  of  Mount 
Athos,  or  the  Holy  Mountain,  some  of  which  were  founded  in  the  time  of 
Constantine.  Each  nation  professing  the  orthodox  faith  is  represented  by 
one  or  more  monasteries  of  its  own,  twenty  in  all,  and  to  it  come  pilgrims 
from  all  "  orthodox "  Eastern  Churches.  The  mountain  is  almost  self- 
governed,  by  twenty  deputies,  one  from  each  convent,  and  four  presidents, 
changed  every  year.  Only  a  small  number  of  the  monks  are  in  holy  orders, 
the  rest  being  lay  monks.  Ten  of  the  monasteries  are  coenobite,  all  members 
living  in  common.  Nearly  half  the  days  in  the  year  are  fast  days,  on  which 
only  one  meal  is  taken,  of  bread,  vegetables,  and  water.  The  abbot,  chosen 
for  life,  governs  the  coenobites ;  but  the  other  monasteries  are  administered 
by  two  or  three  wardens  elected  annually,  and  each  member  adds  to  the 
common  fare  what  he  can  afford  to  buy.  There  are  also  many  places  of 
ascetic  retirement  on  the  mountain,  every  nook  being  either  occupied  by  a 
hermitage  or  a  small  chapel.  The  services  in  the  convent  churches  last  six 
or  seven  hours  a  day,  while  on  great  festivals  and  fasts  they  occupy  twelve 
hours  or  more.     The  entire  number  of  monks  on  Mount  Athos  is  about  3000. 


ST.    MAUK  S,    VENICE. 
(Mainly  Byzantine  in  style.) 


POPE    GREGORY    VII.    (HILDEBRAND). 


CHAPTER    IX. 
Che  &muan  Cburil)  m  t\)t  iBttitile  3&e& 

Hildebrand — Leo  IX.— The  College  of  Cardinals— Hildebrand  made  Pope  Gregory  VII.— The  Dictate- 
Henry  IV.  at  Canossa — Concordat  of  Worms— First  Lateran  Council— Lanfranc  and  Anselm— 
Secondand  Third  Lateran  Councils— Pope  Innocent  III.— Fourth  Lateran  Council—  Tran substantia- 
tion and  Confession— Saint  Louis— Second  Council  of  Lyons— Pope  Bonifacs  VIII— The  Bull  "  Unam 
Sanctam  "—The  Babylonian  Captivity  at  Avignon— Heresy  of  John  XXII.— The  "beatific  vision" — 
Rival  Popes— John  Gerson— Council  of  Pisa— Dawn  of  the  Reformation— The  dispensing  power- 
Papal  legates— Power  of  the  keys— Penance— Indulgences— Supererogation— Relics  as  charms- 
Pilgrimages— Miracles— Mariolatry— The  "  real  presence  "—Elevation  and  adoration  of  the  Host  — 
Noble  Christian  works —Scholastic  Theology— Abelard— Thomas  Aquinas— Duns  Scotus— Roger 
Bacon— William  Durand — William  of  Occam— Degeneracy  of  Monasticism— Cluniac  congregation- 
Carthusians  and  Cistercians -Hospitallers— Brethren  of  St.  John— The  Templars— Carmelites — 
Mathur ins— Order  of  Mercy— St.  Dominic— The  Dominicans— St.  Francis  of  Assisi— St.  Clara  — 
The  Franciscans  or  Minorites —The  Sacred  Stigmata— Bonaventura— Corruptions— The  Spirituals 
—Millennial  Prophecy— The  Fraticelli— Conventuals  and  Observants— The  Minims— Beguines  and 
Beghards. 

FROM  the  tenth  century  onward  there  were  many  important  events  in 
Church  history,  but  they  were  largely  of  a  political  nature,  concerned 
with  the  control  the  Church  sought  to  exercise  over  priuces  and  States.     The 

813 


8 14  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS, 

first  great  name  is  that  of  Hildebrand  (afterwards  Pope  Gregory  VII.),  born 
in  Italy   ea*ly   in   the   eleventh  century,    becoming   a   monk  of 

HildpbrcLnd  

'  Clugny,  in  France,  and  thence  developing  the  policy  of  the  sub- 
serviency of  the  State  to  the  Church.     He  was  at  first  the  chief  minister  of 
Pope  Leo  IX.,  who  held  a  council  of  French  bishops  in  10-19,  at 
Rheims,  which  acknowledged  him  as  apostolic  pontiff  and  primate 
of  the  whole  Church,  and  accepted  the  false  Isidorian  decretals  as  Church 
law.     Leo  carried  his  assertion  of  Church  power  and  rights  very  far ;  but 
Hildebrand,  as  the  active  spirit  under  several  succeeding  Popes,  in  1061 
greatly  reduced  the  Emperor's  influence  in  the  choice  of  a  Pope  by  the 
establishment  of  the  elective  body  at  Rome,  afterwards  so  well  known  as 
the  College  of  Cardinals.    The  cardinals,  or  chief  bishops  and  clergy, 
of        had  been  so  named,  even  in  Gregory  the  Great's  time ;  and   in 
ar  ma  s.    jjome  fae  title  was  applied  to  the  priests  of  the  parish  churches. 
They  were  the  cardinal  priests,  to  whom  were  added  the  cardinal  bishops 
(seven)  of  the  Pope's  own  province,  who  assisted  at  St.  Peter's.     The  cardinal 
bishops  were  appointed  to  consult  together  about  an  election,  and  then  con- 
sult the  cardinal  priests ;  and  the  Emperor's  right  of  confirming  the  election 
was  recognised  in  a  very  qualified  manner,  as  a  grant  given  him  personally 
by  the  Apostolic  See. 

Hildebrand  became  Pope  in  1073,  and  at  once  asserted  boldly  the  Church's 
independence  of  all  outside  control,  her  sovereignty  over  all  worldly  powers, 

Hildebrand  as  we^  as  ^e  m^e  °^  ^ie  PaPacv  over  the  whole  Church.     Ill  the 

made  Pope  "  Dictate  "  which  represents  his  attitude,  it  is  affirmed  that  "  the 

regory      .  Roman  pontiff  alone  is  universal  bishop.     To  him  alone  it  belongs 

to  depose  or  to  reconcile  bishops ;  and  he  may  depose  them  in  their  absence, 

and  without  the  concurrence  of  a  synod.     He  alone  is  entitled  to  frame  new 

laws  for  the  Church — to  divide  or  unite  bishoprics,  or  translate 
The  Dictate.  ,  .   .  .  L  ' 

bishops.     He  alone  may  use  the  insignia  of  empire ;   all  princes 

are  bound  to  kiss  his  feet ;   he  has  the  right  to  depose  Emperors,  and  to 

absolve  subjects  from  their  allegiance.     His  power  supersedes  the  diocesan 

authority  of  bishops.     He  may  revise  all  judgments,  and  from  his  sentence 

there  is  no  appeal.     All  appeals  to  him.  must  be  respected,  and  to  him  the 

greater  causes  of  every  Church  must  be  referred.     No  Council  may  be  styled 

General  without  his  command.     The  Roman  Church  never  has  erred,  and 

as  Scripture  testifies;  never  will  err.     The  Pope  is  above  all  judgment,  and 

by  the  merits  of  St.  Peter,  is  undoubtedly  rendered  holy." 

Gregory  exerted  himself  vigorously  to  put  down  simony  and  enforce 

celibacy  among  the  clergy.    He  was  successful  in  putting  clown  the  Emperor's 

Henry  iv.  at  right  to  confer  investiture  on  bishops ;  and  he  had  the  triumph 

canossa.    0f  seeing  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  at  Canossa,  waiting  three  days, 

barefooted,  in  an  open  court,  in  winter  (Jan.  1077),  to  tender  his  submission 

to  him.     Gregory  died  (1085)  after  excommunicating  the  Emperor  and  the 

anti-pope  Clement  III.,  whom  he  had  set  up.      The  next  Popes  made  the 

Crusades  turn  to  their  advantage  in  enforcing  their  high  claims ;  and  the 

clergy  generally  gained  renewed  hold  on  nobles  and  people  by  the  vows 


THE  ROMAN  CHURCH  IN   THE   MIDDLE  AGES. 


8t5 


and  penances   laid    on    them.       Tlv>  Concordat  of    Worms   (1122),  between 
Pope  Calixtns  II.  and  the  Emperor  Henry  V.,  was  a  compromise  concordat  of 
which  gave  the  real  victory  to  the  Papacy,  while  allowing  pre-     worms. 
lates  to  receive  their  temporalities  from  the  Emperor.     The  pact  First  Lateran 
was  confirmed  by  the  first  Lateran  Council  (ninth  oecumenical     CouncU- 
of  the  Romans),  1123. 

In  England  Lanfranc  supported  William  I.  in  his  resistance  to  Roman 
encroachment ;  but  Anselm,  an  Italian  like  Lanfranc,  who  succeeded  him 
as  Abbot  of  Bee,  in  Normandy,  and  afterwards  as  Archbishop  of  Lanfranc  and 
Canterbury  (1093),  maintained  and  secured  the  full  Papal  claims,     Anselm. 
although  he  had  to  leave  to  Henry  I.  his  power  of  nominating  bishops  and 


HENRY    IV.    IN    TIIE    COURTYARD    AT    CANOSSA. 


his  feudal  rights  over  the  clergy.  In  power  of  thought  Anselm  was  almost 
a  second  Augustine,  and  has  been  termed  the  founder  of  natural  theology. 
He  held  that  belief  must  precede  knowledge,  and  that  the  truth  concerning 
God  is  the  foundation  and  end  of  all  knowledge.  His  "Proslogion,"  with 
the  motto,  "  Faith  seeking  Understanding,"  sought  to  demonstrate  the  exist- 
ence of  God  from  the  following  thesis:  "God  is  that  than  which  none 
greater  can  be  conceived  ;  and  he  who  well  understands  this  will  understand 
that  the  Divine  Being  exists  in  such  a  manner  that  His  non-existence  can- 
not even  be  conceived."  His  "  Cur  Deus  Homo  ?  "  is  a  treatise  of  funda- 
mental importance  on  the  question  of  the  Incarnation.     His  "  Meditations  " 


816  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

and  "  Letters "  show  sympathy,  fervour,  and  humble  faith.  He  died  in 
1109.  He  is  by  some  termed  the  founder  of  Scholastic  Theology,  by  others 
the  founder  of  modern  Systematic  Theology. 

We  must  only  briefly  note  some  of  the  further  stages  in  the  progress 
and  decline  of  the  Papal  supremacy.     The  Second  Lateran  Council  (1139), 
among  other  acts,  condemned  Arnold  of  Brescia,  who  preached 
Lateran     in  favour   of  a  spiritual   Church,  maintained  only  by   spiritual 
council.     means?  ailc[  hence  advocated  the  confiscation  of  the  wealth  of  the 
Church.     Pope  Alexander  III.  (1159-1181),  in  rivalry  with  successive  anti- 
popes,  showed  great  art  and  patience  in  carrying  out  the  views  which  Hil- 
debrand  had  enforced  more  violently.    In  alliance  with  him,  Thomas  Becket 
subdued  Henry  II.,  of  England,  to  the  Roman  claims.     The  third  Lateran 
Third  Lateran  Council  (1179)  settled  that  the  election  of  Popes  was  to  be  entirely 
council.      ^n  foe  hands   of  the  cardinals,   to    whom    were  added  certain 
officials  among  the  Soman  clergy.     Two- thirds  of  the  votes  were  required 
for    an    election.      This    council  was  the  first  which  sanctioned  crusades 
against  heretics,  the  Albigenses,  and  others.     (See  next  chapter.) 

Pope  Innocent  III.,  elected  in  1198,  carried  the  Papal  power  to  its 
highest  elevation.  He  was  extraordinarily  skilful  in  adapting  or  quoting 
Pope  innocent  Scripture  to  support  any  of  his  pretensions.  In  his  books  "  On  the 
ra-  Sacred  Mystery  of  the  Altar"  he  took  the  highest  ground  as  to  the 
superiority  of  St.  Peter  and  his  successors  at  Rome  over  all  the  Apostles 
and  bishops.  Privately  he  was  bountiful,  magnanimous,  hot-tempered, 
but  easily  appeased,  a  lover  of  poetry  and  music;  publicly,  though  he 
affected  extravagant  humility,  he  upheld  the  sternest  and  proudest  claims 
ever  put  forward  in  the  Papacy.  Over  the  rulers  as  well  as  Churches  of  Ger- 
many, England,  France,  Spain,  and  other  countries  he  successfully  asserted 
unlimited  supremacy.  Even  the  Armenian  Church  entered  into  communica- 
tion with  Rome,  and  its  patriarch  accepted  a  bull  from  Innocent,  and  agreed 
to  take  part  in  Papal  councils.  The  fifth  crusade  (1199)  led  to  the  capture  of 
Constantinople,  and  setting  up  of  a  Latin  Empire  there,  which,  however,  only 
increased  the  hostility  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches.  He  encour- 
aged the  military  orders,  which  added  to  the  dominions  of  Christianity,  the 
crusade  against  heretics,  and  the  foundation  of  the  mendicant  orders.  He 
not  only  endorsed  the  putting  down  of  heresy  by  persecution  and  even  death, 
but  was  so  illiberal  as  to  forbid  the  use  of  vernacular  translations  of  the 
Scriptures  by  the  laity,  and  to  order  them  to  be  burnt.  It  had  been  found 
that  the  people,  when  they  read  the  plain  teaching  of  the  Bible,  readily 
pointed  it  against  the  pretensions,  the  luxury,  and  the  corruption  of  the 
clergy,  and  hence  such  reading  was  found  dangerous. 

In  1215  Innocent  held  the  fourth  Lateran  Council,  which  included  in 

its  '2283  members  the  (nominal)  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  and  claim- 

Lateran     ants  of  the  (Latin)  patriarchate  of  Constantinople.     This  council, 

Council,     keg^es  supporting  the  highest  Papal  claims,  formally  declared 

Transubstan-  the  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation,  affirming  that  the  body  and 
tiation  and  , 

confession,  blood  of  Christ  are  truly  contained  m  the  sacrament  under  the 


THE  ROMAN  CHURCH  IN  THE    MIDDLE  AGES.  817 


outward  appearance  of  bread  and  wine,  their  very  substance  being  changed 
by  the  power  of  God  through  the  instrumentality  of  a  priest  duly  ordained. 
The  Council  also  fully  sanctioned  auricular  confession,  and  made  it  obligatory 
on  every  Catholic  to  confess  to  his  own  parish  priest  at  least  once  a  year. 
Innocent  died  in  1*216. 


ST.    LOUIS    DEPOSITING    IN    ME    SAINTE  CHAPE  LLE    AT    PARIS    THE    RELICS    BROUGHT    FROM    THE    EAST. 

Gregory  IX.  (1227-1241)  and  Boniface  VIII.  (1294-1303)  were  great 
popes  who,  with  varying  success,  upheld  the  ideal  of  Innocent ;  but  Louis 
IX.  of  France  (1226-1270),  who,  though  a  layman,  was  canonised,  and  has 
received  from  Voltaire  the  testimony,  "  It  is  not  given  to  man  to  carry  virtue 

3  G 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


to  a  higher  point,"  successfully  asserted  the  liberties  of  the  Gallic  Church, 
saint  Louis.  anfl  tliat  "tlie  kmg  °*  France  holdeth  of  no  one  save  God  and  him- 
*  self."    His  famous  "  Pragmatic1  Sanction"  (1269)  forbad  exactions 
by  the   pope,  unless  sanctioned  by  the  king  and  the  Gallic  Church,  and 
asserted  the  rights  of  Churches  to  elect  their  own  bishops,  and  of  patrons 
to  exercise  their  patronage,  without  papal  interference.     He  drove  out  the 
Jews  and  forbade  usury,  but  did  not  confiscate  their  property.     Though  he 
believed  heresy  should  be  put  down  by  the  sword,  he  had  no  part  in  the 
cruelties  practised    in  Languedoc.     Gregory  X.,  pope  from  1271  to  1276, 
second     endeavoured  to  unite  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  at  the 
CLUynoCns0f   Second  Council  of  Lyons  (1274),  which  was  attended  by  ambas- 
sadors from  Michael  Paleologus,  the  Greek  Emperor  then  seated 
at  Constantinople.     They  agreed  on  his  behalf  to  the  Roman  doctrines  and 
ceremonies, '  accepted    the   primacy  of  the   pope,  and  chanted  the  Nicene 
Creed  with  the  "  Filioque  "  article  ;  but  all  this  was  fruitless  in  producing 
a  formal  or  real  union.     The  Council  also  established  a  fixed  rule  for  the 
papal  election  by  the  assembly  of  cardinals,  who  were  to  be  shut  up  in  one 
room  (conclave,  a  room  under  lock  and  key),  each  with  one  attendant,  and 
confined  until  the  election  was  made. 

Benedict  Gaetani,  who  as  pope  took  the  title  Boniface  VIII.,  was  a 
learned  but  arrogant  and  passionate  prelate,  who  by  a  succession  of  "  Bulls  " 
Po  reasserted  the  highest  claims  of  the  papacy.     His  famous  Bull, 

viii.        entitled,  from  its  first  words,  "Unam  Sanctam,"  asserted  the  unity 
The  Bull    °^  ^ie  Church  under  one  head,  the  Vicar  of  Christ,  wielding  the 
"  unam     "  two  swords  "  which  Christ  declared  to  be  "  enough,"  namely  the 
spiritual  and  the  temporal ;  and  that  the  temporal  power  is  to  be 
subject  to  the  spiritual.     The  Bull  concluded  with  the  declaration  that  "  it 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  salvation  for  every  human  creature  to  be  subject 
to  the  Roman  pontiff!  "     This  extreme  straining  of  the  papal  power  was  the 
precursor  of  its   declension,  and  of  the  long  "Babylonian   captivity"  which 
The  "  Babyion-f°^owe(^  (1304— 1378),  during  which  the  popes   were  seated,  not 
ian  captivity"at  Rome,  but  at  Avignon,  and  the  papal  court  was  practically  in 
subjection  to  France.     One  of  the  popes  of  this  time,  John  XXII. 
(1316-1334),  incurred  a  charge  of  heresy  on  a  new  ground  in  our  subject, 
Heresy  of  the  doctrine  of  the  intermediate  state  between  death  and  the 
John  xxii.  resurrection.     He  held  with  several  early  Fathers,  that  the  souls 
of  the  righteous  do  not  see  God  or  attain  perfect  bliss  till  after  the  resur- 
rection of  the  body  ;  and  he  was  reported  to  have  said  that  the  Virgin  Mary 
could  only  behold  the  humanity,  not  the  divinity,  of  her  Son,  until  the  end 
of  this  dispensation.     The   Paris  theological  faculty  gave  a  decision  on  this 
point  which  stated  that  the  souls  of  the  faithful  dead  (on  their  release  from 
purgatory,  if  they  needed  purgation)  are  caught  up  to  the   "  beatific  vision" 
The  "Beatific  of  the  Trinity,  and  perfectly  enjoy  the  Blessed  Deity.    While  this 
vision."   was  keing  discussed,  the  pope  died,  at  the  age  of  90  (1334).     The 

1  The  term  "  pragmatic  "  signified  an  edict  issued  after  consultation  {pragma)  with 
the  king's  counsellors. 


THE   ROMAN  CHURCH  IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES.  819 

return  of  the  pope  to  Rome  in   1377,   at  the  entreaty  of  St.  Catherine  of 

Siena,  was   followed  by  the  great  papal  schism  (1378-1417),  during  which 

rival  popes  at  Rome  and  Avignon  divided  the  allegiance  of  the 

faithful.     Gross  evils  increased  in  the  papacy  and  hierarchy,  and 

already  the  Reformation  was  dawning  in  the  persons  of  Wvclif,  Jerome  of 

Prague,  and  John  Huss.      The  famous  John    Gerson  in  1404-9  .  ..    „ 

.  .  .  John  Gerson. 

contributed  to  settle  the  schism  by  suggesting  that  when  there 

were  rival  popes,  the  Church,  by  the  cardinals  or  even  by  faithful  laymen, 

might  resume  the  power  to  call  a  general  Council  to  settle  the  difficulty;  and 

he  greatly  lowered  the  papal  claims.    The  council,  which  met  at  Pisa  in  1409, 

deposed  both  popes,  and  thus  struck  vitally  at  the  papal  authority  council  of 

by  asserting  that  a  general  Council  was  superior  to  the  papacy.       Plsa- 

But  while  the  two  deposed  popes  continued  to  act,  the  new  pope,  Alexander 

V.,  lavished  offices  on  the  Franciscans,  and  gave  the  mendicant  orders  the 

right  to  hear  confessions  and  administer  the  sacraments  independently  of 

bishops  and   parish  priests.     The  accession  of  John  XXIII.  in  Dawn  0f  tne 

1410,  followed  by  the  Council  of  Constance  in  1414,  at  which  Reformation. 

John  Huss  was  condemned,  brings  in  the  period  of  the  Reformation. 

We  have  sufficiently  indicated  the  growth  of  the  papal  and  priestly 

claims,  together  with  the  wealth  of  the  Church.    Perhaps  the  most  injurious 

action  of  the  papacy  in  reference  to  the  welfare  of  mankind,  was        T. 

in  its  assumption  of  the  "  dispensing  power,"  as  it  was  termed,  dispensing 

by  which  the  pope  not  only  granted  indemnity  for  past  offences, 

but  even  for  future  ones.     The  marriage  laws  and  the  sacredness  of  oaths 

were  thus  placed  at  the  mercy  of  a  man  Avho  too  often  showed  himself 

venal.     And  when  the  papal  legates  in  various  countries  usurped  the  papal 

functions,  and  acted  as  autocrats  wherever  they  went,  it  is  not  wonderful 

that   the   people   revolted.      In   the   letters  of   St.  Bernard  we   find   such 

pictures   as  these :     "  Your  legate    has    passed  from   nation    to      papal 

nation,  everywhere  leaving  foul  and  horrible  traces  among  us.     le&ates. 

.     .     .     He  is  reported  everywhere  to  have  committed  disgraceful  deeds,  to 

have  carried  off  the  spoils  of  the  Church,  to  have  advanced  pretty  little 

boys  to  ecclesiastical  honours.     .     .     .     Many  have  bought  themselves  off, 

that  he  might  not  come  to  them  ;  those  whom  he  could  not  visit,  he  taxed 

and  squeezed  by  his  messengers."     The  Roman  court  became  full  of  rich 

prelates  and  priests,  whose  worldliness  and  evil  practices  were  worse  than  the 

worst  things  recorded   of  the  Pharisees.     The  superstition  of  the  people, 

especially  the  rich,  led  them  to  give  or  bequeath   their  property  to  the 

-Church,  either  in  remorse  for  their  misdeeds,  or  to  secure  benefits  in  the 

world  to   come.     The  crusades,   about  which  we   cannot  speak  in  detail, 

ministered  to  this  increase  of  wealth ;   for  the  Church  often  bought  lands 

at  a  low  price  from  crusaders  in  want  of  money.     Tithes  on  land   were 

paid  for  Church  purposes  from  the  eighth  century  onwards,  and  were  also 

largely  paid  on  the  earnings  of  trades  and  professions.     Pluralities  became 

frequent,  and  the  holders  lived  in  state  at  courts  ;  and  there  were  many 

clergy  occupied  as  the  chaplains  of  great  men,  who  rejected  the  discipline 


82o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

of  bishops,  and  contributed  to  bring  the  Church  into  ill  repute.  The  people 
came  to  despise  the  regular  clergy  for  the  most  part,  and  to  accept  only  the 
ministrations  of  the  monks,  and  later  of  the  mendicant  orders.  The  Scrip- 
tures were  little  studied,  though  copies  were  highly  valued,  and  the  people 
knew  more  of  the  lives  of  the  saints  than  of  the  Bible.  One  of  the  chief 
sources  of  popular  religious  knowledge  was  the  performance  of  Miracle-plays 
or  Mysteries. 

Sacramentalism  of  the  mechanical  sort  became  a  substitute  for  heart- 
felt religion.  The  prescription  of  auricular  confession,  at  least  once  a  year, 
Power  of  the  threw  enormous  power  into  the  priests'  hands.  Previously  to  the 
Keys-  thirteenth  century,  the  form  of  absolution  had  been  in  the  form 
of  a  prayer,  which  marked  that  the  power  of  forgiveness  belonged  to  God 
alone  ;  but  the  change  from  "  May  God  grant  thee  absolution  and  remis- 
sion," to  "  I  absolve  thee,"  made  all  the  difference  in  the  influence  of  the 
priest  on  the  mind  of  the  person  confessing  ;  and  this  was  further  increased 
by  the  doctrine  that  remission  was  given,  in  spite  of  any  evil  in  the 
priest.  The  power  of  imposing  penances  as  satisfaction  for  sin,  in  addition 
to  the  merits  of  Christ,  and  the  Church's  absolution,  gave  rise 
to  vast  abuses.  Penalties,  beneficial,  burdensome,  or  trivial,  were 
imposed  at  the  will  of  the  priest,  and  correspondingly  relieved  the  mind  of 
the  sinner.  Pilgrimages,  gifts,  the  founding  of  churches  and  monasteries, 
fasts,  flagellation,  and  various  forms  of  self-mortification,  were  among  the 
penalties  thus  imposed.  But  perhaps  the  worst  form  which  the  priestly 
power  took  was  the  granting  of  indulgences,  at  first  for  specific 
gene  .  0£pences^  -foiti  afterwards  for  all  sins,  in  consideration  of  special 
services  or  gifts  to  the  Church.  Gregory  VII.  in  1080  promised  plenary 
indulgence  for  all  sins  to  those  who  supported  Henry  IV.'s  rival,  Rudolf; 
and  Urban  II.,  in  1095,  granted  the  same  to  all  who  should  join  the  First 
Crusade.  The  idea  that  priests  could  remit  penalties,  not  only  in  this  world, 
but  in  the  world  to  come,  grew  apace,  and  brought  back  or  condoned  a 
state  of  things  which  began  to  rival  the  worst  state  of  heathen  Rome.  And 
beyond  even  the  granting  of  indulgences,  there  grew  up  a  theory  that  the 
Church  could  grant  to  deserving  penitents  some  of  the  merits  accumulated 
by  the  sufferings  and  good  deeds  of  the  faithful,  and  of  Christ  Himself. 
The  scholastic  divines,  of  whom  we  shall  presently  speak,  elaborated  this 
super-  into  the  "  Treasury  of  Supererogation,"  on  which  the  Church 
erogation.  could  draw,  in  virtue  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  not  only  for 
the  benefit  of  the  living,  but  also  of  the  dead  in  purgatory ;  though  they 
laid  most  stress  on  the  merits  of  Christ  Himself  as  availing  in  this  respect. 
As  to  purgatory  (or  the  state  of  those  who  die  imperfect  Christians),  the 
sufferings  of  the  departed  therein  were  held  to  be  mitigable  by  the  faith  and 
the  prayers  of  their  living  friends  and  of  the  Church ;  and  the  prayers  of 
the  latter  were  largely  secured  by  payments  and  works  of  charity  or  of 
value  to  the  Church.  Indulgences  were  granted  for  limited  periods  and  on 
very  slight  proof  of  penitence  by  many  monks  and  mendicant  friars,  and 
the  Dominicans  introduced  the  use  of  the  rosary,  a  string  of  beads  for  count- 


THE   ROMAN  CHURCH  IN   THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


821 


ing  the  number  of  prayers,  the  recitation  of  a  fixed  number  sufficing  to 
procure  an  indulgence.  The  open  sale  of  indulgences,  followed  by  ihe 
increase  of  impostors  who  assumed  the  garb  of  mendicant  friars,  and  offered 
the  pardon  of  all  sins  for  the  merest  trifle,  while  by  their  clever  talking  they 
deceived  the  ignorant,  at  length  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  powerful 
influences  which  started  the  Reformation.    The  sale  of  relics,  often  supposed 


AMIENS    CATHEDKAL    (1220). 

to  be  brought  back  from  the  Holy  Land,  attained  large  proportions,  and 
supplied  the  masses  with  charms  supposed  to  ward  off  or  cure    Relics  as 
diseases  and  protect  from  other  evils.     Pilgrimages,  not  merely     cha™s- 
to  Palestine,  but  to  Rome,  or  to  famous  shrines,  such  as  that  of  Pilgrimages. 
St.  James  at  Compostella  in  Spain,  were  a  common  mode  of   atoning  for 
crimes,  or  obtaining  plenary  indulgences  ;  but  not  infrequently  these  vows, 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


made  in  danger  or  illness,  were  commuted,  for  money  payments,  in  favour 

of  less  onerous  ones.      At  the  shrines  of  the  saints,  many  miracles  were 

reported  and  believed  to  be  performed  on  the  sick  who  waited  and  pra}7ed. 

It  would  be  fruitless  to  detail  the  Ions;  list  of  marvellous  phe- 

IVIir3.clGS 

nomena  reported  to  have  been  displayed  by  sacred  pictures  and 
statues,  miraculous  appearances,  and  phenomena  of  bleeding  wounds,  stig- 
mata, etc.,  produced  on  believers.  Mental  impressions,  hysterical  imagin- 
ings, credulity,  and  deceit,  all  combined  to  render  the  belief  in  such 
phenomena  almost  universal.  Thus  it  was  natural  that  the  worship  before 
such  pictures  and  statues  as  were  reputed  miraculous,  should  in  many  cases 
become  indistinguishable  from  worship  of  the  pictures  and  statues  them- 
selves ;  and  that  the  saints  represented  by  them,  or  the  patron  saints  of 
churches  and  places,  should  be  regarded  almost  as  divine. 

Every  exaltation  of  the  saints  was  reflected  in  a  further  exaltation  of 
the  honour  paid  to  the  Virgin  Mary.    The  use  of  the  term  "  Mother  of  God  " 

(see  pp.  769,  781)  powerfully  promoted  the  tendency  to  pray  to  her 
'  as  a  female  mediator,  and  festivals  in  her  honour  were  multiplied. 
The  "Annunciation"  festival,  popularly  "Lady  Day,"  was  established 
probably  in  the  fifth  century ;  then  followed  the  Nativity  of  the  Virgin 
(Sept.  8).  Instead  of  the  Presentation  of  Christ  in  the  Temple,  Mary's 
"  Purification  "  was  celebrated,  and  still  later  her  imagined  "  Presentation," 
or  dedication  to  the  Temple  service,  was  kept  as  a  festival.  It  was  con- 
jectured in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  that  she  had  never  died ;  and  in 
813,  at  the  Council  of  Mainz,  the  "  Assumption  "  of  the  Virgin  was  instituted 
as  a  festival.  One  order  after  another  of  monks  took  her  for  their  patron 
saint.  Preachers  vied  with  one  another  in  extolling  her  merits,  and  exciting 
the  people  to  worship  her.  She  was  described  as  "  the  Queen  of  Heaven," 
and  the  language  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  was  freely  applied  to  her.  The 
scheme  of  creation  and  redemption  by  Christ  was  brought  about  "  through 
her,  and  in  her,  and  of  her,  and  with  her,"  so  that  "  as  without  Him  nothing 
was  made,  so  without  her  nothing  should  be  made."  The  Assumption 
is  described  as  "  that  sublime  day  on  which  the  royal  Virgin  was  carried 
to  the  throne  of  God  the  Father,  and  enthroned  on  the  very  seat  of 
the  Trinity."  Her  mediation  was  represented  as  all-powerful,  and  even 
authoritative.  "  Thou  approachest  to  that  golden  altar  of  man's  recon- 
ciliation, not  only  asking,  but  commanding."  So  preached  Peter  Damiani, 
the  great  friend  of  Pope  Gregory  VII.  And  St.  Bernard  says  that  "  God 
has  willed  that  we  should  have  all  things  through  Mary.  .  .  .  Have 
recourse  to  Mary.  He  will  hear  her  as  a  son  his  mother,  and  the  Father 
will  hear  the  Son ;  "  and  a  new  technical  term  was  invented  to  signify  the 
adoration  that  might  be  paid  to  her.  The  monasteries  and  the  churches 
generally  adopted  special  forms  of  service  in  her  honour,  and  to  pray  for  her 
intercession  and  help,  known  as  the  "Office  of  St.  Mary."  Saturday  was  a 
special  day  for  masses  in  her  honour  ;  and  in  1095  Urban  II.,  at  the  Council 
of  Clermont  appointed  her  "  Hours  "  to  be  said  daily,  and  her  "  Office  "  on 
Saturdays.     The  Salutation  of  the  angel  to  her,  "Ave  Maria,"  was  repeated 


THE  ROMAN  CHURCH  IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES.  S23 

continually,  and  was  gradually  expanded  in  later  centuries  to  its  present 
form.  The  Dominicans  brought  in  the  use  of  the  rosary,  for  counting  by 
means  of  beads  the  number  of  "  aves  "  recited  with  prayers  for  the  Virgin's 
intercession  in  the  hour  of  death.  The  rosary  of  150  beads  was  divided  into 
sets  of  ten  ;  each  bead  passed  signified  an  "  ave  "  recited,  and  after  every 
ten  "  aves  "  the  Lord's  Prayer  ("  Pater  Noster  ")  was  said  :  the  whole  con- 
cluded with  the  Creed  ("Credo").  The  thirteenth  century  produced  the 
"  Marian  Psalter,"  lesser  and  greater,  in  which  the  Psalms  and  Scriptures 
generally  were  adapted  to  express  the  perfection  of  the  Virgin.  Thus, 
"  The  Lord  said  to  our  Lady,  Sit,  Mother,  on  My  right  hand  .  .  .  thou 
shalt  reign  with  Me  for  ever."  As  early  as  the  sixth  century  she  had  been 
regarded  as  free  from  actual  sin,  though  not  from  "  original  sin."  About 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  it  was  proposed  to  establish  a  festival  of 
her  "  Conception  "  as  being  holy  and  sinless  ;  but  St.  Bernard  strongly 
censured  this,  though  he  says  that  "  beyond  all  doubt  the  Mother  of  the 
Lord  was  holy  before  she  was  born."  The  University  of  Paris  declared 
the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin  a  probable  opinion  in  1387 ;  but 
it  was  reserved  for  the  present  century  to  see  this  elevated  into  an  article 
of  faith,  when  in  1854  Pope  Pius  IX.  declared  dogmatically  that  the  Virgin 
had  been  conceived  immaculately,  and  was  absolutely  exempt  from  both 
original  and  actual  sin,  and  that  to  contradict  this  is  heresy. 

We  have  already  noted  the  enunciation  of  the  doctrine  of  the  "  real 
presence  "  and  of  "  transubstantiation  "  in  the  Eucharist,  and  cannot  here 
note  all  the  stages  and  forms  which  the  discussion  assumed,  es-  The  "Real 
pecially  in  connection  with  Berengarius  of  Tours,  in  the  eleventh  Presence" 
century,  and  his  followers.  When  the  doctrine  had  been  finally  settled  by 
Thomas  Aquinas  in  its  materialistic  form,  greater  sanctity  attached  to  the 
elements  of  the  Eucharist.  Infant  communion  became  less  frequent,  and 
was  at  last  discontinued.  Special  precautions  were  taken  against  spilling  or 
profaning  in  any  way  the  wine  changed  into  the  very  blood  of  Christ ;  and 
in  the  twelfth  century  the  withholding  of  the  cup  entirely  from  the  laity 
began,  justified  by  such  a  principle  as  that  of  Anselm,  "  that  the  whole 
Christ  is  taken  in  either  kind,"  and  gradually  this  became  the  rule.  In  the 
eleventh  century  the  elevation  of  the  consecrated  bread  as  the  Elevation  and 
"Host,"  after  consecration,  was  introduced;  and  after  the  Lateran  adoration 
decree,  in  1215,  this  act  was  the  signal  for  "adoration"  of  the 
present  Christ,  and  all  persons  were  bidden  to  kneel  before  it,  whether  in 
church  or  when  it  was  carried  to  sick  persons  through  the  streets.  Finally 
a  special  festival  in  honour  of  the  Consecrated  Host  (Corpus  Christi)  was 
instituted,  in  1264.  The  reverence  and  mystery  attaching  to  the  Sacrament 
caused  the  laity  to  communicate  less  frequently,  and  it  became  sufficient  to 
communicate  once  a  3'ear ;  while  masses  said  by  the  priests,  for  money 
payments,  were  supposed  to  be  efficacious,  whether  the  persons  paying 
were  present  or  not. 

Yet  we  must  do  justice  to  the  piety  that  lived  in  these  ages,  to  the 
noble  works  that  many  Christians  then  achieved  in  the  founding  of  hos- 


824  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

pitals,  in  service  to  the  poor,  in  the  foundation  of  colleges  and  schools,  and 
Noble  in, the  erection  of  magnificent  monastic  and  ecclesiastical  build- 
christian  ings.  To  these  ages  we  owe  our  finest  churches,  in  the  succes- 
wor  s'  sive  styles  of  Gothic  architecture — Norman,  Early  English, 
Decorated,  and  Perpendicular — which  it  is  the  despair  of  modern  architects 
to  rival.  Art  took  refuge  in  the  monasteries,  and  produced  statuary  and 
carving  in  profusion,  not  deeming  it  profane  to  decorate  churches  with 
subjects  of  a  secular  nature.  Stained  glass,  illuminated  manuscripts,  em- 
broidered vestments  and  altar  cloths,  testify  to  the  growing  appreciation  of 
art,  zeal  in  artistic  work,  and  consecration  of  it  to  divine  service.  No  one 
should  imagine  that  because  some  of  the  forms  it  took  are  not  such  as  we 
appreciate,  and  many  Churchmen  of  the  middle  ages  were  corrupt,  that 
therefore  piety  was  extinct  or  less  real  than  in  early  or  later  days.  Good 
men  achieved  marvels  then  as  now,  in  spite  of  their  imperfections  and  the 
corruption  by  which  they  were  surrounded. 

The  steps  by  which  the  Scholastic  Theology  was  developed  and  con- 
nected with  Arabian  and  Aristotelian  learning  would  demand  a  lengthy 
Scholastic  recital :  we  can  but  note  that  medieval  theologians  based  their 
Theology.  svstems  very  largely  upon  Aristotelian  logic.  The  controversies 
of  the  Nominalists  and  Realists,  of  the  Thomists  (disciples  of  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas) and  Scotists  (followers  of  Duns  Scotus),  if  of  minor  interest  now,  were 
both  necessary  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  present,  and  of  great  im- 
portance in  their  time.  Somehow  a  deficiency  was  felt  in  the  old  presen- 
tations of  doctrine,  and  it  was  sought  to  re-dress  theology  in  a  scientific 
logical  form,  granting  the  authority  of  Scripture  and  of  the  general  councils. 
Peter  Abelard  (1079-1142),  whose  renown  did  much  to  promote 
the  growth  of  the  University  of  Paris,  was  the  first  great  ration- 
alist theologian,  teaching  "that  nothing  could  be  believed  unless  it  was 
first  understood,  and  that  it  was  ridiculous  for  any  one  to  preach  to  others 
that  which  neither  he  himself,  nor  those  whom  he  taught,  comprehended." 
His  "  Introduction  to  Theology  "  caused  him  to  be  denounced  as  a  tritheist, 
and  he  had  to  stand  alone  against  varied  types  of  holy  men,  such  as  E-os- 
cellin,  Norbert,  and  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  All  through  his  theological 
teaching  he  called  in  question  received  opinions,  without  desiring  to  be 
unorthodox.  He  made  a  collection  of  158  controverted  questions,  with  the 
varied  opinions  of  theologians  contrasted  and  set  opposite  one  another 
under  the  headings  Sic  et  non.  As  a  destructive  critic  his  tendencies  were 
rightly  censured  by  the  Church  from  its  own  point  of  view;  but  his  teaching 
had  considerable  germinal  influence,  though  overlaid  by  the  more  powerful 
orthodoxy  of  Thomas  Aquinas. 

The  Schoolmen,  properly  so  called,  were  the  unflinching  advocates  of 
orthodox  faith,  and  at  the  same  time  devoted  to  its  reconcilement  with  or 
explanation  by  reasoning.  Briefly  noting  the  priors  of  the  abbey  of  St. 
Victor,  outside  Paris,  in  the  twelfth  century,  with  their  mottoes,  "  We  can 
only  know  God  by  loving  Him,"  and  "You  have  just  as  much  power  as 
you  have  grace";  John  of  Salisbury;  Peter  Lombard  (died  1164),  author  of. 


THE  ROMAN   CHURCH  IN   THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


825 


Four  Books  of  "Sentences,"  containing  the  teachings  of  the  Latin  Fathers, 
arranged  so  as  to  support  the  dogmas  of  the  Church,  which  became  a 
text-book  of  theology  for  three  centuries;  Alexander  Hales  (died  1246), 
surnamed  "the  Irrefragable  Doctor,"  author  of  a  complete  Summary  of  Theo- 
logy ;  and  Albertus  Magnus  (1193-1280),  "the  Universal  Doctor,"  who 
wrote  21  folio  volumes  which  survive,  besides  many  that  are  lost,  Thomas 
and  taught  a  kind  of  eclectic  philosophy;  we  come  to  Thomas  A(*uinas. 
Aquinas   (1226-1274),    the    prince   of   scholastics,   whose  teaching  has  by 


ST.    ELIZABATH    OF    HUNGAHY    WASHING    THE    LEPE11S. 


Pope  Leo  XIII.  been  declared  to  represent  most  perfectly  the  mind  of  the 
Church,  and  is  still  mastered  by  all  who  pretend  to  theological  learning  in 
the  Roman  communion.  He  was  a  son  of  a  count  of  Aquino  in  Apulia, 
Italy,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  having  already  shown  extraordinary  ability, 
entered  the  Dominican  order.  After  pupilage  under  Albert  the  Great,  he 
was,  in  his  twenty-third  year,  appointed  second  professor  in  the  Dominican 
school  at  Cologne,  and  in  1257  was  inducted  into  a  theological  chair  at 
Paris;  afterwards,  at  the  pope's  command,  lecturing  through  several  univer- 
sities of  Italy,  advising  the  pope  on  difficult  questions,  and  writing  con- 
tinually, at  last  settling  at  Naples,  dying  early  of  his  asceticism  and  immense 


826 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


intellectual  activity.  His  "  Summa  Theologica"  is  an  encyclopaedia  of 
divinity,  discussing  the  arguments  for  the  existence  of  God,  the  Divine 
nature  and  attributes,  the  Trinity,  the  end  and  nature  of  man,  virtues  and 
vices,  the  Incarnation  of  Christ,  the  Sacraments,  etc.  Its  plan  is  to  present 
for  discussion  some  question  or  proposition,  to  state  as  strongly  as  possible 
the  arguments  urged  for  a  wrong  solution,  and  then  to  give  the  orthodox 
decision  and  the  authorities  or  reasons  for  it,  from  the  Bible,  the  Fathers, 
Aristotle,  etc.  Every  imaginable  discussion  is  gone  through  concerning  all 
the  terms,  such  as  essence,  spirit,  personality,  substance,  etc  ;  and  the  whole 
is  an  astonishing  feat  of  logic.  In  fact,  it  sums  up  all  the  knowledge  and 
thought  about  the  universe  which  had  then  been  attained.  He  also  wrote 
voluminous   commentaries   on   Aristotle,  on   large   portions   of   the   Bible, 

treatises  against  all  kinds  of  errors  and 
heresies,  and  against  the  Greek  Church, 
tracts  in  favour  of  the  monastic  life,  etc. 
He  was  known  as  "  the  Angelic  Doctor," 
and  was  canonised,  by  John  XXII.  in 
1323. 

Yet  there  were  many  who  dissented 
from  Aquinas  on  numerous  points,  and 
the  Franciscans  in  particular 
followed  Duns  Scotus,  the 
"  Subtle  Doctor,"  a  British  member  of 
their  order  (1274-1308),  many  of  whose 
works  were  written  in  answer  to  Aquinas. 
He  taught  at  Oxford,  Paris,  and  Cologne, 
where  he  died.  He  followed  Plato  in 
many  points,  was  accused  of  being  a 
semi-Pelagian,  and  was  a  supporter  of 
the  growing  dogma  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  of  the  Virgin.  He  has  been 
termed  "  the  acutest  and  most  penetrat- 
ing spirit  of  the  middle  ages."  Milman 
calls  him  "an  Aristotelian  beyond  Aristotle,  a  Platonist  beyond  Plato;  at 
the  same  time  the  most  orthodox  of  theologians." 

How  insufficient  the  systems  of  the  Schoolmen  were  to  settle  every- 
thing upon  heaven  and  earth  had  already  been  discovered  by  the  great 


Duns  Scotus. 


ST.    THOMAS   AQUINAS. 


Roger  Bacon. 


Franciscan,  Roger  Bacon  (1214-1294),  who  besides  his  wonderful 
researches  in  physical  science  was  no  mean  theologian,  and  in 
1292  wrote  a  compendium  of  theology,  in  which  he  exposed  the  prevalent 
lack  of  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  too  great  use  of  philosophy  in  dis- 
cussing theology,  and  the  neglect  of  practical  studies,  such  as  languages, 
mathematics,  and  physical  sciences,  most  calculated  to  aid  theological 
studies.  He  discouraged  the  high  methods  of  scholastic  theology,  while  he 
pointed  out  that  many  things  most  conducive  to  salvation  were  easy  to  be 
understood,  and  that  a  simple  friar  who  had  not  heard  a  hundred  lectures  on 


THE  ROMAN  CHURCH  IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES. 


827 


theology,  and  had  not  cared  for  them  if  he  hadj  yet  preached  incomparably 
better  than  the  greatest  masters  of  theologj'". 

A  man  of  a  different  type  was  a  Dominican,  William  Durand,  a  pro- 
fessor at  Paris  and  Avignon  early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  who  boldly 
settled    any  question,   and   not   infrequently  tended   to    heresy,     wimam 
Thus  he  showed  that  it  was  an  early  opinion  that  the  sacraments     DuraQd- 
have  no  inherent  power  of  giving  grace ;    but  that  the  recipient  receives 
grace  from  God,  unless  he  interposes  an  obstacle.      "William  of  Occam,  or 
Ockham,  in  Surrey,  a  Franciscan  and  a  pupil  of  Duns  Scotus,  waiiam  of 
took  the  novel  side  for  an  ecclesiastic,  of  supporting  the  rights  of      Occam, 
kings  against  the  pope,  to  whom  he  denied  any  authority  in  secular  affairs, 
after  the  example  of  Christ.      In  discussing  the  central  doctrines  of  the 
Church,  he  guarded  his  orthodoxy  care- 
fully, as  in  the  case  of  transubstantiation, 
in  which  he  pronounced  for  one  theory 
as  "most  reasonable,  had  not  the  Church 
determined  the  contrary."     In  these  dis- 
cussions, however  much  the  Schoolmen 
stuck  by  the  Church's  doctrine,  the  fact 
of  the  discussion  was  gradually  accustom- 
ing men's  minds  to  regard  questions  as 
open  which  later  were  to  be  the  subject 
of  striking  new  developments.     A  dawn 
of  more  exact  study  is  to  be  seen  in  the 
labours  of  Nicolaus  de  Lyra,    to  whose 
commentaries  on  the  sacred  text  Luther 
was  much  indebted,    and   of  Raymond 
Lully,   who  travelled  widely,  acquiring 
various  languages,  and  in  1311  securing 
the  establishment  of  chairs  of  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  and  Arabic  in  the  universities 
of   Paris,    Bologna,    Oxford,    and    Sala- 
manca. 

In  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  monasteries  had  grown  numerous  and 
rich,  and  sometimes  corrupt.     With  the  evil  came  the  reaction,  and  younger 
and   more   saintly  men  founded  new  monasteries  or  sought   to  „ 
reform  old  ones.     The  monks  kept  themselves  distinct  from  the   ofmonas- 
secular  clergy,  calling  themselves  specially  "  religious,"  as  if  re-      tlclsm' 
ligion  could  be  most  really  pursued  in  retirement  from  "  the  world."     Each 
monastery  usually  elected  its  own  head  or  abbot,  and  professed  allegiance 
specially  to  the  pope,  as  far  as  possible  rejecting  episcopal  control.    Indeed,  in 
most  cases  the  popes  expressly  exempted  them  from  it,  and  granted  the  abbots 
the  right  to  wear  the  episcopal  ring  and  other  insignia,  exemption  from 
tithes,  and  from  interdicts  and  from  sentences  of  excommunication  except 
by  themselves. 

Early  in  the  tenth  century  a  reformed  society  was  founded  at  Clugny 


ST.    CATHERINE    OF    SIENA    (p.  819). 


828  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

in  Burgundy,  which  was  destined  to  have  a  wide  influence.  Its  strict 
ciuniac  con-  rn^e  and  g°°d  administration  made  it  so  famous  that  most  of  the 
gTegation.  French  monasteries  adopted  its  rule  and  placed  themselves  in 
connection  with  it,  forming  the  Ciuniac  congregation,  which  in  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century  numbered  2,000  cloisters.  The  abbey  grew  wealthy 
and  powerful ;  its  vast  basilica,  built  between  1089  and  1131,  was  the  largest 
in  Christendom  till  the  construction  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  The  foundation 
was  finally  suppressed  in  1790.  Pope  Gregory  VII.  (Hildebrand)  was  a  monk 
of  Clugny,  and  received  from  the  Ciuniac  order  most  important  support. 

Among  numerous  minor   reforming  congregations,   such   as  those   of 
Hirschau  in  the  Black  Forest  (1069),  and  Grammont  (1074),  the  Carthusian 
and  Cistercian  orders  became  pre-eminent.     The  Carthusians  took  their  name 
Carthusians  ^rom  ^ie  monas^eiT  °f  the  Grande  Chartreuse  (1084),  founded  by 
and  aster-  Bruno  of  Cologne.      This  order,  while  very  ascetic,  devoted  itself 
to  literature  and  art,  and  is  said  "  never  to  have  needed  a  reforma- 
tion."    The  Cistercians  were  founded  at  Citeaux  (Cistercium),  near  Dijon,  by 
Robert  of   Champagne  (1098),  and  were  distinguished  by  their  white  garb, 
simpler  services,  and  more  ascetic  life,  from  the  Cluniacs.    In  1 1 1 5  the  famous 
Bernard  founded  the  affiliated  monastery  of  Clairvaux,  and  by  1151  there  were 
500  monasteries  in  association,  and  the  order  became  the  most  popular  of  all, 
until  the  rise  of  the  Mendicants.     But  with  the  growth  of  their  wealth  the 
Cistercians  gradually  sank  into  insignificance,  and  many  of  their  monasteries 
did  not  last  till  the  Reformation. 

Several  orders  v.  ere  founded  for  the  relief  of  disease  and  suffering.     In 
1095  the  Hospitallers  of  St.  Anthony  were  founded  in  consequence  of  an 
epidemic  of  St.  Anthony's  fire  (erysipelas)  ;  in  1178  the  Brethren 
of  the  Hospital  were  founded  at  Montpellier  by  Guido  ;  and  these 
were  followed  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  by  the  Hospital  Breth- 
Bretnren  of  ren  of  St.  John,  started  in  connection  with  the  service  of  sick 
st.  John.    anc]  destitute  pilgrims  at  Jerusalem.    The  brethren  were  vowed  to 
poverty,  obedience,   and  chastity,  and  begged  for  the  poor.     They  became 
rich,  and  in  1118  undertook  the  defence  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  their  knights 
becoming  the  rivals  of  the  Knights  Templars.      They  took  Rhodes  in  1319, 
gained  a  large  part  of  the  property  of  the  Templars  when  these  were  sup- 
pressed in  1312,  held  Rhodes  till  1522,  when  they  retired  to  Crete,  and  after- 
wards to  Sicily.     In  1533  they  were  transferred  to  Malta,  and  in  recent  years 
they  have  rendered  important  aid  to  the  sick  and  wounded  in 
emp  ars.wa^     T£\\e.  Templars  themselves,  though  from  the  first  (1118)  en- 
gaged in  military  service  for  the  protection  of  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land, 
took  a  vow  of  monastic  discipline  on  the  model  of  St.  Augustine.     Later  a 
more  strict  rule  was  imposed  (1127),  and  the  slaying  of  the  unbeliever  was 
laid  down  as  their  foremost  duty.      St.  Bernard  drew  up  a  code,  subjecting 
everything  to  the  Grand  Master  of  the  order.    Their  purity  was  to  be  guarded 
by  avoiding  the  kisses  even  of  mother  and  sisters;  they  were  to  receive  no 
letters  or  presents,  and  have  no  locked  trunks,  etc.     Innocent  VII.  relieved 
them  from  submission  to  bishops,  and  Gregory  X.  exempted  them  from  all 


THE   ROMAN  CHURCH  IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES. 


829 


contributions  to  the  Holy  War,  and  from  tithes  also.  Bat  by  1180  they  had 
greatly  degenerated,  and  in  the  next  century  they  were  noted  for  their  bad 
morals,  character,  and  habits  ;  and  at  last  they  formed  an  irnperiwm  in  im- 
perio  too  troublesome  to  be  endured,  and  the  order  was  formally  suppressed 
by  the  council  of  Vienne  (1312).  Other  military  orders  with  more  or  less 
monastic  organisation  were  the  Teutonic  Knights,  who  conquered  the 
Pomeranians  ;  the  orders  of  Calatrava,  Alcantara,  the  knights  of  Evora,  etc., 
protected  Christians  from  the  Moors,  whose  lands  they  constantly  laid  waste  : 
the  order  of  St.  James  was  founded  1161  to  protect  pilgrims  to  Compostella 


H 


ST.    DOJilNIU. 


The  Carmelite  order  grew  out  of  a  small  society  of  hermits,  founded  by 
Berthold,  a  Crusader,  in  1 156,  on  Mo  ant  Carmel,  which  they  quitted  The  carmei- 
011  the  expulsion  of  the  Latins  from  the  Holy  Land  (1238).  Each  ites- 
hermit  at  first  lived  in  a  cell  by  himself ;  fasting  was  imposed  from  Septem- 
ber till  Easter  ;  the  possession  of  property  was  forbidden  ;  and  manual 
labour  and  silence  were  recommended.  On  settling  in  Europe  they  adopted 
community  of  life,  and  mitigated  their  rules  ;  and  Innocent  IV.  in  1 247  con- 
firmed the  order  by  the  title  of  "  The  Friars  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel." 


83o 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Mathurins. 


captives. 

Order  of 
Mercy. 


They  adopted  a  brown  habit,  with  a  white  cloak  and  shoulder  covering 
(scapular),  and  hence  were  known  as  White  Friars,  a  name  preserved  by 
the  site  of  their  London  monastery.  During  the  papal  schism  they  were 
divided  ;  in  the  fifteenth  century  relaxations  of  discipline  were  allowed, 
those  who  adopted  the  latter  being  known  as  the  Shod  or  Conventual 
Friars,  while  the  stricter  members  were  called  Barefooted  Friars,  or  Obser- 
vantines.  Their  numerous  English  monasteries  were  dissolved  at  the 
Reformation.  In  Spain,  Carmelite  monasteries  were  founded  in  the 
fifteenth  century ;  St.  Teresa,  a  nun  of  Avila,  reformed  her  convent  in  the 
face  of  much  opposition,  and  successfully  carried  her  reforms  into  the  friars' 
houses. 

The  Trinitarians,  or  Mathurins,  in  1198  systematically  undertook  the 

ransom  of  Christian  captives  in  Bar- 
bary,  at  least  one  third  of 
their     revenue     being    set 
apart  for  this  work.    They  at  one  time 
had  250  houses ;    and    in   the  seven- 
teenth century  it  was  computed  that 
they  had   rescued  more   than  30,000 
The  military  order  of  Our 
Lady  of  Mercy  was  formed 
at  Barcelona  in  1218,  with 
the  same   general   objects,  and    later 
it  devoted    itself   to  mission  work  in 
America. 

The  fourth  Lateran  Council 
(1215),  as  we  have  seen,  forbade  the 
further  multiplication  of  monastic 
orders  ;  but  at  that  very  time  two 
orders,  not  so  completely  separate  from 
the  world  as  the  other  societies,  were 
arising,  which  soon  obtained  recogni- 
tion and  gained  enormous  influence  in 
the  later  middle  ages :  these  were  the  Dominicans  and  the  Franciscans. 
The  Dominicans,  founded  by  Domingo  Guzman  of  Old  Castile  (St. 
'  Dominic)  aimed  at  popular  preaching  and  instruction,  and  the 
combat  of  heresy  ;  while  the  Franciscans,  founded  by  St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
sought  to  revive  spiritual  life  among  the  people  by  their  preaching ;  and 
both  aimed  at  making  evident  by  their  poverty  and  self-sacrifice  the  ideals 
which  the  cloistered  monks  too  often  failed  to  attain.  Dominic,  born  in 
]  170,  studied  theology  at  the  university  of  Palencia  (afterwards  transferred 
to  Salamanca),  sold  his  clothes  and  books  to  feed  the  poor  during  a  famine, 
and  flogged  himself  nightly  with  an  iron  chain,  but  was  unflinching  against 
heretics.  In  1 2U5,  with  Diego,  bishop  of  Osma,  he  combated  the  Albigensian 
and  other  heresies  in  Languedoc.  In  1215  he  obtained  Pope  Innocent  III.'s 
consent  to  the  foundation  of  his  order,  despite   the   Lateran  Council,  by 


ST.    FRANCIS    OF   ASSISI. 


THE   ROMAN  CHURCH  IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES. 


8;i 


adopting  the  Augustinian  rule,  with  vows  of  perpetual  silence,  except  by 
permission  of  the  superior,  abstinence  from  meat,  almost  incessant  The  Domin- 
fasts,  woollen  garments,  strict  poverty,  etc.  At  first  they  wore  icans- 
a  black  cassock,  but  soon  adopted  the  black  mantle  over  a  white  habit  and 
scapular  (Black  Friars).  In  1216  the  order  was  confirmed  by  Honorius  III., 
under  the  title  of  "  Preaching  Friars,"  the  right  of  preaching  and  hearing 
confessions  everywhere  being  at  the  same  time  granted.  The  order  spread 
everywhere.  It  soon  relaxed  its  vows  of  poverty,  accepting  land  and  mon- 
asteries. Dominicans  became  confessors  to  great  men  and  counsellors  of 
princes.  They  administered  the  Inquisition,  and  thus  wielded  a  tei'rible 
power ;  and  their  antagonism  to  the  Franciscans,  both  in  policy  and  in 
theological        argument, 


often  furnished  material 
for  histoiy.  The  famous 
Dominicans,  Albert  the 
Great  and  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas, as  we  have  seen, 
ultimately  fixed  the  tone 
and  text  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  system,  in  one 
point  only  falling  short 
of  the  Franciscans  in  re- 
jecting the  Immaculate 
Conception  of  the  Virgin, 
which  the  Franciscans 
strongly  supported.  In 
the  fourteenth  century 
the  mystic  John  Tauler 
was  a  Dominican  ;  at  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  the 
bright  light  of  Savo- 
narola illuminated  the 
order ;  but  it  furnished 
the  strongest  antagonists 
to  the  Reformation. 

The  Franciscan  order  was  founded  by  Francis,  son  of  Peter  Bernardini, 
born  at  Assisi  in  Umbria,  Italy,  in  1182.  After  a  pleasure-loving  youth,  he 
voluntarily  took  a  vow  of  poverty  and  mendicancy,  attending  to  st  Francis  of 
lepers  and  discharging  other  menial  offices.  '  Renouncing  pro-  Assisi. 
perty  of  every  kind  but  the  coarsest  vestment,  he  gathered  a  band  of  twelve 
disciples  in  1212,  and  boldly  set  forth  to  convert  the  world.  Innocent  III. 
(1215)  and  Honorius  III.  (1223)  gave  the  brethren  authority  to  preach  every- 
where. A  church  at  Assisi,  and  later  a  grand  conventual  church  of  St. 
Francis  at  Assisi,  became  the  centre  of  the  order.  The  dramatic  and  senti- 
mental preaching  of  the  founder  were  most  effective ;  and  one  of  his 
converts,  Clara  Scim,  became  the  foundress  of  the  rigid  sisterhood  of  Poor 


ST.    Tt-KESA. 


832  THE    WORLD'S   RELIGIONS. 


Clares.  St.  Francis  preached  without  success  to  the  Mohammedans  in 
Egypt,  while  other  brethren  went  to  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain, 
st.  ciara,  rp^e  numiiity  0f  the  order  was  signified  by  their  title  "  Fratres 
■me  Minores,"  whence  they  were  often  called  Minorites.  The  order, 
o^Minoriites!  n^e  the  Dominican,  owed  obedience  directly  to  the  Pope ;  but  it 
was  governed  by  a  "  General  Minister,"  appointed  by  a  general 
chapter  every  third  year.  Although  the  strictest  poverty  was  enjoined 
by  St.  Francis,  he  was  so  far  sociable  that  he  conformed  to  ordinary  customs 
when  in  society,  and  he  discouraged  extreme  asceticism,  as  promoting 
spiritual  pride,  and  because  the  body  needed  sustenance  and  care  in  order 
to  be  capable  of  full  devotion.  Cheerful  himself,  he  maintained  that  cheer- 
fulness was  a  duty,  and  a  great  defence  against  the  devil.  In  many  of  his 
acts  and  expressions  he  showed  a  singular  Christian  spirit  and  great 
judgment,  so  that  it  was  not  difficult  for  his  disciples  after  his  death  to 
elevate  him  almost  to  a  level  with  Christ,  especially  in  consequence  of  the 
marks  which  appeared  in  1224  on  his  hands,  feet,  and  side,  resembling 
The  sacred  Christ's  wounds,  and  known  as  the  "  Sacred  Stigmata  of  St. 
stigmata.  Francis."  It  is  said  that  he  tried  to  conceal  them,  but  that 
many  miracles  were  wrought  by  their  power.  He  died  in  1226,  having 
witnessed  the  addition  to  the  two  orders  of  monks  and  nuns,  of  a  third, 
consisting  of  lay  members  known  as  Tertiaries,  who  everywhere  fulfilled 
the  functions  of  the  lay  adherents  in  Buddhism,  supporting  the  friars  and 
living  a  religious  life  in  the  world.  Dean  Milman  terms  St.  Francis  "  the 
most  blameless  and  gentle  of  all  saints,"  "  emphatically  the  saint  of  the 
people."  "  The  lowest  of  the  low,"  he  says,  "  might  find  consolation  in 
the  self-abasement  of  St.  Francis  even  beneath  the  meanest."  His  poetry 
is  worthy  of  note  ;  it  is  "  one  long  passionate  ejaculation  of  love  to  the 
Redeemer  in  rude  metre."  But  his  ordinary  speech  is  more  poetical  than 
his  poetry.  "In  his  peculiar  language  he  addresses  all  animate,  even  in- 
animate creatures,  as  his  brothers.  ...  In  one  of  his  Italian  hymns  he 
speaks  of  his  brother  the  sun,  his  sister  the  moon,  etc.  .  .  .  When  he 
died,  he  said  with  exquisite  simplicity,  '  "Welcome,  Sister  Death.'  .  . 
His  life  might  seem  a  religious  trance." 

Men  following  in  the  footsteps  of  such  a  master  were  well  adapted  to 
win  the  people.  Their  numbers  increased,  and  they  became  rich  and 
powerful  by  the  gifts,  buildings,  and  endowments  forced  upon  them.  From 
acting  under  bishops,  they  acted  independently,  despised  the  secular  clergy, 
administered  sacraments,  and  heard  confessions.  The  "  General "  of  the 
order  who  succeeded  St.  Francis,  Elias  of  Cortona,  mitigated  many  rules, 
and,  being  ambitious,  favoured  the  growth  of  large  monasteries.  Again 
and  again  attempts  were  made  to  reform  the  order.  John  of  Parma,  the 
seventh  General  Minister  (1247),  was  hailed  as  a  second  St.  Francis;  John 

of  Fidanza,  eighth  General  (1256-1274),  famous  under  the  name 
Bonaventura.     „   _  ',     °      ,,       ,    „  ,  .     „   t,      ,  i  i  i 

of  Bonaventura,  the  "  Seraphic  "  Doctor,  was  as  learned  as  he 

was  blameless,  and  steadfastly  sought  to   amend  the  corruptions  of  self- 
indulgence,  importunate  bagging,  assumption  of  undue  clerical  functions, 


THE  ROMAN  CHURCH  IN  THE  MIDDLE   AGES.  833 

ami  extravagant  buildings,  in  addition  to  moral  scandals,  which  were  mak- 
ing the  friars  a  byword.      The  indulgences  promised  to  all  who  corruptions 
visited  the  church  of  the  Portiuncula  at  Assisi  on  August  1st,  of  the  order, 
and  the  sure  salvation  to  all  who  died  in  the  garb  of  the  order,  even  though 
only  assumed  just  before   death,  wore  but  specimens  of  the  evils   which 
m'ose.     Fierce  rivalry  arose  between  Dominicans  and  Franciscans,  and  also 
between  the  "  Spirituals  "  and  the  less  spiritual  among  the  latter.        t^ 
Following  the  prophecies  and  millennial  outlook  of  Joachim,  a  spirituals. 
Cistercian  abbot  (1145-1202),  who  foretold  that  the  millennium  would  begin 
in  1260,  the  "  Spirituals  "  put  forward  about  1251  an  "  Introduction  to  the 
Everlasting   Gospel,"    developing   these   ideas,   which   was   con-   Millennial 
•demned  by  the  University  of  Paris  and  by  Pope  Alexander  IV.    Pr°Pnecy- 
It  was  written  by  a  Franciscan  named  Gerard ;  and  after  his  condemnation 
and  imprisonment  the  Spiritualists  called  themselves  Fraticelli 
(Little    Brothers),    instead     of    Fratres,    separated     themselves 
markedly  from  the  rest,  and  found  a  new  leader  in  Peter  John  of  01; vi, 
author  of  a  famous  Apocalyptic  work,    "  PostUla  in  Apocalypsin"     Pope 
Celestine  V.  in  129-1  formed  the  Fraticelli  into  anew  order,  the  Celestine- 
Eremites,  together  with  his  own  hermits  ;  but  the  next  pope  dissolved  the 
order,  and  banished  them  in  1302  to  a  Greek  island.     Renouncing  the  papal 
authority,  they  elected  a  pope  of  their   own,   and   spread  themselves   in 
Greece,  Sicily,  and  other  countries,  everywhere  working  against  the  papacy. 
In  the  time  of  Pope  John  XXII.  a  new  point  was  given  to  the  denunciations 
of  papal  luxury  and  apostasy  by  the  Spirituals ;  the  pope  retaliated  with 
vigour,  and,  aided  by  the  general  of  the  order,  held  an  Inquisition,  which 
burned,   degraded,  and  imprisoned  many.      In  this  case  the   Franciscans 
aided  the  evil  work  of  the  Dominican  Inquisition,  of  which  it  was  said  by 
one  of  its  victims  in  1319  that  if  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  were  to  return  to 
earth,  the  Inquisition  would  lay  hands  011  them  as  damnable  heretics.     So 
far  did  intolerance  proceed,  that  a  Beghard  (see  p.  831)  was  tried  for  asserting 
the  poverty  of  Christ  and  His  disciples,  and  Berenger  of  Talon,  who  main- 
tained the  contrary,  was  arrested ;  the  Dominicans  eagerly  condemned  the 
Franciscans  who  took  his  side,  and  the  University  of  Paris  elaborately  con- 
demned the   Franciscan  teaching.      The  schism  among    the  Franciscans 
widened,  and  by  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Franciscan  Conventuals 
Conventuals  were  distinct  from  the  Observants,  who  still  kept  the  and  c-bser- 
founder's  rule.     In  the  fourteenth  century  the  Franciscans  estab- 
lished missions  in  Bulgaria  and  Georgia,  in  the  fifteenth  in  the  Canary 
Islands  and  on  the  Congo,  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  in  South  America 
and  Mexico.     Francis,  of  Paola  in  Calabria,  late  in  the  fifteenth  century, 

founded  "  the  Hermits  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,"  better  known  as  . 

'  The  Minims. 

the  ';  Minims,"  from  their  title  of  "  Fratres  Minimi."      They  were 
noted  for  their  adoption  of  a  perpetual  Lenten  rule;  viz.,  to  abstain  always 
from  animal  food.     The  Augustinian  Eremites  (or  Austin  Friars),  formed 
into  a  society  in  125G  under  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  numbered  30,00  >  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation.     Another  mendicant  order  was  that  of  the 

3  H 


834  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

Servites  (the  slaves  of  the  Virgin  Mary),  founded  in  1233.  The  Beguines 
were  societies  founded  in  Flanders  about  1180,  to  attend  to  the  sick  and 
poor  while  working  at  their  ordinary  employments  ;  and  they  have  lasted 
till  the  present  clay.  The  members  are  widows  and  single  women,  living, 
Beguines  and  n°t  in  convents,  but  in  a  group  of  small  houses  surrounded  by  a 
Begnards.  wa]i?  an(j  known  as  a  "  Beguinage."  The  Beghards  were  asso- 
ciations of  men  founded  with  a  similar  object ;  but  their  character  de- 
generated, and  the  name  became  synonymous  with  mendicancy  and  heresy, 
and  they  were  placed  under  the  authority  of  the  Franciscans  by  Pope  Inno- 
cent X.  In  such  varied  forms  the  monastic  spirit  tried  to  keep  alive  true 
Christianity,  but  proved,  extremely  liable  to  corruption  and  corrupt  use. 
The  reign  of  monasticism,  as  once  understood  and  submitted  to,  passed  away 
with  the  Reformation. 


CA1UEIHAL    OF    BIT.GOS,    SPAIN    (13TH    TO    15TH    CENTURIES). 


Ili&TIS    LUTHEK. 


CHAPTER   X. 

Religious;  pn-smitfons  anti  t\)t  fteftmnatiftm 

Intolerance  and  persecution— Manichaean  sects— Paulicians — Petrobrusians -Cathari— Albigenses  — 
Their  tenets— Waldo — The  Waldenses — The  Inquisition— Torquemada— Ximenes  -  The  mystics  — 
Nicolas  of  Basle— Tauler— Thomas  a  Kempis— Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  — Wyclif— The  Lollards 
—  John  Huss— The  Council  of  Constance— Huss  and  Jerome  burnt— Religious  War— The  United 
(Moravian)  Brethren— Council  of  Basle— The  Greek  Church— The  Renaissance— Savonarola— 
Luther— His  ninety-five  theses— Papal  Bull  against  him— Diet  of  Worms— Luther  translates 
Bible— Zwingli— His  sixty-five  theses— The  Reformation  in  Zurich— Anabaptists— Conference  of 
Marburg— Diet  of  Spires— Protest  of  Lutheran  princes— The  Augsburg  Confession— The  Theses 
of  Berne— Zwingli's  distinctive  doctrines    Confessions  of  Basle. 

DIFFERENCES  of  opinion  and  of  interpretation  were  never  lacking,  from 
the  earliest  ages  of  the  Church,  as  we  have  seen.  They  changed  their 
ground  from  age  to  age  ;  often  they  reverted  to  former  opinions,  sometimes 
in  a  new  dress.  Bat  the  human  mind,  naturally  believing  Intoleranca 
that  of  two  seeming  contradictions,  both  cannot  be  true,  tends  and  persecu- 
to  set  up  one  set  of  opinions  or  form  of  doctrine  as  certainly  true, 
and  to  denounce  any  other  as  evil,  and  consequently  to  be  suppressed  ; 
never  imagining  that  there  may  be  other  truths  which  would  reconcile 
seeming  contradictions,  or  that  the  whole  truth  may  be  something  greater 
than,  and  inclusive  of,  all  the  partial  truths  already  known.  The  idea  of 
tolerating  diversity  of  opinion  on  matters  incapable  of  direct  proof,  or  of 


S36  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

tolerating  free  thought,  has  been  exceedingly  slow  of  growth  and  accept- 
ance. Forgetting  that  Christ  presented  His  gospel  to  different  persons  in 
very  diverse  aspects,  and  did  not  demand  of  each  follower  the  understand- 
ing and  acceptance  of  all  that  .He  taught,  theologians  gradually  evolved 
from  their  reading  of  Scripture  a  creed,  or  series  of  creeds  and  explanations 
of  those  creeds,  which.,  together  with  the  sacraments  and  sacramental 
doctrine  and  their  system  of  Church  government,  they  held  to  be  entirely 
true  and  divine,  and  forced  indiscriminately  upon  all  who  came  under  their 
power,  as  absolutely  necessary  to  salvation,  and  rejection  of  which  deserved 
punishment  in  this  world  and  hereafter.  It  was  inevitable  in  these  circum- 
stances that  "  heresies  "  should  arise  again  and  again.  Human  nature  could 
not  be  forcibly  deprived  of  its  inherent  tendency  to  "  vary  in  every  di- 
rection," to  produce  new  forms  of  thought  and  speculation,  to  be  tested,  to 
be  stamped  out,  or  to  survive  by  dint  of  the  value  they  had,  or  perchance 
by  the  insidiousness  and  attractiveness  of  the  evil  they  contained. 

Manichseism,  though  apparently  crushed  in  earlier  centuries,  survived 
in  later  heresies,  such  as  that  of  the  Paulicians,  who  originated  in  Armenia 
Manichsean  in  the  seventh  century.     They  selected   St.  Paul's  teaching  as 
sects.       their  special  guide,  rejecting  St.  Peter  as  Christ's  betrayer,  re- 
taining at  the  same  time  some  Manichsean  principles.    They  were  persecuted 

bv   successive    emperors,   but    lasted   long   in   various   quarters. 
Paulicians.  .  .  . 

Some  of  them  settled  in   Thrace  in  the  middle  of  the  eighth 

century;  and  in  the  tenth  they  were  reinforced  by  another  settlement,  and 
occupied  considerable  tracts  in  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  They  appear  to 
have  had  some  influence,  through  the  intercourse  arising  during  the 
Crusades,  upon  sects  which  spread  in  France,  Northern  Italy,  and  in  Ger- 
many during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  and  were  often  marked 
by  fanaticism.     Peter  of  Bruis,  founder  of  the  Petrobrusians  in 

*  Dauphiny,  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  taught  that 
only  believers  (not  infants)  should  be  baptised,  and  rejected  the  use  of 
churches  and  crosses,  the  efficacy  of  the  Eucharist,  prayers  and  oblations 
for  the  dead,  and  the  singing  of  hymns.  He  was  burnt  to  death  by  the 
people  of  St.  Gilles  in  Provence,  after  twenty  years'  successful  preaching. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Henry  of  Lausanne,  whose  adherents  were  named 
Henricians.  St.  Bernard  undertook  a  very  successful  mission  against  them 
in  1147,  arid  the  leader  was  given  up  in  chains  to  the  bishop  of  Toulouse. 

The   so-called   Maniclneans  were   chiefly   known   as  Cathari  (or 

C*h  tli3.ri 

Puritans)  in  Germany,  and  as  Publicani  in  France,  until  they 
were  generally  termed  Albigenses  (from  Albi).  Even  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury the  popular  feeling  was  strongly  excited  against  them,  and  many  were 
burnt,  though  not  with  the  sanction  of  such  men  as  St.  Bernard. 

It  was  in  Languedoc  and  around  Toulouse   that  the   heretical    sects 

spread  most  vigorously,  holding  a  council  of  their  own  in  1167  of  bishops 

and  representatives  under  a  so-called  Pope  Nicpuinta,  who  taught 

that  all  Churches  should  be  indei^endent  of  each  other.     They 

became  so  formidable  that  the  third  Lateran  Council,  in  1179,  called  on  all 


THE   ALBJGENSES  AXD    WALDENSES.  837 


the  faithful  to  protect  Christian  people  against  them  by  arms.  We  cannot 
go  into  the  details  of  the  crusades  which  followed  (1198-1229  ,  and  which 
crushed  the  power  of  Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse.  We  will  briefly  glanCo 
at  some  of  the  principles  of  the  Albigensian  sects. 

They  held  certain  Manichsean  tenets,  such  as  the  antagonism  between 
spirit  and  matter,  the  creation  of  the  material  world  by  the  evil  principle, 
together  with  a  disbelief  in  the  righteousness  of  the  Old  Testa-  Albigensian 
ment  dispensation.  Christ  they  regarded  as  the  highest  angel.  tenets, 
and  His  bodily  appearance  and  actions  were  explained  as  spiritual  only. 
The  whole  world  was  to  be  saved  by  an  escape  from  bodily  imprisonment 
into  spirit  life.  They  considered  marriage  as  at  best  a  necessary  evil, 
rejected  the  entire  sacramental  s3Tstem,  and  destroyed  churches  and  their 
apparatus.  They  had  a  priesthood  and  bishops  of  their  own,  with  a  sacra- 
ment called  "  Consolation/'  by  which  the  Paraclete  or  Comforter  was  be- 
stowed, by  any  one  who  had  received  it:  by  this  the  heavenly  soul,  lost  at 
the  Fall,  was  restored  to  the  believer.  Those  who  had  received  this  were 
the  Elect  or  Perfect,  and  had  to  live  a  completely  ascetic  life,  unmarried, 
and  to  labour  only  to  propagate  the  truth,  renouncing  all  property.  Their 
other  sacraments  were  the  blessing  of  bread  at  meals  (thus  making  all  meals 
eucharistic),  penance,  and  ordination.  There  are  very  diverse  reports  about 
the  actual  lives  of  the  Albigenses,  their  rigidly  pure  lives,  according  to  some, 
securing  them  great  influence,  and  inducing  many  nobles  to  entrust  their 
children  to  them  for  education  ;  while  their  enemies  charge  them  with  many 
crimes,  loose  living,  and  want  of  charity.  No  doubt,  as  in  most  other  sects, 
there  were  black  sheep  among  them,  with  mairy  of  the  better  sort.  What 
is  certain  is,  that  the}^  were  indiscriminately  persecuted  and  cruelly  treated, 
and  that  in  many  cases  they  retaliated  on  their  persecutors. 

Often  confused  with  the  Albigensian  sects,    the   Walclenses  are   quit:' 
distinct,   being   in   no  way  infected   with    Manichseism,   and  owing  their 
name  to  Waldo,  a  wealtlry  merchant  of  L}rons  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  twelfth  century,  who  employed  two  priests  to  translate 
many  books  of  the  Bible  and  selections  from  the  Fathers  into  the  Romance 
vernacular.     Selling  all  his  property  and  giving  it  to  the  poor,  he  aimed  at 
a  life  of  Christian  perfection,  and  began  preaching  throughout  the  towns 
and  villages  ;   and  his  followers  did  the  same,  under  the  name  of  Humiliati, 
or  poor  men  of  Lyons.     Waldo  was  excommunicated,  not  for  heresy,  but  for 
unauthorised  preaching,  and  anathematised  by  Pope  Lucius  III.  and  the 
Council  of  Verona.     By  their  simple,  earnest,  scriptural  preaching  Waldo 
and  his  followers  made  many  converts  in  Southern  France,  Northern  Italy, 
and  Spain.    In  many  ways  they  showed  themselves  true  evangelists        The 
and  helpers  of  the  people,  ajid  taught  a  primitive  Christianity,  Waidenses. 
gradually  rejecting  pra3rers  for  the  dead,  priestly  powers,  penances,  pur- 
gatory, and  the  ecclesiastical  miracles.      Their  high  character  is  attested 
even  by  their  enemies — their  moderation,  sobriety,  and  hard  work  in  their 
employments,  their  truth-speaking  and  avoidance   of   oaths.     During   the 
Dominican  Inquisition  which  oppressed  the  Albigenses.  the  Waldenses  also 


838  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


suffered  severely  ;  and  they  gradually  took  refuge  in  Alpine  valleys  in 
Piedmont,  giving  to  the  district  the  name  of  Vaudois,  where  they  long- 
remained  safe  from  attack.  In  1487  Pope  Innocent  VIII.  ordered  their 
extermination  ;  and  the  consequent  attacks  made  upon  them  greatly  reduced 
their  strength.  In  1530  deputies  from  the  Vaudois  in  Dauphiny  and  Pro- 
vence met  the  German  and  Swiss  Reformers,  and  the  result  was  the  adop- 
tion of  some  of  the  distinctive  tenets  of  the  latter,  and  a  complete  break 
with  the  Roman  Church.  In  1655  they  were  barbarously  treated  by  an 
army  authorised  by  the  Roman  Congregation  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Faith,  which  roused  Protestant  indignation  against  the  persecutors.  In 
1685  a  new  era  of  persecution  followed  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 
A  remnant  of  them  now  form  a  separate  Protestant  Church1  in  Italy, 
largely  supported  by  contributions  from  Protestant  countries. 

It  had  always  been  a  function  of  the  bishops  to  inquire  into  the  preva- 
lence of  erroneous  teaching  and  to  stamp  it  out,  largely  by  the  aid  of  "  the 
The        secular  power ?'  of  obedient   princes.     In   1163    the   Council  of 
inquisition.  Tours  first  used  the  title  of  Inquisitor  in  reference  to  inquiries 
into  orthodoxy;  and  in  1184  the  Council  of  Verona  directed  the  bishops  to 
put  down  the  Cathari  and  the  Poor  Men  of  Lyons  (Waldenses),  cursing  all 
heretics  and  those  who  sheltered  them.     The  Inquisition,  properly  so  called, 
was,  however,  started  by  Pope  Gregory  IX.,  who  in  1232  constituted  the 
Dominicans  inquisitors  into  heresy  in  Toulouse,  with  appeal  only  to  the 
Pope.     "  The  suspicion   of  heresy  was   sufficient  cause  for  imprisonment ; 
accomplices  and  criminals  were  deemed  competent  witnesses ;  the  accused 
was  never  informed  of  his  accusers,  nor  confronted  with  them  ;  confession 
was  often  extorted  by  torture."     Of  course  it  would  have  been  impossible 
to  carry  out  the  cruel  system  of  punishments  devised,  but  for  the  aid  of 
the  secular  power  ;  but  this  was  usually  granted  readily,  either  through 
fear  or  willingly.     Often  the  populace  rose  against  the  Inquisition ;  and  in 
some  places,  as  at  Toulouse,  it  was  suppressed.     We  have  not  space  to 
recount  the  deeds  of  the  Inquisition  in  France  and  Italy  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  in  German}^  in  the  fourteenth.     From  1232  onward  it  was 
active  in  Spain,  often  with  every  kind  of  tyranny  and    cruelty.     In  1480 
it  was  more  elaborately  organised  ;    and  before  the  end  of  1481  298  per- 
sons had  been  burnt  in  Seville  alone.     In  1483  the  Dominican  Thomas  of 
Torquemada  was   appointed  Inquisitor-general  for  Castile  and  Leon  ;   and 
Torque-    by  Lis  rigid  and  cruel  system  the  Jews,  Moors,  and  Moriscoes  were 
mada.      tortured,    killed,    or    banished   from    Spain.     On   the    death   of 
Torquemada,  in  1498,  Cardinal  Ximenes  succeeded  him  as  Inquisitor-general. 
He  utterly  opposed  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  vernacular,  as  a 
profanation,  and  also  refused  publicity  to  the  proceedings  of  the  Inquisition, 
or  any  alleviation  of  their  harshness.     Yet  he  is  famous  in  scholar- 
ship  for   his  publication  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglot t   Bible. 
The  Inquisition  was  established  in  Portugal  and  in  all  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  colonies.     After  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  its 
1  See  Grilly,  Excursion  to  the  Valleys  of  Piedmont,  and  llesearches  on  the  Waldenses. 


DAWN  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  839 


activity  diminished ;  in  the  eighteenth  century  torture  was  abandoned. 
Down  to  1809  it  is  said  that  31,1)12  persons  had  been  burnt  alive  in  Spain. 
Napoleon  put  it  down  wherever  he  gained  power ;  but  it  lingered  later, 
and  a  Jew  was  burnt  and  a  Quaker  schoolmaster  hanged  in  Spain  in  1826. 
The  Inquisition  was  active  in  Italy  up  to  the  time  of  the  consolidation  of 
the  kingdom  in  1859-60 ;  and  the  central  agency  of  the  Inquisition  is  still 
in  existence  at  Rome,  and  many  Romanists  hope  for  its  re-establishment 
in  full  activity.     It  was  never  established  in  England. 

Before  referring  to   the  more   active   uprisings   which   preceded    the 
Reformation,  we  must  notice  certain  religious  writers  and  teachers  whose 
influence  certainly  prepared  the  way  for  it.     Henry  Eckart,  a        The 
Saxon,  Dominican  vicar-general  in  Bohemia  in  1307,  was  strikingly     Mystics- 
mystic  and  even  pantheistic  in  his  teaching.     Nicolas  of  Basle  (1308-1393; 
the  chief  leader  of  the  "  Friends  of  God,"  having  completely  renounced  the 
world  and  his  own  will,  and  attained  inward  intercourse  with   Nicolas  of 
God,  devoted  himself  to  leading  others  into  the  same  state.     He      Basle- 
never  received  ordination,  but    did  not  deny  any  doctrine  of  the  Church. 
He  was  thus  the   first   great  Quietist,  believing   in  a    resignation  to  the 
Divine  will  only  parallel  to  the  Mohammedan's.     Their  direct  ':  inspiration"' 
from   God   rendered    the  nrystics  indej^endent  of  the  Church,  which  con- 
secpLiently  was  hostile  to  them.     Several  of  the  leaders  were  burnt,  Nicolas 
in  1393,  at  Vienne.     John  Tauler1  (1290-1361)  was  a  follower  of  Eckart  on 
the  speculative  side,  and  of  Nicolas  on  the  mystic,  and  one  of  the 
most  influential  preachers  of  his  time.     He  asserted  that  "  he  who 
confesses  the  true  faith  of  Christ,  and  sins  only  against  the  person  of  the 
Pope,  is  110  heretic."     Suso,  Ruysbroek,  Gerson,  Gerard  Groot,  and  Thomas 
a  Kempis,  in  different  ways  carried  on  the  inward  religious  life    Thomas  a 
and  speculation,  producing  works  remarkable  for  their  spirituality,     KemPls- 
and  also  taking  part  in  noble  philanthropic  movements.     In  exalting  per- 
sonal communion  with  God  through  faith,  they  developed  a  form  of  religious 
life  which  has  had  enormous  influence.     Gerard  Groot,  in  particular,  by 
founding  the  self-supporting  society  of  i:  Brethren  of  the  Common  Bremen  of 
Life,"  at  Deventer,  for  spiritual  profit  and  evangelisation,  set  the  the  common 
mendicant  friars  an  example  which  they  greatly  resented.     Groot 
was  loyal  to  the  Church,  enjoining  the  daily  hearing  of  mass,  but  studied 
chiefly  the  Gospel  and  the  writings  of  the  Fathers.     His  follower,  Florentius 
Radewin,  completed  the  organisation,  which  was  approved  by  some  popes. 
It  was  ultimately  absorbed  by  the  Reformation. 

John  Wyclif  (1321-1381)  is  honourably  distinguished  as  the  most  original 
and  influential  Reformer  of  the  Church  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He  was 
an  Oxford  scholastic  theologian  of  the  highest  ability,  and  largely 
in  accord  with  Roger  Bacon :  a  strong  supporter  of  England 
against  Rome,  and  of  the  temporal  against  spiritual  power.  His  great  works 
on  Divine  and  Civil  Dominion  maintained  that  God  had  given  no  supreme 
authority  to  any  vicar  on  earth,  whether  priest  or  king,  but  to  each  his  own 
1  See  Life  and  Sermons  of  John  Tauler.    Translated  by  C.  Winkworfch,  L857. 


840 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


province;  while  all  God's  people  must  obey  Him  rather  than  man.  Thus 
he  supplied  arguments  against  all  excessive  papal  and  spiritual  claims.  He 
founded  an  order  of  poor  preachers,  without  mendicancy,  who  went  through 
the  diocese  of  Lincoln  and  elsewhere  preaching  the  gospel.  Their  followers 
became  known  and  persecuted  as  Lollards,  and  connected  with  people 
similarly  termed  in  the  Low  Countries  and  "Western  Germany.  About  1381  > 
Wyclif  commenced  and  largely  carried  out  an  English  translation  of  the 
Bible  from  the  Vulgate.  In  1381  he  enunciated  the  doctrine  of  consub- 
stantiation,  as  against  the  transubstantiation  of  the  Church,  in  a  form 
similar  to  that  of  Berengar  of  Tours,  asserting  that  the  bread  and  wine 
remain  in  the  sacrament  after  its  consecration.  His  teaching  was  con- 
demned by  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  by  a  council  in  London.  Wyclif 
continued  to  work  and  write  with  great  vigour,  and  died  in  138-1  when 

under  citation  to  appear  before  Ur- 
ban IV.  at  Rome,  to  whom  he  re- 
plied that  he  ought  not  to  follow 
the  pope,  except  so  far  as  he  himself 
followed  Christ.  The  Council  of 
Constance  (1414-8)  impotently  sen- 
tenced him  to  death  ;  and  in  1428 
Pope  Martin  V.  had  his  bones  burnt 
and  the  ashes  thrown  into  the  river 
Swift.  The  Lollards  were 
'fiercely  persecuted,  and 
many  were  burnt,  but  some  re- 
mained to  join  in  the  later  Reforma- 
tio .1. 

In  distant  Bohemia  a  movement 
for  purifying  the  Church  and  study- 
ing the  Scriptures  at  first  hand  was 
making  headway.  The  University 
of  Prague,  founded  in  1348,  aided 
this.  Mathias  of  Janow  was  one  of 
the  most  notable  forerunners  of  Huss.  While  loyal  to  the  Church,  he  paid 
more  regard  to  the  study  of  the  manuscripts  of  the  Bible  than  to  the 
3  teaching  of  the  Fathers.  John  Huss  (13G9-1415),  who  had  read 
John  huss.  the  writingg  of  "Wyclif  for  many  years,  became  Rector  of  the 
University  of  Prague  in  1403.  His  eloquent  friend,  Jerome  of  Prague 
(1379-141G),  a  greater  theologian,  did  much  to  make  Wyclif  s  works  known 
in  Bohemia.  Huss  maintained  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation;  but 
asserted  the  supreme  authority  of  Scripture,  the  spiritual  nature  of  the 
Church,  whose  head  was  Christ,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  believer's  con- 
science. He  exposed  pretended  miracles  and  corruptions  in  the  Church. 
The  Papal  party  tried  to  prevent  Huss  from  preaching,  charging  him  with 
heresy,  and  burnt  Wyclif's  books.  Huss  appealed  to  John  XXIIL,  then 
(1410)  made  pope  after   a  long  career  of  tyranny  and  misconduct.     John 


The  Lollards. 


.TOHN    WYCLIF. 


RELIGIOUS  PERSECUTIONS  AND    HIE  REFORMATION.     84 1 


(1412)   offered    large   indulgences   to   all    who    aided    a    crusade    againsl 
Ladislaus,  King  of  Naples.     Huss    preached    against  it,  but  had  to  leave 
Prague  to  save  it  from  the  papal   interdict  of  all  religious  functions  (1413). 
He  then  wrote  his  great  work   De   Ecclesia,  defining  the  Church   as  the 
whole  body  of  believers,  past,  present,  and  future,  predestined  to  life,  with 
Christ  as  its  Head,  and  the  pope  as  His  Vicar,  if  he  follows  the  example  "1 
St.  Peter.     His  powerful  tracts  in  the  Bohemian  language  formed  complete 
expositions  of   Christianity,  as  consisting  in  faith  and  belief  in  the  truth- 
obedience  to  the  Divine  law,  and  prayer  to  God.     Many  false  charges  o\ 
heresy  and  other  offences  were  made  against  Huss,  and  he  was  summoned . 
with  a  guarantee  of  safe  return  from  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  to  The  council 
the   Council   of    Constance  in    1414  (the  sixteenth  oecumenical ,  of  Constance, 
according  to  the  Roman  reckoning).     At  this,  demands  for  a  reformation 
of  the   papacy  was   made   by  such 
men  as  Peter  d'Ailly,  Archbishop  of 
Cambray,  and  John  Gerson,  Chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Paris,  who 
yet  were  most  rancorous  in  their  op- 
position to  Huss.     He  denied  the  false 
charges  made  against  him,  and  re- 
fused to  abjure  what  he  had  never 
held  or  taught.     The  Emperor's  safe 
conduct  was  not  respected ;  he  was 
told  that  his  power  could  not  save  a 
heretic  from  the  punishment  due  to 
his  errors,  and  that  his  pledge  could 
not    bind    the    council,    which   was 
greater  than  the  Emperor  :  and  that 
the  Doctors  of  the  Church  had  taught 
that  no  faith  should   be   kept  with 
heretics.     The  trial  was  a  farce  ;  no 
witnesses  were    heard  on   behalf  of 
Huss ;  his  condemnation  was  a  fore- 
gone conclusion.     lie  was  burnt  on  July  G,  1415,  and  in  the  next  year  the 
same  fate  awaited  Jerome  of  Prague,  although  from  fear  and  phy-   huss  and 
sical  weakness  he  recanted  and  renounced  Wyclifs  doctrines  andJerome  burnt- 
acknowledged  the  justice  of  Huss's  condemnation.    Yet  afterwards  he  recant©  I 
his  recantation,  though  declaring  that  he  held  all  the  articles  of  the  ( Jhristian 
faith.     A  fierce  religious  war  folloAved   in  Bohemia.     In  1420  a     Religious 
compact  with  the  Hussites  granted  freedom  of  preaching,  the        waT- 
administration  of  the  Eucharist  in  both  kinds,  and  reform  of  the  Church  ; 
but  this  was  accepted  only  by  the  more  moderate  or  calixtine  part}'  (from 
calix,  the  cup).     They  received  further  concessions  from  the    Council    ot 
Basle  (1433)  ;  but  the  more  radical   Hussites  (Taborites^  held  out,  formed 
the  Bohemian  Brethren  (1450-1627),  and  ultimately  wore  absorbed  in  the 
Moravian  Brethren  (Unitas  Fratrum,  United  Brethren  .  revived  by  Count 


jonx  huss. 


842 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Zinzendorf  early  in  the  eighteenth  century.     They  professed  obedience  to 

The  united  ^e  ScriPtures  ancl  tne  law  of  love,  regarded  the  Eucharist  as 

Moravian   simply  commemorative,  and  rejected  the  Real  Presence.     Towns 

were  founded  in  Moravia  and  elsewhere  in  Germany  for  exclusive 

occupation  of  the  brethren  ;  and  missions  were  established  through  Europe 

and  in  North  America,  which  attained  great  fame  and  success.     By  them  the 

later  movement  of  John  "Wesley  in  England  was  largely  influenced.     They 

retain  government  by  bishops,  who  are  not  diocesan  but  universal  in  their 

scope  ;    they   ordain   presbyters   and   deacons.     Their   worship   is   simple, 

liturgical,  and  primitive,  and  they  use  a  rich  hymnology,  largely  composed 

by  their  own  leaders. 

The  deposition  of  Pope  John  XXIII.  for  heresy  followed  the  burning  of 
Huss.  His  successor,  Martin  V.  (1417-1431),  did  little  in  the  way  of  reform, 
and  revived  the  highest  claims  of  his  predecessors.     The  Council  of  Basle, 

in  1432,  renewed  the  declaration  of  Con- 
counciiof  stance  that  a  general  council 
Basie.  was  a'bove  the  pope,  elected  its 
own  president,  passed  many  decrees  for 
reforming  the  Church  and  the  papacy, 
and  deposed. Pope  Eugenius  IV.  in  1439. 
A  counter-council  at  Ferrara  (1438)  ex- 
communicated those  who  attended  at 
Basle  and  annulled  its  acts ;  it  was  after- 
wards removed  to  Florence,  and  is  now 
recognised  by  the  Roman  Church  as  the 
seventeenth  oecumenical.  At  this  council  a 
last  fruitless  effort  was  made  to  reunite  the 
The  Greek  Greek  and  the  Roman  Churches, 
Church,  by  the  (Greek)  Emperor,  John 
Paleologus  II.  ;  but  the  accommodation 
which  was  devised,  and  which  granted  the 
supremacy  of  the  pope,  was  repudiated  by 
the  people,  and  finally  by  himself ;  and  a  little  later  the  Greek  Empire  fell 
before  the  victorious  Turks,  by  whose  favour  alone  the  Greek  Church  con- 
tinued to  exist  in  Moslem  territory.  Eugenius  IV.  retained  power  as  pope 
in  spite  of  the  Council  of  Basle,  and  before  his  death,  in  1447,  had  arranged 
terms  with  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.  and  the  German  electors  ;  and  the 
Council  of  Basle  ended  in  1449  in  failure. 

The  Renaissance  of  Art  and  Letters  was  now  influencing  Italy  and  the 
Universities ;  and  several  popes  so  far  yielded  to  its  influence  as  to  become 
The  Renais-  classical  rather  than  Christian,  while  some  were  conspicuous  for 
sance.  their  vices  and  crimes.  Pope  Pius  II.  (vEneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini) 
is- sued  from  the  Congress  of  Mantua  the  Bull  ExecrabiUs,  declaring  that  an 
appeal  from  the  Pope  to  a  general  Council  was  punishable  by  excommunica- 
tion, in  direct  opposition  to  the  side  he  had  formerly  taken.  The  greater  part 
of  the  Vatican  and  the  Sistine  Chapel  are  among  the  works  due  to  the  popes 


ME1ANCHTHON. 


LUTHER   AND    THE   REFORMATION.  84; 


of  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  criminality  of  the  papal 
government  at  this  time  was  thrown  into  relief  by  the  appearance 
of  the  striking  figure  of  Savonarola  (1452-1408),  a  Dominican, 
who,  without  bringing  forward  any  heretical  doctrine,  powerfully  preached 
against  the  corruptions  of  the  age,  and  denounced  God's  vengeance  on  the 
Church.  In  Florence  he  effected  a  striking  Puritan  reform,  as  also  in  his 
own  monastery.  In  1497  a  great  "sacrifice  of  vanities"  was  made  under  his 
influence;  but  the  infamous  Pope  Alexander  VI.  (Borgia)  excommunicated 
him,  and  on  May  30,  1498,  he  was  hanged  and  burnt. 

While  the  popes  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  were 
quarrelling  with  the  French  king,  and  while  Leo  X.  (1513-1521)  was 
revelling   in   the   culture    and  art  of  the    Renaissance,    Martin 

Lutlier 

Luther  (1483-1546),  the  man  who  was  to  upset  much  of  the  work 
of  the  papacy,  the  son  of  a  Saxon  miner,  was  a  devout  Augustinian  friar, 
working  out  for  himself  the  problem  of  personal  religion,  and  studying 
St.  Augustine's  writings  more  than  any  of  the  Fathers.  A  visit  to  Rome  in 
1510  showed  him  something  of  the  prevailing  corruptions.  He  had  studied 
Tauler  and  the  German  mystics  deeply ;  but  an  external  event,  the 
extremely  mercenary  sale  of  indulgences,  for  the  benefit  of  the  building  of 
St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  by  John  Tetzel,  a  Dominican,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Wittenberg,  where  Luther  was  teaching  theology,  led  to  the  opening  of  his 
active  warfare  for  religious  reform.  On  October  31,  1517,  he  nailed  on 
the  door  of  the  Castle  church  at  Wittenberg  ninety-five  theses  ms  ninety- 
denying  the  power  of  the  Pope  to  remove  the  guilt  of  the  smallest  five  tneses- 
transgression,  and  asserting  that  the  obtaining  of  grace  was  a  matter  of 
immediate  relation  between  God  and  the  soul.  The  theses  went  through 
Germany  instantly.  Luther  wrote  several  tracts  and  sermons  on  the  subject, 
still  maintaining  that  the  pope  could  not  know  of  the  false  doctrines  that 
were  being  taught.  In  November,  1518,  Pope  Leo  X.  condemned  the 
attacks  on  indulgences,  and  claimed  full  power  of  releasing  sinners  from 
punishment.  Luther  appealed  to  a  general  Council,  denying  the  supremacy 
of  the  Pope,  and  asserting  that  the  power  of  the  keys  resided,  not  in  him, 
but  in  the  Church  collectively,  and  also  that  the  Council  of  Constance  had 
condemned  as  heretical  things  entirely  Christian.  His  fame  as  a  teacher 
drew  crowds  of  students,  among  them  Melanchthon.  In  his  book  on  the 
Babylonish  Captivity  of  the  Church  (1520;  he  demanded  the  total  abolition 
of  indulgences  and  the  giving  of  the  cup  to  the  laity,  and  expressed  his 
doctrine  of  "  consubstantiation,"  viz.,  that  the  bread  and  wine  of  the  sacra- 
ment remain  bread  and  wine,  though,  after  the  consecration  they  truly  con- 
tain the  flesh  and  blood  of  Christ  in  union  with  them.  In  September  1520, 
a  papal  Bull  was  published  in  Germany  condemning  forty-one  Papal  Bull 
heretical  propositions  from  Luther's  writings,  ordering  his  works  ag*"18*  nim- 
to  be  burnt,  and  himself  to  retract  his  errors  within  sixty  days.  Luther, 
in  response,  publicly  burnt  the  papal  Bull,  together  with  the  decretals 
and  the  whole  Roman  canon  law,  on  December  10,  1520.  He  was  speedily 
excommunicated  and  summoned  to  a  Diet  at  Worms  before  the  Emperor 


S44  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


and  Electors  of  Germany.     Here  he  defended  himself  boldly,  claimed  free- 
Diet  of      dom  of  conscience,  denied   the   right   of  the   clergy  to   control 
worms,     men's    religious    convictions,    and   withdrew  from   none   of    his 
positions.     He  was  outlawed  on  May  25,  1521.     He  retired  to  the  castle 
Luther  trans- of    Wartburg,  where   he   translated    the    New    Testament   into 
lates  Bible.  German,  a  translation  which  made  German  a  literary  language 
and    powerfully  aided   the   Reformation.      During   his  absence    his   rival 
Carlstadt  had  celebrated  the  Communion  with  the  omission  of  all  the  dis- 
tinctive Roman  features,  giving  it   to   all   in   both    kinds ;    and   he   w as- 
proposing  other  violent  changes.     Luther,  on  returning  to  Wittenberg,  in 
1522,  pursued  a  more  moderate  course,  but  gave  up  monastic  and  ascetic 
life  in  1524,  and  married  in  1525. 

Meanwhile  another  great  reformer  had  arisen  in  Switzerland,  Ulrich 

Zwingli  (1484-1531)  pastor  of  Glarus  from  1506-1516,  a  learned  man  who 

had  become  disgusted  with  the  corruptions  of  the  Church  and 

ZwinsrlL 

especially  with  the  indulgences  granted  to  pilgrims.  In  1519  he 
became  preacher  in  Zurich  cathedral,  taking  as  his  first  subject  the  life  of 
Christ  as  he  interpreted  it,  apart  from  human  authority.  In  1521  he  began 
to  be  called  a  heretic,  and  preached  on  1  Tim.  iv.  1-5,  to  the  effect  that  it 
was  no  sin  to  eat  flesh  on  a  fast  day,  but  a  great  sin  to  sell  human  flesh  for 
slaughtering  (alluding  to  the  hiring  of  Swiss  mercenary  soldiers  then 
prevalent).  In  1522  he  published  tracts  on  reform  which  caused  the 
local  authorities  to  arrange  a  public  disputation  in  Zurich  with  the  vicar  of 
ms  sixty-five tne  bishop  of  Constance  (January  29,  1523).  Zwingli  presented 
theses,  sixty-five  theses,  asserting  that  Christ  is  the*  011I37  way  to  sal- 
vation, independent  of  the  papacy,  mass,  absolution,  indulgences,  inter- 
cession of  the  saints,  etc. ;  that  Scripture  is  the  only  authoritative  guide, 
and  the  Roman  system  a  dangerous  delusion ;  that  the  congregation,  not 
the  priesthood,  properly  constitutes  and  rules  the  Church,  subject  to  the 
State ;  but  if  the  State  authorities  go  beyond  Christ's  teaching,  they  must 
be  deposed.  His  demonstration  was  so  powerful  that  he  was  completely 
The  Refo  victorious,  and  the  council  of  Zurich  reformed  public  worship  in 
mation  in  accordance  with  the  Reformer's  teaching.  Convents  were  closed  ; 
the  cathedral  chapter  was  converted  into  a  theological  students' 
college.  Zwingli  and  other  priests  married,  images  were  given  up  as  un- 
lawful, the  mass  was  declared  to  be  not  a  sacrifice,  the  relics  and  the  organ 
disappeared  from  the  cathedral,  various  festivals,  processions,  and  other 
ceremonies  were  discontinued,  and  at  Easter  1525  the  Communion  was 
celebrated  as  the  Lord's  Supper,  with  the  table  spread  with  a  white  cloth, 
and  the  cup  was  given  to  the  laity. 

Meanwhile  the  Anabaptists  had  appeared  in  Saxony  and  in  several 
other  parts  of  Germany,  declaring  especially  against  infant  baptism,  on  the 
Anab  f  t  8round  0I>  the  incapacity  of  infants  to  exercise  faith,  and  en- 
forcing adult  baptism.  In  Zurich  they  appeared  in  1523, 
demanding  the  formation  of  a  holy  congregation,  from  which  all  should  be 
excluded  who  were  not  rebaptised  and  truly  holy.     About  the  same  time 


THE   NINETY-FIVE   THESES   AT    WTTTEHBEBO. 

fluther   desccndhuj    the   steps   after   affixing    thtm.) 


845 


S46  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Zwingli  began  to  write  against  the  doctrine  of  Luther  on  consubstantiation ; 
and  their  views  were  found  to  diverge  so  much  that  in  September  1529  a 
conference  of  conference  was  held  at  Marburg  between  Luther,  Melanchthon, 
Marburg.  Zwingli,  (Ecolampadius,  Osiander,  and  other  Reformers,  to 
endeavour  to  come  to  an  agreement ;  but  after  three  days  this  was  found 
to  be  impossible,  Zwingli  protesting  his  desire  for  union,  but  Luther  prov- 
ing unyielding.  Zwingli's  doctrines  had  gained  largely  in  Switzerland,  at 
the  same  time  exciting  the  bitter  hostility  of  the  Romanist  cantons,  when 
he  was  killed  on  October  11,  1531,  while  acting  as  chaplain  to  the  army  of 
Zurich,  defeated  on  that  day  at  Cappel. 

Before  the  death  of  Zwingli,  however,  the  decisive  •  establishment  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  in  Germany  had  taken  place.    The  Diet  held  at  Spires 
Diet  of      in  1526  had  resolved  in  favour  of  tolerance  in  religious  matters  ; 
spires,     j-^  £ne   adhesion  of  the  Bavarian  dukes  had  by  1529  restored 
the  majority  to  the  Roman  side ;   and  the  Diet  of  Spires  in  that  year  for- 
bade the  preaching  of  Zwingli's  doctrine  about  the  Eucharist,  and  that 
of  the  Anabaptists,  and  ordered  that  the  reformers  should  teach  nothing 
in  their   sermons   contrary  to  the  received  doctrine  of  the  Church.     The 
Lutheran  princes,  headed  by  John,  Elector  of  Saxony,  then  handed 
Lutheran    in  their  celebrated  Protest,  from  which  the  term  Protestant  is 
princes.     derjve(j#     They  declared  themselves  ready  to  obey  the  Emperor 
and  the  Diet  in  all  reasonable  matters ;  but  they  appealed  from  all  past,  pre- 
sent, or  future  vexatious  measures  to  the  Emperor,  and  to  a  free  and  uni- 
versal council.    They  maintained  the  supreme  authority  of  the  Bible,  which 
was   to   be    explained  by  itself,  and  not  by  tradition.     The  conference  of 
Marburg,  already  spoken  of,  followed,  and  if  it  did  not  produce  entire  union, 
its  fourteen  articles  of  united  belief  were  of  the  greatest  service  in  mani- 
festing essential  unity  as   against  Rome.     But  henceforth  the  history  of 
Protestantism  became  markedly  national. 

The  principal  document  of  Lutheranism,  the  Augsburg  Confession,  was 
drawn  up  by  Philip  Melanchthon  (1497-1560),  the  learned  and  gentle  com- 
The  Augsburgpanion  of  Luther,  and  his  helper  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible 
confession.  -m^0  Qermaili  The  Emperor  Charles  V.,  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg, 
commanded  the  Lutheran  princes  to  draw  up  a  statement  of  their  faith  ;  and 
Melanchthon  wrote  it,  basing  it  on  Luther's  teaching,  but  with  studious 
moderation.  This  Confession  may  be  taken  as  establishing  the  Lutheran 
Church.  It  affirms  the  ancient  doctrines  of  the  Church  as  laid  down  in  the 
oecumenical  creeds,  and  repudiates  Unitarianism,  Arianism,  and  all  the 
heresies  denounced  by  the  early  councils.  It  maintains  the  Augustinian 
doctrine  of  original  sin,  and  condemns  Pelagianism  ;  teaching  that  men  are 
justified  freely  for  Christ's  sake  through  faith,  when  they  believe  that  they 
are  received  into  favour ;  and  their  sins  are  forgiven  for  Christ's  sake,  "  who 
by  His  death  hath  satisfied  for  our  sins."  The  Church  is  defined  as  the  con- 
gregation of  saints  or  assembly  of  all  believers,  in  which  the  gospel  is  purely 
preached  and  the  sacraments  administered  according  to  the  gospel ;  and  it  is 
sufficient  for  the  true  unity  of  the  Church  to  agree  concerning  the  doctrine 


Z  WING  LI  AND   THE  REFORMATION.  847 

of  the  gospel  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  ;  nor  is  it  necessary 
that  human  traditions,  rites,  or  ceremonies  should  be  everywhere  alike. 
Baptism  as  necessary  to  salvation,  and  that  of  infants,  is  held,  as  well  as 
communion  in  both  kinds.  Luther's  doctrine  of  consubstantiation  is 
declared,  but  the  Communion  only  avails  when  joined  with  faith  in  the 
recipient.  Saints  are  not  to  be  invoked  or  prayed  to,  for  Christ  is  the  sole 
Mediator.  Good  works  are  not  discountenanced,  but  are  necessary,  though 
not  the  means  of  salvation.  Various  Romish  errors  are  repudiated,  such  as 
Communion  in  one  kind,  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  masses  celebrated  for  money, 
and  the  mass  as  a  sacrifice,  the  enumeration  of  sins  at  confession,  special 
mortifications  and  peculiarities  of  abstinence,  rigidity  and  special  merits  of 
monastic  vows,  and  jurisdiction  of  bishops  beyond  what  is  plainly  taught  by 
the  gospel.  Luther's  remaining  years  were  devoted  to  the  settlement  of 
the  G-erman  Churches,  too  often  in  an  exclusive  and  masterful  spirit ;  but 
we  cannot  here  detail  his  labours.     He  died  on  Feb.  18,  154G. 

"We  must  now  briefty  sum  up  the  position  taken  by  Zwingli  so  far  as 
distinctive,  and  as  definitely  characterising   the    earliest  Swiss  Reformed 
Churches;  leaving  Calvin's  work  and  the  Reformation  in  England,  The  Treses 
for  later  chapters.     Next  to  Zwingli's  sixty-five  articles  (p.  844)    of  Berne, 
stand  his  ten  Theses   of  Berne,   1528,  which   rejected  tradition,  accepted 
the  Scriptures  as  the  only  authority  and  Christ  as  the  sole  redemption  and 
satisfaction  for  the  sins  of  the  world,  rejected  the  corporeal  presence  of  the 
body  and  blood  of   Christ  in  the   Eucharist   as   incapable  of  proof   from 
Scripture,  the  mass  as  a  sacrifice,  and  all  mediation  except  that  of  Christ, 
together  with  purgatory,  masses  and  prayers  for  the  dead,  image  worship, 
and  celibacy  of  the  clergy.     He  more  fully  elaborated  his  doctrine  in  a  con- 
fession sent  to  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530.     In  July,  1531,  he  wrote  a 
further  exposition  to  Francis  I.  of  France,  begging  him  to  give  the  gospel 
freedom  in  his  kingdom  and  to  judge  the  Reformed  faith  by  its   Zwin--]i,B 
fruits  when  established.     In  these  confessions  he  taught  the  un-  distinctive 
conditional  election  or  predestination  of  those  who  are  to  be  saved, 
faith  being  the  means  by  which  it  is  appropriated.     Those  who  hear  the 
Gospel  and  reject  it  are  fore-ordained  to  eternal  punishment.     God  by  His 
providence  controls  and  disposes   all  events ;  the  fall  of  man  with  its  conse- 
quences happened  under  His  foreknowledge  and  fore-ordination.     It  is  this 
doctrine  especially  which  was  more  fully  developed  by  Calvin. 

As  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  Zwingli  holds  that  it  is  the  visible  sign  of  an 
invisible  grace,  there  being  a  clear  distinction  between  the  sign  and  the 
thing  signified.  Communion  with  Christ  is  not  confined  to  the  sacrament, 
nor  do  all  who  partake  of  it  really  commune  with  Christ.  The  priestly  act 
is  of  no  avail,  the  faith  of  the  recipient  being  the  only  means  of  its  efficacy. 
The  sacraments  aid  and  strengthen  faith,  and  are  public  testimonies  of  it. 
The  Lord's  Supper  is  a  commemoration,  not  a  repetition  of  Christ's  sacrifice  ; 
the  bread  and  wine  represent,  but  are  not  really,  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  who  is  present  only  to  the  eye  of  faith ;  His  human  body,  which  is 
in  heaven,  cannot  be  everywhere  at  the  same  time  ;  and  the  eating  and 


s4s 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


drinking  of  the  sacrament  is  a  spiritual  partaking  only.  He  shows  that 
the  figurative  interpretation  of  Christ's  words  of  institution  is  like  a  great 
number  of  His  other  expressions,  which  cannot  be  literally  true.  Zwingli 
further  went  beyond  Romans  and  Lutherans  in  his  doctrine  of  the  salvation 
■of  children  dying  unbaptised,  by  the  merits  of  Christ.  He  also  believed  in 
the  salvation  of  many  adult  heathen. 

The  First  Confession  of  Basle  (153-4)  was  first  drawn  up  by  John  (Ecolam- 
padius,  the  principal  reformer  of  Basle,  before  his  death  in  1531,  and  put 
confessions  mto  its  present  shape  by  his  successor,  Oswald.  Myconius.  It 
of  Basle.  asserts  briefly  the  main  Zwinglian  doctrines,  terming  Christ  the 
food  of  the  soul  to  everlasting  life,  and  repudiates  the  views  of  the  Anabap- 
tists. The  Second  Confession  of  Basle  (1536)  is  also  termed  the  First  Helvetic 
•Confession,  from  its  having  been  drawn  up  by  a  conference  of  the  leading 
.Swiss  divines,  and  intended  to  be  laid  before  the  general  council  of  the 
Church.  It  chiefly  differs  from  the  Zwinglian  Confessions  in  laying  more 
stress  on  the  significance  of  the  sacramental  signs  and  the  real  spiritual 
presence  of  Christ.  The  Reformed  doctrines  had  by  this  time  received 
their  remarkable  Calvinistic  development  in  the  publication  by  Calvin,  in 
1534,  of  his  Institntio  Christiance  Religionis,  generally  known  as  Calvin's 
Institutes.  The  Council  of  Trent,  however,  by  its  decisions  entirely  pre- 
cluded any  hope  of  accommodation  with  the  Reformers. 


POPE    SIXTUS   THE   FIFTH    (1585-90). 


CHAPTER   XI. 


Cbe  Council  of  Crrnt  ant)  iWofcern  ftomanfcm* 

The  Council  of  Trent  -The  Creeds  and  the  Bible— Original  sii  and  Baptism— Justification— Penance 
— The  seven  sacraments— The  "  Real  Presence  " — Transubstantiation  and  the  adoration  of  the 
Host  Confession  Long  intermission  of  the  Council— The  Mass— Orders— Marriage  and  divorce — 
Purgatory— Prayers  to  saints — Relics  and  images — Tridentine  profession  and  Roman  Catechism-  - 
Bellarmine-  Bossuet-Mbhler— Perrone— Ignatius  Loyola— Faber  and  Xavier— The  Jesuit  Order — 
— Jansen's  "Augustinus" — Arnauld — Pascal — Quesnsl— Jansenists  —  Causes  of  Jesuit  succssses — 
Moral  defects— Recent  history — "The  Immaculate  Conception"  Vatican  Council,  1870— Papal 
infallibility— Number  of  Roman  Catholics— The  Roman  Congregations— Roman  servio  books- 
The  Old  Catholics— Theses  of  Union  Conference — Swiss  Old  Catholics, 

THE  Council  of  Trent,  the  most  important  modern  Council  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  was  distinguished  by  the  protracted  length  and 
interruption  of  its  sittings,  and  by  the  extent  and  variety  of  its  The  council 
pronouncements.  It  was  first  summoned  for  15)57,  by  Pope  Paul  of  Trent- 
III.,  but  various  causes  led  to  its  postponement ;  and  it  at  last  met  at  Trent 
(Tridentum),  in  the  Italian  Tyrol  (under  Austrian  rule),  on  Dec.  13,  1545.  Its 
avowed  objects  were  the  extirpation  of  heresy,  the  re-establishment  of 
ecclesiastical  discipline,  the  reformation  of  morals,  and   the  restoration  of 

849  •>    j 


850  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

peace  and  unity.  To  it  were  invited  the  princes  and  divines  who  supported 
the  Reform  movement ;  but  they  declined  to  attend,  as  they  were  not  even 
to  discuss  controverted  questions.  They  said  that  the  Council  would  be 
neither  free,  nor  Christian,  nor  oecumenical,  nor  ruled  by  the  word  of  God, 
and  that  it  would  only  confirm  the  authority  of  the  Pope. 

After  several  preliminaries,  in  February,  1546,  the  Nicene  Creed  was 
adopted,  and  Luther's  exclusive  adhesion  to  the  Scriptures  was  rejected,  it 
The  Creeds  being  added,  that  saving  truth  of  equal  authority  with  the  Scrip- 
and  the  Bible.  tUres  was  also  contained  in  the  traditions  of  the  Church,  handed 
down  from  Christ  or  the  Apostles  through  the  Fathers.  It  was  also  decided 
that  all  the  canonical  books,  including  the  Apocrypha,  were  authentic  and 
to  be  received.  The  Latin  Vulgate  version,  regarded  by  the  Reformers  as 
full  of  errors,  was  declared  authentic.  In  opposition  to  the  right  of  private 
judgment,  it  was  ordered  that  no  one  should  presume  to  interpret  the  Scrip- 
tures in  senses  contrary  to  that  of  holy  mother  Church,  whose  function  it 
was  to  judge  of  their  true  sense  and  interpretation. 

In  June,  1646,  the  doctrine  of  "  original  sin,"  transmitted  to  all  mankind 
through  Adam,  was  affirmed,  and  also  its  remedy  and  removal  by  the  merit 
original  sin  of  Jesus  Christ,  applied  both  to  adults  and  to  infants  by  baptism, 
and  Baptism. rightly  administered  in  the  form  of  the  Church.  Infants,  even 
newly  born,  need  baptism  for  the  remission  of  sins,  that  they  may  be 
cleansed  from  the  taint  of  original  sin ;  after  baptism  original  sin  is  taken 
away,  and  they  are  made  innocent,  immaculate,  pure,  and  harmless.  The 
question  as  to  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin,  who  is  mentioned 
as  "  the  blessed  and  immaculate  Virgin  Mary,  the  Mother  of  God,"  was  left 
open,  though  the  Franciscans  strongly  desired  that  she  should  be  declared 
free  from  the  taint  of  original  sin. 

In  January,  1547,  decrees  were  passed  relating  to  justification  by  the 
redemption  of  Christ — first,  through  the  prevenient  grace  of  God,  disposing 
men  to  consent  to  and  co-operate  with  the  grace  of  God,  they  being 
able  to  reject  grace,  while  not  able,  without  the  grace  of  God,  to 
turn  to  righteousness.  Justification  is  declared  to  be,  not  merely  remission 
of  sins,  but  also  the  sanctification  and  renewal  of  the  inward  man  ;  the 
efficient  cause  being  the  mercy  of  God,  the  meritorious  cause  the  suffering 
of  Christ  upon  the  cross,  whereby  He  made  satisfaction  for  us  to  God  the 
Father,  the  instrumental  cause  the  sacrament  of  baptism,  and  the  formal 
cause  the  justice  of  God,  the  communication  of  the  merits  of  Christ's  passion 
justifying  men  and  infusing  into  them  faith,  hope,  and  charity.  Men  are 
justified  by  faith,  because  it  is  the  beginning  and  root  of  all  justification, 
and  freely,  because  nothing  done  before  justification  merits  it ;  but  this 
justification  cannot  be  possessed,  for  a  certainty,  by  those  who  simply  settle 
within  themselves  that  they  are  justified  (as  the  heretics  and  schismatics 
do).  Faith,  co-operating  with  good  works,  increases  justification,  but  no  one 
is  exempt  from  keeping  all  the  commandments  ;  but  it  is  heretical  to  say 
that  the  just  man  sins  in  all  his  good  works,  venially  at  least.  No  man  can 
be  absolutely  certain  that  he  is  predestinate  to  salvation,  or  that  he  shall 


THE    COUNCIL    OF  TRENT.  851 

finally  persevere.     Those  who  have  fallen  after  justification  may  be  restored 
through   the  sacrament  of  penance,  including  sacramental  con- 

-  Penance 

fession  of  sins,  and  sacerdotal  absolution,  and  satisfaction  by  fasts, 
alms,  prayers,  and  other  pious  exercises,  for  the  temporal  punishment  due 
for  the  sins.  Thirty-three  canons  were  appended  to  these  declarations, 
censuring  and  anathematising  the  doctrines  of  justification  by  works,  the 
Pelagian  teaching  on  the  power  of  man's  free  will,  the  beliefs  that  man's 
free  will  is  lost,  that  God  works  any  evil,  that  a  man  can  be  justified  with- 
out the  merits  of  Christ,  that  when  once  justified  he  cannot  fall  from  grace, 
or  that  if  he  sins  he  was  never  really  justified,  that  there  is  no  mortal  sin 
but  infidelity,  that  he  who  sins  after  baptism  cannot  regain  grace,  or  that 
he  can  regain  it  by  faith  alone,  without  the  sacrament  of  penance,  that  after 
justification  there  is  no  receiving  punishment,  to  be  discharged  either  in  this 
world  or  in  purgatory,  that  a  man  cannot  by  good  works  merit  and  gain 
increase  of  grace  and  glory,  and  the  converse  of  other  doctrines  enunciated 
above. 

In  March,  1547,  thirty  canons  on  the  sacraments  were  adopted,  anathe- 
matising those  who  maintain  that  the  seven  sacraments  were  not  all  insti- 
tuted by  Christ,  or  that  any  is  superfluous  ;  that  one  sacrament  is  The  seven 
of  more  value  than  another ;  that  the  sacraments  do  not  confer  sacraments, 
grace  through  the  act  performed  (opus  operatum) ;  that  baptism,  orders,  and 
confirmation  do  not  imprint  an  indelible  character  ;  that  all  Christians  ma}' 
preach  and  administer  the  sacraments ;  that  the  sin  of  the  minister  makes 
the  sacrament  invalid,  or  that  the  minister  may  change  or  omit  sacramental 
rites  at  pleasure.  On  the  question  of  baptism,  among  the  fourteen  canons, 
one  asserts  the  validity  of  baptism  by  heretics  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity, 
and  when  intending  to  do  what  the  Church  does.  It  is  asserted  that  baptism 
is  essential  to  salvation,  that  the  baptised  may  lose  grace,  that  they  are 
required  to  observe  the  whole  law  of  Christ  and  of  the  Church,  and  that  it 
need  not  be  repeated  after  lapse  into  heresy  and  repentance.  Confirmation 
has  a  special  virtue,  and  is  to  be  administered  by  bishops  only. 

In   the  middle   of  March,  1547,  the  Council  was  ordered  to  meet  at 
Bologna,  as  contagious  disease  had  broken  out  at  Trent ;  but  in  consequence 
of  a  quarrel  between  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor  it  was  suspended  -n^  ..Reai 
for   four  years,    during   which  Pope  Paul  III.  died  (4549)  and   Presence." 
Julius  III.  succeeded  him.       The  Council  was  reopened  in   1551,  and    in 
October  a  most  important  decree  concerning  the  Eucharist  was  adopted.     It 
was  declared  that  after  the  consecration  of  the  bread  and  wine,  "  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  true  God  and  man,  is  truly,  really,  and  substantially  contained 
under  the  appearance  of  these  sensible  objects,"'  and  that  His  presence  thus 
can  be  conceived  by  faith,  in  a  mode  of  existence  which  can  scarcely  be 
expressed  by  words.     It  is  the  spiritual  food  of  souls,  and  a  pledge  of  glory 
to  come.     Each  kind  contains  both  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,     Transub- 
in  the  smallest  particle,  as  w.ell  as  His  divinity ;  and  in  anotlier^*^*"^ 
article  it  is  stated  that  the  whole  substance  of  the  bread  is  con-  of  the  Host, 
verted  into  the  body  of  Christ,  and  the  whole  substance  of  the  wine  into 


852  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  blood  of  Christ.  Wherefore  the  adoration  of  latria  (worship)  which 
is  due  to  God,  is  due  to  the  sacrament;  and  it  should  be  specially  adored 
on  a  yearly  festival  (Corpus  Christi),  and  borne  reverentty  through  streets 
and  public  places,  and  also  reserved  in  the  sanctuary  and  carried  to  the  sick. 
Preparation  for  its  reception  is  to  be  by  sacramental  confession  and  penance 
in  the  case  of  any  one  conscious  of  mortal  sin.  A  series  of  canons  condemns 
all  who  hold  opposite  opinions. 

In  November  1551  decrees  on  penance  and  extreme  unction  were  passed. 
It  was  declared  that  Christ  instituted  penance,  principally  when  He  pro- 
nounced the  words,  "  AVhose  sins  ye  shall  forgive,  they  are  forgiven  them, 
etc,"  for  the  reconciling  of  those  who  fall  after  baptism  ;  and  that  the  priest 
in  the  sacrament  of  penance  exercises  the  office  of  a  judge.  The  form  of 
the  sacrament  is  in  the  words  of  the  priest,  "  Ego  te  absolvo,"  I  absolve 
thee,  while  the  penitential  acts  are  contrition,  confession,  and  satisfaction  ; 
and  penance  does  not  confer  grace  without  any  good  motive  on  the  part  of 
those  who  receive  it.  Confession  should  be  made  once  a  year  at 
on  essi  .  jeag^  preferably  in  Lent  Unworthy  priests  can  still  minister 
this  sacrament  by  virtue  of  their  ordination.  Certain  atrocious  crimes  ought 
to  be  reserved  for  popes  and  bishops  to  deal  with  ;  though  there  may  be 
no  reservation  when  the  sinner  is  at  the  point  of  death.  Without  derogation 
from  the  efficacy  of  Christ's  merit,  the  voluntary  penances,  or  those  imposed 
by  the  priest,  as  well  as  the  patient  bearing  of  temporal  scourges  inflicted 
by  Clod,  do  make  a  satisfaction  for  our  sins.  Extreme  unction  is  said  to 
have  been  instituted  by  Christ,  but  only  promulgated  by  the  apostle  James 
( James  v.  14,  15).  The  oil  blessed  by  a  bishop  is  its  agency  ;  and  its  effect 
is  to  cleanse  away  the  remains  of  sin  and  comfort  the  soul  of  the  sick.  The 
canons  on  these  subjects  anathematise  those  who  repudiate  confession  to  a 
priest  alone  secretly,  or  the  judicial  or  the  absolving  function  of  the  priest, 
or  the  efficacy  of  penance,  or  who  reject  extreme  unction  as  a  sacrament. 

A  long  discussion  about  questions  of  episcopal  jurisdiction  and  about 
holy  orders  followed  ;  but  the  Council  was  prorogued  early  in  1552,  in  conse- 

.  .       quence  of  disputes  between  the  Emperor's  ambassadors  and  the 

mission  of  papal  legates.    The  suspension  lasted  nearly  ten  years,  and  in  the 

the  council.  mean^me  p0pe  pjns  jy  iiac[  SUCCeeded  to  Julius  III.  in  1555. 

When  the  Council  again  reassembled,  in  1562,  ambassadors  from  the  French 
king  proposed  that  the  decisions  of  the  Council  should  not  be  reserved  for 
the  Pope's  approval,  but  that  the  Pope  should  be  compelled  to  submit  to  the 
decision  of  the  Council ;  that  the  Council  should  begin  with  reforming  the 
( Jhurch  in  its  head  and  in  its  members;  that  archbishops  and  bishops  should 
be  compelled  to  reside  in  their  sees,  that  bishops  should  only  ordain  priests 
to  definite  charges,  etc.     Little  attention  was  paid  to  these  demands. 

In  July,  15(12,  it  was  resolved  that  laymen,  as  well  as  priests  when 

not  celebrating,  are  not  bound  to  receive  the  sacrament  in  both  kinds,  and 

communion  in  either  is  sufficient ;  nor  are  little  children  bound 

to  receive  the  sacrament.     In   September,  1562,  it  was  declared 

that  thp  mass  is  a  propitiatory  sacrifice,  continuous  with  that  of  Christ  on 


THE    COUNCIL    OF  TRENT. 


853 


the  cross,  and  may  not  only  be  offered  for  the  sins  of  the  faithful  who  are 
living,  but  also  for  the  faithful  who  are  dead  but  not  yet  fully  purified. 
Masses  are  to  be  said  in  honour  of  the  saints,  not  as  sacrifices  to  them,  but 
to  implore  their  patronage,  "  that  they  may  intercede  for  us  in  heaven." 
The  rites  and  ceremonies,  lights  and  incense,  vestments,  etc.,  used  in  the 


mass  are  derived  from  apostolical  tradition,  and  Loth  honour  the  majesty  of 
the  sacrifice  and  excite  the  minds  of  the  faithful  to  the  contemplation  of  the 
sublimities  hidden  in  the  sacrifice.  The  mass  is  not  usually  to  be  celebrated 
in  the  vulgar  tongue,  but  it  is  frequently  to  be  explained  in  sermons.  The 
contraries  of  these  doctrines  were  anathematised  in  nine  canoas. 

Seven  orders,  besides  bishops,  were  recognised  by  the  Council  in  15G3 : 


854  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

viz  ,  priests,  deacons,  subdeacons,  acolytes,  exorcists,  readers,  and  doorkeepers. 

Orders  are  indelible,  and  tlie  priesthood  cannot  be  possessed  by  all 

Christians.     No  consent  of  the  civil  power  is  requisite  for  orders, 

or  their  conferment,  or  for  the  authority  of  the  bishops.     Marriage  was 

affirmed  as  a  sacrament  \  but  the  Church  asserted  its  power  to 

Ma£[^®  anddispense  with  certain  limits  of  the  Levitical  law,  and   to  create 

others.     Divorce  is  forbidden,  even  for  adultery.     The  marriage 

of  priests  is  illegal,  and  celibacy  is  extolled  as  better  than  marriage. 

In  December,  15G3,  thedoctrine  of  purgatory  was  affirmed,  and  that  the 
souls  there  detained  are  helped  by  the  prayers  of  the  faithful,  by  masses  on 
their  behalf,  and  by  alms.     It  was  declared    that  the  saints  in 
heaven  offer  up  prayer   to   God  for  men,  through  Christ.     The 
bodies  of  martyrs,  and  their  relics,  ought  to  be  venerated,  honoured,  and 
visited.     Images  of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  the  saints  are  to  be 
Pra^rtgt0  retained  and  honoured,  though  no  worship  is  to  be  paid  to  them  ; 
but  the  honour  shown  to  them,  when  they  are  kissed,  or  otherwise 
honoured,  is  referred  to  their  prototype.    A  strong  desire  was  expressed  to  put 
down  abuses  connected  with  images,  and  all  superstition,  lascivi- 
Rfmaffesld  onsnessj  or  revellings  in  connection  with  them.    No  unusual  image, 
no  new  miracles,  no  new  relics  were  to  be  honoured,  unless  after 
full  consideration  of  bishops,  and  reference  of  doubtful  cases  to  the  pope. 
Indulgences  are  still  authorised,  with  moderation  and  correction  of  all  abuses. 
The  final  act  of  the  Council  was  to  pronounce  a  curse  upon  all  heretics.    The 
decrees  were  signed  by  255  bishops  and  others,  and  confirmed  by  a  Bull  of 
Pius  IV.  on  the  20th  January,  1564,  reserving  the  exclusive  right  of  expla- 
nation to  the  pope. 

The  Council  undoubtedly  felt  and  yielded  considerably  to  the  prevalent 
demand  for  reforms,  and  passed  many  decrees,  such  as  those  forbidding  the 
non-residence  of  bishops,  and  a  number  of  irregularities  in  the  conduct  and 
education  of  bishops  and  priests,  which  have  been  very  beneficial. 

Its  decrees  were  acknowledged  in  Italy,  Spain.  Portugal,  France,  the 
Netherlands,  the  Soman  Catholic  German  States,  and  Poland  ;  the  royal 
prerogatives  being  usually  reserved.  They  were  never  formally  accepted 
in  France,  and  they  were  never  introduced  in  England  or  Scotland. 

A  brief  summary  of  the  Tridentine  decrees  was  prepared  by  order  of 

Pius  IV.  in  1564,  as  a  profession  of  faith  to  be  taken  by  all  Catholic  digni- 

Tridentine  taries  and  teachers,  including  an  acknowledgment  that  "The  Holy 

aPndRonmn  Catholic  Apostolic  Eoman  Church  is  the  mother  and  mistress  of 

cateewsm.    all  Churches."     The  decrees  of  Trent  were  further  arranged  in  a 

popular  form  as  the  Roman  Catechism,  issued  in  1566,  subsequently  charged 

with  heresy  by  prominent  Jesuits,  who  framed  catechisms  of  their  own. 

We  may  here  briefly  refer  to  a  few  of  the  great  theologians  of  the  Romish 

Church  since  the  Council  of  Trent.     Cardinal  Bellarmine  ( 1542 -1621)  became 

a  Jesuit  in  1560,  and  librarian  of  the  Vatican  in  1605.     His  great 

Beiiarmine.  ^ork  «  0n  the  Controversies  of  the  Christian  Faith"  (1587-90)  is  a 

storehouse  of  Protestant  doctrines,  which  he  gives  in  full  from  the  original 


THE    COUNCIL    OF  TRENT. 


355 


authorities,  and  of  Roman  refutation.     It  was  at  first  proscribed  by  Pope 
Sixtus  V.,  from  a  fear  that  by  giving  the  teaching  of  the  Reformers  in  their 
own  words,  the  infection  might  spread  in  the  Roman  Church.     Bellarmine 
allowed   only    an  indirect    control    by  the   pope    over  temporal     Bos3uet 
matters.    In  the  seventeenth  century,  the  eloquent  French  prelate 
Bossuet  (1627-1704)   wrote  two  great  theological  books— '1     An   "  Expo- 


• 


ICXATICS    LOYOLA. 


sition  of  the  Catholic  Church  Doctrine  on  Matters  of  Controversy,'*  in  which 
he  presents  the  dogmas  in  their  most  plausible  form,  and  conciliates  Pro- 
testants as  much  as  possible ;  and  (2)  "  A  History  of  the  Variations  of  the 
Protestant  Churches."  He  did  not  support  papal  infallibility,  nor  supreme 
Roman  control  of  foreign  States.  He  was  genuinely  desirous  of  reunion 
with  Protestants,  and  proposed  to  Leibnitz  a  suspension  of  the  Triden- 
tine  anathemas,  and  the  summoning  of  a  general  council  in  which  Protest- 


856  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

ants  should  have  votes.     Adam  Mohler,  the  greatest  German  Catholic  divine 
(1796-1838),  wrote  a  book  entitled  "Symbolics,"  which  both  de- 
fended Romanism  and  attacked   Protestantism,  giving  an  ideal 
and  spiritual  portraiture  of  the  former,  and  making  great  use  of  Luther's 
private    and   unguarded  utterances.     He  deplored   the   corruptions  of  the 
Church,  acknowledged  the  sinfulness  of  many  popes  and  priests,  and  ignored 
the  question  of  papal  infallibility.     John  Perrone  (born  in  1704  in 
Piedmont,  and  for  many  }Tears  professor  of  theology  in  the  Jesuit 
college  at  Rome)  wrote  a  large  work  on  dogmatic  theology,  which  is  very 
Avidely  used  in  the  Roman  Church,  and  which  includes  the  later  develop- 
ments of  Romanism.     The  Romish  doctrines  and  discipline  are  described  in 
an  intelligible  and  moderate  way  in  the  "  Catholic  Dictionary  "  of  W.  E. 
Addis  and  Thomas  Arnold,  18S4. 

To  properly  understand  the  pronouncements  of  the  popes  against  the 
Jansenists,  we  must  first  review  the  remarkable  organisation  and  work  of 
Ignatius  tne  Jesuits,  founded  by  Don  Inigo  or  Ignatius  de  Loyola,  a 
Loyola.  Spanish  nobleman,  born  in  1491.  He  took  religious  vows  as  a 
Benedictine  in  1521,  and  made  the  first  draft  of  his  famous  "  Spiritual 
Exercises."  He  conceived  the  idea  of  founding  an  order  which  should 
support  the  papacy  against  the  German  heretics,  and  spread  the  gospel 
among  the  heathen.  He  was  twice  imprisoned  in  Spain  on  suspicion  of 
heresy  ;  but  from  1528  to  1534  he  studied  at  Paris,  and  in  the  latter  year 
Fafoer  and  ne  founded  his  society,  with  Peter  Paber,  a  priest,  and  Francis 
xavier.  Xavier,  afterwards  the  celebrated  missionary  to  India,  in  1537 
taking  the  title  of  "  The  Company  of  Jesus,"  whence  they  were  afterwards 
The  Jesuit  termed  "Jesuits"  by  Calvin.  In  1540,  after  much  opposition, 
order.  ^[1Q  new  Order  was  confirmed  by  papal  bull.  The  employments 
assigned  were  to  be  preaching,  spiritual  exercises,  works  of  charity,  teaching 
the  catechism,  and  hearing  confessions ;  but  the  work  to  be  done  by  any 
member  was  to  be  chosen  by  the  general,  and  a  long  probation  was  pre- 
scribed before  full  admission.  Francis  Xavier  and  Rodriguez  were  sent  to 
the  King  of  Portugal  to  act  as  missionaries  in  his  possessions.  In  1541 
Loyola  was  chosen  superior  or  general,  and  immediately  sent  out  his 
adherents  on  various  special  missions — two  to  Ireland  to  encourage  the  people 
in  their  resistance  to  Henry  VIII.,  one  to  the  Diet  at  Worms.  A  college 
was  founded  in  1542,  to  supply  preachers  for  the  Indian  mission  founded  by 
Xavier.  The  Jesuits  had  much  success  both  in  Spain  and  Germany,  where 
they  proved  themselves  able  opponents  of  the  Protestants.  Privileges  and 
gifts  flowed  in  upon  them  ;  but  Loyola  wisely  stipulated  that  his  members 
should  not  be  compelled  to  take  outside  dignities  and  offices  or  become 
monastic  confessors.  They  were  also  placed  completely  at  the  general's 
disposal,  and  the  final  vows  were  made  unchangeable.  Loyola  would  not 
have  his  members  wear  a  special  habit,  designing  that  they  should  mix  freely 
with  the  world.  Candidates  had  to  renounce  their  own  will,  their  family, 
and  all  that  they  held  most  dear.  In  1546  free  day  schools  were  established 
in   connection  with    ;dl    the   Jesuit    colleges.     During    the    sittings    of  the 


THE  JESUITS  AND   MODERN  ROMANISM. 


857 


Council  of  Trent,  three  members  of  the  Order  were  strong  advocates  for 
the  papal  power,  viz.,  Laynez,  Faber,  and  Salmeron,  and  had  considerable 
influence  in  framing  its  decrees.     When  Loyola  died,  in  155G,  the  society 


included  over  2,000  members  in  twelve  provinces,  and  more  than  a  hundred 
colleges  and  houses.  Laynez,  the  next  general,  added  to  the  great  powers 
of  his  office.     Pope  Pius  V.  granted  still  more  extended  privileges,  and  made 


858  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


tliem  irrevocable  at  any  future  time.  In  tlie  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 
centmy  the  Jesuits  had  great  success  in  counteracting  the  Reform  move- 
ment, though  they  were  expelled  from  England,  France,  and  Antwerp. 

In  1640  was  published  the  celebrated  Augustinus  of  Cornelius  Jansen 

(1585-1638),  Bishop  of  Ypres,  who  had  taught  against  the  Jesuits'  influence 

jansen's    at  Louvain.     A  large  part  of  this  book  is  devoted  to  an  exposi- 

Augustinus.  ^on  0£  ^]ie  Pelagian  errors  and  of  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of 

Divine   grace,  in   a  sense  approaching  the   teaching   of  Calvin ;    but   its 

epilogue  by  implication  compared  the  errors  of  the  Jesuits  to  those  of  the 

early   semi-Pelagians,    and    drew   down    their   violent   antagonism.      The 

Inquisition  prohibited  it,  followed  by  a  Papal  bull  to  the  same  effect  in 

1643.    Arnauld,  a  famous  French  theologian,  wrote  two  Apologies 

for     Jansen,    and    many    Catholic    theologians     supported    the 

Augustinus,     Finally  the  Jesuits  succeeded  in  getting  a  papal  condemnation 

of  several  teachings  of  Jansen  as  heretical,  which  proceeding  called  forth 

the  celebrated  Provincial  Letters  of  Blaise  Pascal,  which  dealt 

PtLSCcll 

severe  blows  at  the  Jesuits.    Arnauld,  however,  was  expelled  from 

the  Sorbonne,  and  the  Jesuits  for  years  carried  on  a  bitter  persecution  of 

the  Jansenists,    especially  in  France,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 

seventeenth  and  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  centuries.     Quesnel's 

"  Moral  Reflections  on  the   New  Testament "  being  a  popular  work,  was 

especially  obnoxious  to  the  Jesuits  as  containing  Jansenist  views.    In  Holland 

a  considerable  section,  with  the  deprived  Archbishop  of  Utrecht,  stuck  to  the 

Jansenist  teaching,  and  succeeded  in  maintaining  a  separatist  Church,  with 

a  succession  of  bishops,  which  still  exists  at  Utrecht,  Deventer,  and 

Haarlem,  though  its  members  do  not  exceed  six  thousand.     The}'' 

claim  still  to  be  members  of  the  Catholic  Church  under  the  pope,  though 

denying  his  infallibility. 

What  were  the  main  elements  of  the  success  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the 
causes  of  the  opposition  they  aroused  ?  1     In  the  first  place,  the  vow  of  indis- 
causes  of  cnim bating  obedience  to  orders  from  headquarters,  and  the  extent 
Jesuit      to  which  that  obedience  has  been  rendered.     Secondly,  their  con- 
tinual intercourse  with  society,  mobility,  and  adaptability  to  local 
circumstances.     This  has  gone  to  the  extent  that  multitudes  have  met  with 
and    been   influenced   by  Jesuits   without  the  slightest"  suspicion  of  their 
identity.     Thirdly,  the  subjugation  of  will,  understanding,  and  even  moral 
.judgment,  to  the  superior  and  to  what  is  considered  to  be  the  good  of  the 
Order  or  the  Church.     Fourthly,  a  complete  system  of  checks,  not  to  say 
spies,  and  a  spirit  of  resistance  to  the  papacy  when  not  in  accord  with  the 
Order.     Many  popes  have  condemned  their  actions  fruitlessly  ;  for  instance, 
although  nine  popes  condemned  their  adoption  of  Chinese  heathen  methods 
and  rites  in  their  Chinese  missions,  they  maintained  their  course  success- 
fully.    Their  missions,  their  colleges,  spread  almost  throughout  the  world  ; 
and  their  influence  successfully  hindered  the   spread  of  Protestantism  in 
many  countries  anrl  provinces.     The  personal  and  private  character  of  the 
1  See  Quarterly  Review  for  Octobei-,  1874,  and  January,  1875. 


THE  JESUITS  AND   MODERN  ROMANISM. 


859 


.Jesuits  has  in  general  been  remarkably  pure  and  free  from  ill-repute.     Yei 
both  the  doctrines i  and  the  acts  attributed  to  the  Jesuits  have  caused  them 

to  be  widely  suspected  and  disliked.     The  motto  of  the  order,  "  Ad  majorem 
Dei  gloriam,"  "To  the  greater  glory  of  God,"'  was  interpreted      Moral 
in  a  sense  which  more  or  less  overpowered   moral  distinctions ;     defects, 
and  three  principles—!  1  1  that  of  probabilism,  or  that  probable  opinions  may 


HII. AX    CATHEUIIAI 


be  lawfully  followed,  even  if  they  conflict  with  the  agent's  opinion  ;  (2)  that 
of  mental  reservation  ;  and  (3)  that  the  end  justifies  the  means — have  been 
with  more  or  less  justice  identified  with  the  spirit  of  Jesuitry.  In  a  fully 
authorised  and  widely  diffused  "  Compendium  of  Moral  Theology,"  by 
Father  Griry,  we  have  such  Jesuitical  principles  as  these:  "Temptation, 
when  greatly  protracted,  need  not  be  positively  withstood  continuously": 


86o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

"  The  Pope  can  dispense  from  God's  precepts  for  a  just  cause  in  cases  where 
Divine  law  comes  into  action  through  human  will,  as  in  vows  or  oaths." 
As  to  the  necessity  of  belief  in  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation  before  absolu- 
tion, one  can  be  "  validly  absolved  if  only  he  be  living  in  invincible  ignor- 
ance." This  might  be  used  to  cover  the  case  of  so-called  converts  in  China, 
accepted  without  any  belief  in  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  Christianity. 
••  For  grave  reasons"  it  is  declared  lawful  at  times  to  use  latent  reservations 
and  equivocal  terms ;  and  this  is  illustrated  by  cases  which  practically 
justify  many  kinds  of  deceit.  Clandestine  conversions  with  postponed 
professions  are  permitted.  The  maxim  that  the  end  justifies  the  means  has 
been  again  and  again  expressed  by  Jewish  theologians.  All  kinds  of  objects 
and  proceedings  have  been  justified  by  these  maxims. 

The   failures   and   mistakes  of   the  Jesuits  in  the  early  part  of  the 

eighteenth  century  led  to  the  dissolution  of  the  Order  by  Pope  Clement 

Their      XIV.  in  1773 ;  but   some   members  continued   their  society  in 

recent      Prussia  and  Russia,  and  in  1801  Pope  Pius  VII.  recognised  the 

Order  in  Russia ;  in  1804  it  was  restored  in  Naples  and  Sicily,  and 

in  1814  it  was  completely  re-established  by  the  same  pope.     But  the  Jesuits' 

reception  was  not  unanimously  favourable.     From  Russia  they  were  finally 

expelled  in  1820.     They  were  expelled  from  Portugal  in  1834  ;  from  Spain 

in  1835.     They  did  not  succeed  in  getting  legally  acknowledged  in  France, 

though   tolerated  and   by  turns   favoured   and  expelled.       They  regained 

very  great  influence  in  Belgium,  and  considerable  strength  in  Prussia  and 

Germany.     In  1872  the  Jesuits  were  banished  from  Germany,  and  in   1880 

from  France.     We  cannot  wonder  that  States  have  very  generally  seen  in 

the  laxity  of  moral  principle  so  often  exhibited  by  the  Order  a  very  real 

danger. 

We  need  only  briefly  note  the  terms  in  which  Pope  Pius  IX.,  on 

December  8th,  1854,  formally  proclaimed  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate 

"The       Conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary.      It  was  "  that  the  most  blessed 

immaculate  Virgin  Mary,  in  the  first  moment  of  her  conception,  by  special 

oncep  ion.  grace  an(j  privilege  of  Almighty  God,  in  virtue  of  the  merits  of 

Christ,  was  preserved  immaculate  from  all  stain  of  original  sin."     This  is  to 

be  believed  by  all  the  faithful  on  pain  of  excommunication.     A  new  mass 

and   a   new   office   for    the   festival  of   her  conception    were  promulgated 

in  1863. 

The  Vatican  Council  of  1870,  to  which  the  Eastern  patriarchs  and 
Protestant  leaders  were  invited,  in  terms  which  none  of  them  could  accept, 
Vatican  was  attended  by  764  cardinals,  archbishops,  prelates,  abbots,  and 
council,  1870.  generals  of  monastic  orders,  541  belonging  to  Europe  (276  to 
Italy),  83  to  Asia,  14  to  Africa,  113  to  America,  and  13  to  Oceania.  On 
April  24th,  1870,  the  Council  adopted  a  revised  "  Dogmatic  Constitution  of 
the  Catholic  Faith,"  in  which  the  position  of  the  Council  of  Trent  was 
substantially  affirmed  in  more  modern  language.  It  forbids  all  interpre- 
tation of  the  Bible  that  does  not  agree  with  the  Vulgate  version,  the 
Roman  traditions,  and  the  imaginary  "  unanimous  consent  of  the  Fathers." 


PAPAL   LNFALLIBIL IT\ 


861 


All  modern  results  of  science  which  appear  to  conflict  with  this,  all 
rationalism,  materialism,  and  pantheism,  were  condemned,  thus  endorsing 
the  previous  condemnation 
they  had  received  in  the 
Papal  Syllabus  of  Errors, 
1864.  Modern  rationalism 
and  infidelity  are  said  to  be 
the  evil  results  of  Protestant- 
ism. 

On  July  lSth,  1870,  the 
most     important    decree    of 
the     Council     was      papal 
passed,     declaring  infallibility. 

the  apostolic  primacy  of  St. 
Peter,  the  continuance  of  his 
primacy  in  the  pope,  his 
episcopal  supremacy  over  all 
bishops,  and  his  supreme  ju- 
dicial authority,  from  which 
there  is  no  appeal.  Finally 
it  was  declared  that  "  the 
Roman  Pontiff,  when  he 
speaks  ex  cathedra,  that  is, 
when,  in  discharge  of  the 
office  of  pastor  and  doctor  of 
all  Christians,  he  defines  a 
doctrine  regarding  faith  or 
morals,  is  possessed  of  infalli- 
bilit}*  ;  and  that  therefore 
such  definitions  are  irreform- 
able  (irreversible)  of  them- 
selves, and  not  from  the  con- 
sent of  the  Church." 

It  would  be  unprofitable 
to  attempt  to  describe  Roman 
ceremonies  or  the  religious 
life  of  a  Roman  Catholic. 
The  ceremonies  can  be  seen 
in  almost  any  town,  the  re- 
ligious life  can  be  judged  to 
a  certain  extent  by  that  of 
persons  known  to  most 
readers.  As  a  general  rule, 
it  ma}'  be  said  that  religion 
suffers  in  the  Roman  Church  by  the  use  of  prayers  in  a  dead  language  as 
regards  the  mass  of  the  people,  although  translations  are  used  by  many ; 


BTBABBUKG    CATHKIilIAI.. 


862 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


repetitions  and  mechanical  services  count  for  too  much  ;  and  the  devotion 

of  the  unlearned  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  to  the  saints  verges  on  practical 

polytheism,  or  at  any  rate  on  belief  in  a  multiplicity  of  spirits  more  or  less 

powerful.     The  idea  of  the  repeated  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  the  peculiarities 

of  priestly  absolution,  the  Papal  Syllabus  and  infallibility,  the  granting  of 

indulgences,  and  the  discord  between  Romanism  and  the  great  movements 

of  the  age  are  among  the  points  in  which  it  is  most  open  to  criticism,  and, 

according  to  Protestants,  to  reprobation. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are  155  millions  of  Roman  Catholics 

in  Europe,   eight  millions  in  Asia,  two-and-a-half  millions   in   Africa,  52 

millions  in  America,  and  half  a  million  in  Australia  and  Oceania ;  in  all  218 

millions.     But  in  this  estimate  35  millions  are  assigned  to  France,  a  large 

estimate,  considering  the  antagon- 

xt     ,_         i^m  to  the  Church  on  the 
Number  of 

Roman     part  of  so  many  French- 

Catholics.  ^  01         -n- 

men.      Over  21   millions 

are  put  down  to  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, 20  millions  to  Austria  Hun- 
gary, 16  millions  to  Germany,  and 
26  millions  to  Italy. 

The  main  administrative  func- 
tions of  the  papacy  are  discharged 

m,     „  by  groups  or  committees 

The  Roman     J;  -, .      ,      - 

congrega-  of  cardinals,  forming  con- 
gregations, with  prelates 
and  other  distinguished  ecclesi- 
astics and  officials  appointed  by 
the  pope.  That  of  the  Consistory 
supervises  aifairs  of  church  build- 
ings, bishops,  etc. ;  that  of  the  Holy 
Office  of  the  Inquisition  endeavours 
mssotsw^1*  £Q  extirpate  heresies,  to  put  down 

R.    flKOWE    DE    PAUL,    MtLAMHWaiM    (1576-1660).        blasphemieS;         and         many         other 

crimes,  and  in  theory  claims  universal  jurisdiction ;  that  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars  looks  after  the  government  of  monasteries  and  their  differences 
with  bishops ;  that  of  the  Index  examines  newly-published  books  reported 
to  be  contrary  to  faith  or  morals,  and  publishes  at  intervals  a  list  of 
prohibited  books  ;  that  of  the  Propaganda,  more  correctly  Be  Propaganda 
Fide,  manages  foreign  missions,  and  supervises  a  college  at  Rome  for 
training  missionaries.  The  total  number  of  Roman  bishoprics  is  nearly 
1,100. 

The  Missal  is  the  most  important   Roman  service  book.      Including 
traditional  matter  derived  from  the  early  Church  and  early  popes,  especially 

Roman  ser-  Gregory  I.,  it  was  thoroughly  revised  after  the  Council  of  Trent. 

vice  books.  an(j  jssuecj  [n  ^579 .  ft  jias  gjnce  been  revised  more  than  once. 

It  includes  (1)  the  Mass  services  for  Sundays,  and  (2)  the  Masses  for  saints' 


I  HE    OLD    CATHOLICS  AND   MODERN  ROMANISM. 


clays  and  festivals.  The  Breviary,  issued  in  a  revised  form  in  L568  and 
brought  into  its  present  shape  in  1631,  contains  prayers,  psalms,  hymns, 
Scripture  lessons  and  comments  by  the  Fathers,  for  every  day  of  the  year, 
together  with  narratives  about  the  saints  and  martyrs,  thus  forming  a 
complete  manual  of  devotion.  There  are  appropriate  services  for  each 
••Hour"  proper  for  service,  there  being  matins,  lauds  (3  a.m.),  Prim.' 
(6  a.m.},  tierce  (9  a.m.),  sext  (nooin,  nones  (3  p.m.),  vespers  (6  p.m.),  and 
compline  (midnight).  Of  great  importance  also  are  the  Roman  Ritual,  or 
book  of  priests' rites,  and  corresponding  books  for  bishops  and  for  papal 
ceremonies. 

The  "  Old  Catholic"  movement  began  in  a  revulsion  from  the  dogma  of 
Papal  Infallibility.  Being  called  upon  by  the  Archbishop  of  Munich  to 
submit  to  this  dogma,  Dr.  The  01d 
Ignatius  von  Dollinger,  catholics, 
one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  this 
century,  rector  of  the  University 
of  Munich  in  1871-72,  declined, 
on  the  ground  that  the  Vatican 
decrees  were  inconsistent  with  the 
spirit  of  the  gospel  and  the  clear 
teaching  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles, 
and  contradict  the  genuine  tradi- 
tions of  the  Church.  He  was  ex- 
communicated on  April  17th,  1871. 
and  the  same  sentence  was  passed 
on  his  colleagues  Friedrich  and 
others.  They  were  followed  in 
their  dissent  by  one  hundred  con- 
gregations in  the  German  Empire, 
centring  in  Munich  and  Bonn.  In 
1873  they  formed  a  separate  Church 
with  legal  status,  and  Professor 
Joseph  Reinkens  was  elected  bishop  ST'  n;ANCls  DE  SALKS'  1,I!EACUEU  (1S67-1622). 
by  clergy  and  people,  and  was  consecrated  by  the  Jansenist  bishop  Heykamp 
of  Deventer.  At  a  congress  at  Constance,  a  synodal  and  parochial  system 
was  adopted,  in  which  the  laity  are  represented  equally  with  the  clergy. 
At  first  taking  their  stand  on  the  Tridentine  standards,  they  have  somewhat 
progressed  towards  Protestantism.  Bishop  Reinkens,  in  his  address  to  the 
( )ld  Catholic  Council  at  Constance,  inculcated  the  reading  of  the  Bible  as 
the  means  of  the  most  intimate  communion  with  God.  In  a  letter  addressed 
to  a  Protestant  assembly  they  strongly  asserted  their  desire  to  establish  a 
union  of  all  Christians  by  means  of  a  really  cecumenical  council. 

Theses  of 

A  Conference  was  held  at  Bonn  in  1874  between  leading  Old      union 
Catholics,  orthodox  Russians  and  Greeks,  English  and  American  Conference- 
Episcopalians,  and  various  Lutherans   and    Protestants,  which   agreed   to 
fourteen  theses  advocating  the  reading  of  the  Bible  and  the  Liturgy  in  the 


864 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


vernacular,  asserting  that  salvation  is  not  gained  by  merit,  but  by  faith 
working  by  love,  and  that  the  doctrine  of  works  of  supererogation  is  un- 
tenable, that  the  number  of  seven  sacraments  was  first  fixed  in  the  twelfth 
•  entury,  allowing  the  authoritative  value  of  the  tradition  of  the  undivided 
Church,  and  the  unbroken  episcopal  succession  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
rejecting  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin,  and  that 
of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  acknowledging  the  Eucharist  only  as  the  per- 
manent representation  and  presentation  on  earth  of  Christ's  sacrifice,  allow- 
ing confession  and  absolution  and  prayers  for  the  dead,  but  limiting  the 
granting  of  indulgences  to  penalties  imposed  by  the  Church.  A  fourth 
conference  in  1875  adopted  a  form  of  agreement  on  the  Filioque  clause, 
granting  much  to  the  Greek  Church,  and  agreeing  that  "  the  Holy  Spirit 
proceeds  from  the  Father  through  the  Son."  Pope  Pius  IX.  meanwhile 
had  excommunicated  all  these  "sons  of  perdition,"  and  their  so-called  bishop, 
and  termed  Bishop  Reinkens'  address  "  impious  and  most  impudent." 

A  distinct  Swiss  Synod  of  Old  Catholics  has  been  formed,  and  Edward 
Herzog  was  elected  first  bishop,  and  consecrated  by  Bishop  Reinkens  in 
Swiss  oid  1876.  The  Old  Catholics  of  Switzerland  are  more  radical  and 
catholics,    anti-papal  than  those  of  German}*. 

We  cannot  but  note  that  the  Roman  Church  has  been  greatly  influenced 
by  Protestantism,  in  spite  of  itself.  This  can  only  be  properly  estimated  by 
comparing  the  Church  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  "Wyclif  and  Huss  with  its 
present  state.  The  abuses  and  evils  then  existing  have  to  a  large  extent 
disappeared,  many  doctrines  are  more  simply  taught,  the  poor  are  far  better 
looked  after,  and  great  skill  is  displayed  in  adapting  the  Church  to  the  local 
circumstances  of  each  country.  To  a  large  extent  the  Roman  Catholic 
clergy  are  in  the  van  of  social  and  philanthropic  movements.  But  the  doc- 
trines of  papal  infallibility  and  of  Mariolatry  must  place  a  permanent  barrier 
between  the  Roman  Church  and  those  who  are  in  touch  with  Protestantism 
or  with  modern  science. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

€ln  £utl)eran,  fteformeU,  anU  Presbyterian  Cburtbe** 

Lutheran  Church  — Melanchthon's  Apology— Luther's  Catechisms— Articles  of  Smalcald— The  Philip- 
pists—  Form  of  Concord— Lutheran  Church  organisation— Calvin— His  "  Institutes  "—Teaching 
on  Predestination  and  the  Lord's  Supper— Calvin's  Church  government— Calvin  and  Servetus— 
Second  Helvetic  Confession  —  The  Helvetic  Consensus  —  The  Swiss  Reformed  Churches  — The 
Heidelherg  Catechism— John  Knox— The  Scotch  Reformation— Scotch  Confession— The  National 
Covenant— The  Westminster  Assemhly— The  Westminster  Confession— The  Westminster  Cate- 
chisms—Patronage—The Cameronians— Reformed  Presbyterians— United  Presbyterian  Church 
— Free  Church  of  Scotland— Presbyterian  Worship — Government— Dutch  Reformed  Church— The 
Belgic  Confession— Arminius— Synod  of  Dort— Reformation  in  France— Gallican  Confession- 
Edict  of  Nantes— Revocation  of  Edict— Modern  French  Protestantism— The  Reformed  Churches 
of  Hungary. 

THE  Lutheran  Church,  more  properly  the  Protestant  Evangelical  Church 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  due  to  the  labours  of  Luther,  his  com- 
rades and  followers,  is  predominant  in  Prussia,  Wurtemberg,  Saxony,  and 
many  German  principalities,  in  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Lutheran 
in  Finland,  Livonia,  and  some  other  Russian  provinces;  while  the  Church. 
Lutherans  are  numerous  in  the  United  States,  in  Hungary  and  France. 
They  are  estimated  at  more  than  forty  millions. 

The  Augsburg  Confession  of  1530  is  the  basis  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
(p.  846).  In  1530-31  Melanchthon  wrote  a  much  longer  and  very  Melanchthon's 
learned  "  Apology  "  in  answer  to  the  Roman  Catholic  "  Refuta-    AP°l0&y- 

tion,"  accepted  in  1530  by  the  Emperor  and  the  Diet ;  it  has  high  value 

865  3  K 


866  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

as  the  interpretation  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  by  its  author,  and  was  em- 
bodied in  the  Book  of  Concord,  1580.  In  1540  Melanchthon  published,  with 
an  improved  edition  of  the  Apology,  a  modified  form  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession, known  as  the  Altered  or  Variata  edition,  containing  modified  views 
on  absolute  predestination,  and  on  the  Real  Presence,  lending  towards  the 
views  of  the  Swiss  Reformers,  and  laying  more  stress  on  the  necessity 
of  repentance  and  good  works.  It  was  adopted  by  several  Lutheran  con- 
ferences, and  taught  in  many  Lutheran  Churches  and  schools  ;  but  after 
1560  it  was  attacked  by  strict  Lutherans,  while  the  followers  of  Melanchthon 
approached  nearer  to  the  Calvinists.  This  is  but  one  of  many  controversies 
in  the  Lutheran  Church  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.    Luther's 

Luther's  views  remained  predominant,  especially  as  given  in  his  Longer 
catechisms.  an(}  gnorter  Catechisms  of  1539.  The  latter  especially  has  be- 
come a  sort  of  second  Bible  for  the  German  Lutherans.  In  1531  Luther 
added  a  section  on  confession  and  absolution,  to  which  he  attached  much 
importance.  "  True  absolution,"  he  says,  ''  instituted  in  the  Gospel  by 
Christ,  affords  comfort  and  support  against  sin  and  an  evil  conscience. 
Confession  or  absolution  shall  by  no  means  be  abolished  in  the  Church,  but 
be  retained,  especially  on  account  of  weak  or  timid  consciences,  and  also  on 
account  of  untutored  youth,  in  order  that  they  may  be  examined  and  in- 
structed in  the  Christian  doctrine.  But  the  enumeration  of  sins  should  be 
free  to  every  one,  to  enumerate  or  not  such  as  he  wishes."  He  also  added 
some  short  family  prayers,  a  table  of  duties  in  Scripture  language,  and 
marriage  and  baptismal  manuals. 

The  next  important  Lutheran  Confession  (Articles  of  Smalcald,  1537) 

was  intended  as  a  basis  for  discussion  at  the  Council  which  afterwards  met 

Articles  of  a^  Trent.     The  articles  were  prepared  by  Luther,  and  couched  in 

smalcald.  aggressive  terms  against  the  mass,  purgatory,  the  invocation  of 
saints,  monasticism,  and  popery.  The  mass  is  denounced  as  "  the  greatest 
and  most  horrible  abomination  "  ;  purgatory  as  a"  satanic  delusion  "  ;  and 
the  Pope  as  Antichrist,  having  no  conscience,  and  caring  only  about  gold, 
honour,  and  power.  Melanchthon  wrote  an  appendix,  in  which  he  admitted 
that  the  pope,  "  if  he  would  admit  the  Gospel,"  might  be  allowed  to  exercise, 
by  human  right,  his  present  jurisdiction  over  bishops ;  but  at  the  same 
time  refuting  powerfully  the  divine  right  of  the  pope  over  bishops,  and  his 
right  to  temporal  power.  The  assembly  of  Smalcald  resolved  not  to  send 
any  delegates  to  the  Papal  Council. 

The  theological  differences  between  Luther  and  Melanchtnon,  which 
grew  more  marked  after  this,  did  not  break  their  friendship,  though 
Melanchthon  approached  the  Calvinists  very  considerably.  Luther  died  in 
1546,  Melanchthon  in  1560;  but  the  latter  did  not  attempt  to  found  a 
Church  of  his  own.  The  strict  Lutherans,  after  Luther's  death,  made  his 
doctrines  more  rigid,  and  tended  to  make  Lutheranism  a  narrow  sect.  The 
The  followers  of  Melanchthon,  who  were  termed  Philippists  (from  his 
PMiippists.  diristian  name)  and  Crypto-calvinists,  maintained  the  right  ot 
progressive  development  in  theology,  and  desired  to  enlarge  the  basis  of 


LUTHERAN,  REFORMED,  AND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES.  867 


Lutheranism.  The  Lutherans  exalted  Luther  almost  to  apostolic  rank. 
In  the  Preface  to  the  Magdeburg  Confession,  1550,  Luther  is  termed  "  the 
third  Elijah,"  "  the  prophet  of  God,"  and  his  doctrine  the  doctrine  of  Christ. 
The  Philippists  had  more  moderation  and  reasonableness.  Numerous  con- 
troversies as  to  the  mode  of  regarding  original  sin,  man's  freedom  in  relation 
to  the  converting  grace  of  God,  justification  by  faith,  good  works,  the 
Eucharist,  Hades,  etc.,  made  Germany  a  camp  of  theologians.  At  last 
Andrese,  Professor  of  Theology  at  Tubingen,  Martin  Chemnitz,  Melanchthon's 
greatest  pupil,  and  Nicholas  Selnecker,  also  a  Melanchthonian,  after  a  long 
series  of  conferences,  secured  the  adoption  of  "  The  Form  of  Form  of 
Concord,"  1577,  published  with  the  Augsburg  and  other  Lutheran  Concord- 
creeds,  in  the  "  Book  of  Concord,"  1580.  It  embodies  a  series  of  con- 
cessions of  the  disputing  parties,  mainly  deferring  to  Luther's  authority, 
and  states  his  doctrines  of  the  total  depravit}T  of  man  and  of  his  will,  of 
salvation  only  by  God's  grace,  with  no  co-operation  of  the  human  will,  of 
justification  by  Christ's  imputed  righteousness,  consubstantiation  and  the 
ubiquity  of  Christ's  body  ;  while  dropping  his  view  of  absolute  predestina- 
tion and  recognising  the  universality  of  the  offer  of  divine  grace.  It  goes 
into  and  decides  many  questions  utterly  beyond  the  power  of  man  to  decide, 
and  did  not  attain  anything  like  the  authority  of  the  Augsburg  Confession. 
It  was  however  adopted  in  most  of  the  German  Lutheran  States,  in 
Sweden,  Hungary,  and  generally  in  the  United  States.  A  number  of 
principalities  afterwards  adhered  mainly  to  the  Reformed  or  Zwinglian 
doctrine.  The  Form  of  Concord  produced  more  controversy  than  it 
settled  ;  and  its  doctrines  were  ably  assailed  by  Cardinal  Bellarmine.  It  is 
now  regarded  by  many  as  almost  dead,  or  at  least  not  representing  what 
would  now  be  unitedly  accepted. 

Following  the  separatist  organisation  of  Germany,  the  Lutheran  Church 
does  not  form  one  strong  body  even  in  Germany,  but  consists  of  separate 
and  independent  Churches  in  each  principality.  These  Churches  Lutheran 
have  one  common  character — they  dispense  with  episcopacy,  and  organi- 
are  governed  by  councils  (consistories)  including  both  clergy  and  sation. 
laymen  appointed  by  the  civil  rulers,  with  very  varied  plans  of  Church 
discipline.  The  growth  of  the  Reformed  Churches,  with  their  antagonism 
to  Lutheranism,  greatly  weakened  Protestantism  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
Many  efforts  were  made  to  unite  them  under  one  government,  and  at  last 
this  was  effected  in  Prussia,  Nassau,  Baden,  and  Hesse  (1817-1823),  thus 
forming  a  "  Church  Union,"  in  which  each  congregation  adopts  either  the 
Augsburg  or  the  Heidelberg  Confession.  In  Prussia  a  considerable  number 
of  Lutherans  separated  from  the  main  Church  in  consequence  of  this  union, 
and  took  the  title  of  "  Old  Lutherans."  In  Prussia,  Wurtemberg,  Hesse, 
and  Oldenburg  the  Protestant  element  prevails,  with  from  23  to  33  per  cent. 
of  Roman  Catholics.  In  Saxony  and  eighteen  minor  German  States  the 
people  are  almost  all  Protestants.  Various  movements  in  recent  years 
have  been  termed  "  New  Lutheranism,"  partly  tending  to  revive  pure 
Lutheranism,  partly  approximating  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  to  higher 


868  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

interest  in  ceremony  and  its  surroundings,  partly  tending  in  a  rationalistic 
direction.  In  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  the  Lutheran  Church  is 
^governed  by  bishops.  In  America  there  are  numerous  synods,  some  of 
which  have  united  to  form  "  Unions  "  or  Conferences ;  but  not  a  little 
diversity  of  opinion  or  doctrine  prevails  among  them,  preventing  the  union 
of  all  the  Lutheran  Churches. 

The  services  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  while  allowing  considerable  place 
to  extemporaneous  prayer,  are  largely  in  accord  with  that  of  the  Church  of 
England.  The  singing  of  psalms  and  hymns,  in  which  Lutheranism  is  rich, 
forms  a  prominent  element.  Preaching  occupies  a  position  of  prime  import- 
ance. 

After  Zwingli,  the  greatest  name  in  the   Swiss  Reformed  Church  is 
that  of  John  Calvin,  a  Frenchman  born  in  Picardy  in  1509,  educated  in  the 
Universities  of  Orleans,  Bourges,  and  Paris,  and  already  remark- 
able for    his  classical  and  general  literary  knowledge,  when,  at 
the  age  of  23,  he  was  suddenly  converted  to  the  evangelical  doctrines.     So 
powerful  was  his  character,  that  in  a  year  he  had  become  the  leader  of 
the  Protestant  party  in  France.     But  the  authorities  began  to  persecute  the 
Reformers,  twenty-four  being  burnt  in  the  winter  of  1534-5  ;  and  Calvin  had 
to  wander  from  place  to  place.     At  Poictiers,  in  153-1,  he  with  a  few  friends 
celebrated  the  Lord's  Supper  in  a  cave,  known  as  Calvin's  cave,  according  to 
the  evangelical  rite.     In  1536  he  published  at  Basle  the  first  edition  of  his 
"Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  attacking  the  Romish  errors  from  the 
Reformed  standpoint,  and  setting  forth  the  special  doctrines  of  Calvinism. 
During  the  same  year,  while  Calvin  was  passing  through  Geneva,  William 
Farel,  a  prominent  Reformer,  detained  him,  and  charged  him  to  undertake 
the  work  of  the  Lord  in  Geneva.     Calvin  complied  with  the  entreaties  of 
Farel  and  other  Reformers,  and  began  preaching  and  lecturing  on  divinity  ; 
and  before  the  end  of  1536  a  plan  of  Church  government  had  been  drawn 
up,  which  was  sanctioned  by  the  civic  authorities  in  1537.     The  system 
thus  introduced  proved  too  stringent,  and  Calvin  and  Farel  were  expelled 
from  Geneva  (Easter,  1538).     Calvin  spent  the  next  three  years  teaching 
and  preaching  at  Strasburg,  where  he  wrote  several  works  which  Luther 
valued,  and  became  a  most  intimate  friend  of  Melanchthon.     Their  affec- 
tion was  most  touchingly  expressed  by  Calvin  after  Melanchthon's  death. 
"  A  hundred  times,  worn  out  with  fatigue  and  overwhelmed  with  care,  thou 
didst  lay  thy  head  upon  my  breast  and  say,  '  Would  to  God  that  I  might 
die  here,  on  thy  breast.'    And  I,  a  thousand  times  since  then,  have  earnestly 
desired  that  it  had  been  granted  us  to  be  together."     Calvin  was  recalled 
triumphantly  to  Geneva  in  1541,  where  he  lived  ascetically  for  the  remain- 
ing twenty-three  years  of  his  life,  the  head  of  the  Church  and  Republic  of 
Geneva.     His  labours  in  writing,  teaching,  interviews,  councils,  etc.,  were 
enormous.     At  his  death,  his  able  successor  was  Theodore  Beza. 

Calvin,  whom  Renan  characterises  as  "  the  most  Christian  man  of  his 
generation,"  had  a  more  powerful  influence  than  Zwingli  in  moulding  the 


LUTHERAN,  REFORMED,  AND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES.  Uv, 


final  form  of  the  Reformed  Churches.     His  "  Institutes""  is  both  a  literary 
and  a  theological  masterpiece.     Its  first  section  deals  with  the-     caivins 
ology  (the  knowledge  of  God),  the  second  with  Christology,  the'  institutes, 
third  with  soteriology  (the  salvation  of  man  through  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit),  the  fourth  with  the  Church  and  the  sacraments.    It  is  most  original 
on  the  doctrines  of  predestination  and  the  Lord's  Supper.     His  teaching  on 
the  former  is,  that  part  of  the  human  race,  without  any  merit  of  their  own, 
are  elected  to  holiness  and  salvation,  and  part  are  doomed  to   pred2stin- 
eternal  death  for  sin.     "Adam  fell,  God's  providence  having.  so>      ation- 
ordained  it ;  yet  he  fell  by  his  own  guilt ;"  and  although  Calvin  felt  this  to  be 
a  horrible  doctrine,  yet  he  believed  it  was  so  clearly  supported  by  Scrip. ure 
that  he  had  no  choice  but  to  believe  it,  although  it  involved  the  damnation 
of  multitudes  of  little  children. 
Much   of    Calvin's    argument 
was  based  on  the  ninth  chap- 
ter of  St.  Paul's  epistle  to  the 
Romans.     One  of  his  great  ob- 
jects was  the  uprooting  of  all 
human   pride   in   free  will  or 
in  voluntary  efforts,  and  the 
strengthening  of  gratitude  and 
courage  in  "  the  elect."     The 
Calvinistic   doctrine  was   car- 
ried by  Beza  and  others  into 
a    "  supralapsarian  "    extreme, 
making  every  particular  man 
before  the  fall,  or  before  crea- 
tion,   the    object   of    election, 
either  to  salvation  or  damna- 
tion ;  but  the  "  infralapsarian  " 
view   has     been    incorporated 
in  all  Calvinistic    confessions, 
namely,  that  man  fell  and  be- 

came  condemned  by  his  own  voluntary  sin,  rejecting  the  view  that  God 
has  decreed  the  existence  of  sin.  This  is  essentially  the  view  adopted  in 
the  Swiss,  the  French,  the  Scotch,  the  Dutch,  and  the  Westminster  Con- 
fessions ;  while  the  English  Thirt3T-nine- Articles,  the  Heidelberg  Catechism, 
and  the  other  German  Reformed  confessions  expound  only  the  positive 
side  of  the  doctrine,  namely,  the  fore-election  of  all  who  believe,  without 
asserting  the  damnation  by  election  of  unbelievers. 

As  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  while  rejecting  all  materialistic  conceptions  of 
the  presence  of  Christ's  body  and  blood,  Calvin  went  beyond  Zwingli  iu 
asserting  a  spiritual  presence  and  reception  of  Christ's  body  and  The  Lord-s 
blood,  giving  to  believers  by  faith  the  benefit  of  Christ's  sacrifice     supper, 
on  the  cross  and  the  vivifying  influence   of   His   glorified    humanity   in 
heaven ;  unbelievers  who  might  partake,  he  said,  received  only  bread  and 


S;o  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

wine.     This  doctrine  was   accepted    in   all    the  leading   Reformed  confes- 
sions. 

Calvin's  Commentaries  on  the  Bible  have  furnished  a  rich  store  of 
matter  to  theologians.     He  was  not  so  rigid  in  his  view  of  the  inspiration  of 

Calvin's     *ne  Bible  as  many  of  his  followers  have  been.     His  idea  of  the 

church  Church  was  a  vigorous  and  living  one,  but  very  different  from 
'  that  of  Romanism.  The  Church  was  to  exercise  rigid  discipline 
over  its  members,  to  maintain  self-government  independently  of  the  State, 
and  to  be  governed  largely  by  lay-representatives.  According  to  him  all 
ministers  were  equal,  though  he  did  not  object  to  the  retention  of  episco- 
pacy in  England.  In  his  idea  of  the  independence  of  the  Church,  he  really 
aimed  at  the  Church  and  the  State  being  but  two  branches  of  Divine  order, 
complementary  and  useful  to  each  other. 

The  most  unpleasing  features  in  Calvin's  character  and  actions  are 

those  in  which  the  rigidity  of  his  principles,  and  his  consistency  in  carry- 

caivin  and  iRg  them  out  to  their  logical  conclusion,  led  him  to  sanction  acts 

servetus.  now  universally  condemned.  The  case  of  Servetus  is  the  worst. 
Servetus  was  a  brilliant  young  physician  and  man  of  learning,  who  had 
anticipated  some  of  Harvey's  discoveries  about  the  circulation  of  the  blood  ; 
but  his  intellectual  analysis  of  the  Christian  faith  led  him  to  publish  a  book 
in  1553,  "  Christianismi  Restitutio"  in  which  he  aimed  at  restoring  it  to  its 
pristine  purity.  He  regarded  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  involving 
tritheism  and  leading  to  atheism  ;  he  believed  in  a  Trinity  of  manifestation 
only.  He  was  passionately  devoted  to  the  person  of  Christ,  was  an  Ana- 
baptist, and  strongly  relied  on  the  Bible  as  his  authority.  Servetus  had 
already  been  condemned  to  be  burnt  in  France,  but  escaped  to  Geneva, 
where  he  was  accused,  under  Calvin's  influence,  of  blasphemy  and  erro- 
neous teaching.  When  brought  to  trial,  Servetus  used  strong  expressions 
against  the  right  of  the  civil  power  to  decide  in  matters  of  faith  ;  and  he 
also  announced  further  opinions  tending  in  a  pantheistic  direction,  Calvin 
approved  of  his  being  condemned  to  death,  though  he  wished  him  not  to  be 
burnt.  But  his  death  by  fire  took  place,  to  the  great  discredit  of  Calvin 
and  Geneva,  on  October  27th,  1553.  This  event,  however,  is  a  mark  of  the 
vehemence  of  belief  with  which  the  theology  of  reform  as  well  as  that  of 
conservatism  was  held  at  that  time.  It  is  not  fair  to  judge  the  Genevese 
Reformers  by  the  more  enlightened  views  which  now  prevail.  The  right 
of  private  judgment,  often  claimed  as  a  signal  property  of  Protestantism, 
was  but  a  slowly-evolved  product.  If  the  standards  adopted  by  the  Church, 
whether  Roman  or  Reformed,  were  true,  every  other  view  was  evil,  and 
ought  to  be  coudemned  and  suppressed :  for  was  it  not  right  to  suppress 
the  false,  wrong  to  allow  its  propagation  ?     So  men  argued  then. 

After  Calvin's  death,  the  first  important  Reformed  Creed,  or  Confession, 

was   the    "  Second   Helvetic,"    published    in    1566,    drawn   up   by   Henry 

second     Bullinger,  Zwingli's  successor  at  Zurich,  and  adopted  or  approved 

Helvetic     by  nearly  all  the  Reformed  Churches  on  the  Continent,  as  well 
as  in  England  and  Scotland.     It  is  very  long  and  theological,  but 


LUTHERAN,  REFORMED,  AND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES.  871 


well  deserves  the  study  of  theologians.  In  many  points  it  is  more  liberal 
in  its  statements  than  Calvin  or  Luther.  It  rejects  priesthood,  priest- 
craft, and  priestly  exclusive  control  of  the  Church.  Among  the  duties  of 
the  civil  power  it  includes  punishment  of  blasphemers  and  incorrigible 
heretics,  if  they  are  really  heretics. 

The  last  general  Swiss  Confession  is  that  known  as  the  Helvetic  Con- 
sensus of  1G75,  which  was  abandoned  in  about  half  a  century,  in  consequence 
of  the  criticism  caused  by  its  extreme  character.  It  was  to  coun-  -me  Helvetic 
teract  several  modifications  of  teaching  introduced  by  professors  Consensus- 
in  the  theological  academy  of 
Saumur  in  France,  La  Place, 
Cappel,  and  Amyrant.  Cappel 
had  taught  that  the  perfect  in- 
spiration claimed  for  every  par- 
ticular of  the  Hebrew  scriptures 
could  not  be  held,  for  the  system 
of  vowel-points  was  due  to  late 
Jewish  grammarians  ;  and  that 
the  different  readings  must  be 
consulted  in  order  to  fully  under- 
stand the  text.  The  new  Hel- 
vetic Consensus  insisted  on  the 
literal  inspiration  of  the  Scrip- 
tures and  the  traditional  Hebrew 
text,  vowels  as  well  as  consonants. 
This  doctrine,  held  in  its  extreme 
form  by  some  persons  to-day,  has 
led  to  violent  reaction,  and  has 
partly  led  to  the  modern  study  of 
the  Scriptures  by  every  method 
of  common  sense,  historical  and 
archaeological  study,  and  literary 
criticism.  Amyrant  had  taught 
that  G-od  foreordained  and  de- 
sired universal  salvation,  but 
through  faith  in  Christ  as  a  con- 
dition, foreknowing  and  foreordaining  however  that  many  men  would  reject 
it.  The  Helvetic  Consensus  denied  that  the  call  to  salvation  was  ever 
absolutely  general,  asserting  that  Christ  died  only  for  the  elect,  and  not 
indiscriminately  for  all  men.  Man  was  naturally  as  well  as  morally  unable 
to  believe  the  gospel  of  himself.  Against  La  Place  of  Saumur  the  Consensus 
affirmed,  not  only  the  condemnation  of  all  Adam's  posterity  as  a  consequence 
of  his  sin  (mediate  imputation)  but  also  the  direct  or  immediate  imputation 
of  his  sin  to  all  his  descendants,  as  if  they  had  themselves  committed  it. 
It  cannot  be  wondered  at  that  sharp  reaction  and  rebellion  against  such 
teaching  took  place. 


KNOX  S    PULPIT. 


872  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

For  a  long  time  religious  divisions,  and  reaction  towards  Catholicism, 
were  prominent  in  Swiss  religious  history.     At  present  the  majority  (over 
The  Swiss   a  million  and  a  half)  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to  the  Reformed 
churches    Church,  under  the  control  to  a  certain  extent  of  the  authorities  in 
each  canton.    Calvin's  system  of  mixed  lay  and  ministerial  govern- 
ment is  adopted,  but  every  citizen  has  full  liberty  of  conscience  and  creed, 
and  can  incur  no  penalties  for  his  religious  opinions. 

.  We  have  only  space  to  notice  the  most  famous  product  of  the  Reformed 
Churches  of  Germany,  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  published  in  1563,  the 
The  joint  work  of  Ursinus  (Baer)  and  Olevianus  (Olewig),  at  the  com- 
Heideiberg  mand  of  Frederick  III.,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate.  It  is  acknow- 
ledged as  a  most  able  and  in  many  ways  attractive  production. 
It  was  translated  into  many  languages,  and  used  by  Churches  in  many  lands. 
It  is  unlike  many  others  in  its  first  question,  which  is,  "  What  is  thy  only 
comfort  in  life  and  in  death  ?  "  The  answer  is  :  "  That  in  soul  and  body, 
whether  I  live  or  die,  I  am  not  mine  own,  but  I  belong  unto  my  most  faith- 
ful Lord  and  Saviour,  Jesus  Christ :  who  by  His  precious  blood,  most  fully 
satisfying  for  all  my  sins,  hath  delivered  me  from  the  whole  power  of  the 
devil ;  and  doth  so  preserve  me,  that  without  the  will  of  my  heavenly 
Father,  not  so  much  as  a  hair  can  fall  from  my  head  :  yea,  all  things  are 
made  to  serve  for  my  salvation.  Wherefore  by  His  Spirit  also,  He  assureth 
me  of  everlasting  life,  and  maketh  me  ready  and  prepared,  that  henceforth 
I  may  live  unto  Him."  On  many  points  the  extreme  forms  of  Calvin's 
doctrines  are  modified  ;  and  several  parts  are  regarded  as  gems  of  theological 
statement.  It  presents  the  doctrines  of  Calvinism  in  a  comforting,  not  a 
forbidding  aspect. 

Travelling  further  from  Geneva,  we  find  Calvin's  teaching  carried  to 
Scotland  by  his  pupil  John  Knox  ;  but  already  Lutheran  students  and  con- 

.  ,    „        verts  had  been  martyred    in  Scotland  when   Knox,  ordained  a 
John  Knox.  .  J 

Romish  priest  in  1530,  became  converted  to  Reformed  doctrines 

by  study  of  the  Bible  and  the  writings  of  Augustine  and  Jerome.  He  de- 
nounced the  mass  as  an  abominable  idolatry  and  profanation  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  the  pope  as  the  "  man  of  sin  "  and  "  Antichrist."  After  some 
years'  work  as  a  reformer  in  England  (1549-1554)  where  he  became  one  of 
Edward  VI.'s  chaplains,  he  spent  some  years  with  Calvin  at  Geneva,  which 
he  called  "  the  most  perfect  school  of  Christ  that  ever  was  since  the  days  of 
the  apostles."     Knox  returned  to  Scotland  in  1559,  and  largely  under  his 

The  scotch  influence  Parliament  abolished  the  Roman  Catholic  worship  and 
Reformation.  ^]ie  ruje  0f  ^ie  p0pe,  adopted  a  Confession  of  Faith  drawn  up 
mainly  by  Knox  and  others,  and  later  adopted  a  Book  of  Discipline  pre- 
pared by  them. 

The  Scotch  Confession  of  1560,  in  twenty-five  articles,  is  a  vigorous 

statement  of   the   reformed  doctrines,   distinctly   Calvinistic  in   tone,  yet 

Scotch      with  great  breadth  of  view  and  moderation  (for  instance,  those 

confession.  wh0  may  note  in  ^e  articles  anything  contrary  to  God's  Word 
are  begged  in  the  preface  to  give  information  of  it  to  the  authors,  who  will 


LUTHERAN,  REFORMED,  AND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES.  873 


either  prove  their  case  or  reform  the  articles).  No  particular  form  of 
Church  government  or  worship  is  laid  down  ("  not  that  we  think  that  one 
policy  and  one  order  of  ceremonies  can  be  appointed  for  all  ages,  times, 
and  places  ;  for  as  ceremonies,  such  as  men  have  devised,  are  but  temporal, 


ST.    GILES  S    CHURCH,    EDINBURGH  :    INTERIOR. 


so  may  and  ought  they  to  be  changed,  when  they  rather  foster  superstition 
than  edify  the  Church  using  the  same  ").  Knox  prepared  a  form  of  liturgy 
("Book  of  Common  Order"),  following  the  Genevan,  which  was  approved 
by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Scotch  Church,  in  15G4,  and  long  used. 


8 74  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

The  Scotch  aversion  to  liturgy  is  of  later  date,  when  Laud  tried  to  force 
English  episcopacy  and  liturgy  upon  Scotland. 

The  struggle  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland  includes  many  interest- 
ing features.  One,  which  strikingly  illustrates  the  strength  of  the  reaction 
The  National  against   the  papacy,  is  the  "National  Covenant,"  drawn  up  in 

covenant.  158O  by  John  Craig,  endorsing  the  Confession  of  1560,  but 
fiercely  repudiating  all  "  Papistry."  It  especially  denounces  the  "  usurped 
tyranny  of  the  Roman  Antichrist  upon  the  Scriptures  of  God,  upon  the 
Kirk,  the  civil  magistrate,  and  consciences  of  men ;  all  his  tyrannous  laws 
made  upon  indifferent  things,"  with  much  more  about  the  evils  censured 
by  Protestants. 

The  ""Westminster  Assembly,"  which  drew  up  the  celebrated  "Con- 
fession,"  was   intended    b}'  the    Long    Parliament    to    frame   a    code   of 
doctrine,  worship,  and  discipline  for  the  three  kingdoms.     The 
Westminster  members  were  all  nominated  by  Parliament,  except  those  chosen 

Assembly.  ^  ^q  General  Assembly  of  the  Scotch  Church  ;  and  it  would 
have  included  many  representatives  of  the  Episcopal  Church  if  they  would 
have  attended.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  those  who  actually  attended  were 
mostly  Presbyterians,  though  nearly  all  in  episcopal  orders ;  but  the}' 
formed  two  divisions,  one  regarding  Presbyterian  government  as  lawful, 
but  based  on  human  right,  and  liable  to  change  if  desirable  ;  the  other 
considering  it  as  based  on  Divine  right,  and  instituted  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  the  only  and  unchangeable  form  of  Church  government.  The 
Assembly  sat  from  1643  to  1649.  The  "  Confession "  was  completed  in 
December,  1646,  and  adopted  by  the  Scotch  General  Assembly  in  1647,  the 
Scotch  Parliament  endorsing  it  in  1649.  It  follows  very  considerably  the 
lines  of  the  Anglican  Articles  of  Religion,  giving  them  a  Calvi- 
westminster  nistic  completeness  and  fuller  logical  statement.  It  declares  that 
there  is  in  the  Bible  a  full  and  intelligible  scheme  of  salvation, 
and  that  nothing  is  to  be  added  thereto,  whether  by  new*  revelations  of  the 
Spirit  or  traditions  of  men.  Scripture  is  only  to  be  interpreted  by  Scrip- 
ture, and  "  the  Holy  Spirit  speaking  in  Scripture  "  is  to  settle  all  religious 
controversies.  The  Old  and  New  Testaments  are  declared  to  be  "immediately 
inspired  by  God,  and  by  His  singular  care  and  providence  kept  pure  in  all 
ages,"  and  they  are  therefore  "  authentical."  The  chapters  on  the  Trinity 
and  on  the  person  of  Christ  follow  closely  the  lines  of  the  Nicene  and  Chalce- 
don  Councils.  As  to  predestination,  it  adopts,  not  the  supralapsarian  but 
the  infralapsarian  view,  which  it  states  very  fully  and  clearly,  the  fall  being- 
permitted  only,  and  God  being  declared  neither  the  author  nor  approver  of 
sin.  It  grants  the  freedom  of  the  human  will  in  these  terms,  "  God  hath 
endued  the  will  of  man  with  that  natural  liberty  that  it  is  neither  forced, 
nor  by  any  absolute  necessity  of  nature  determined,  to  good  or  evil." 
The  doctrine  of  "covenants"  made  by  God  with  man  is  introduced:  (1) 
of  works,  made  with  Adam  and  his  posterity  on  condition  of  perfect  and 
personal  obedience,  (2)  of  grace  through  Christ,  offered  under  the  Law  by 
forms  and  ordinances  all  typifying  Christ,  and  under  the  Gospel,  by  the 


LUTHERAN,  REFORMED,  AND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES.    875 


preaching  of  the  word  and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  of  Baptism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  idea  of  covenants,  developed  by  various  divines, 
was  mainly  of  sixteenth-century  growth.  Salvation  by  Christ  is  clearly 
set  forth  on  evangelical  lines;  "the  Son  of  God,  the  Second  Person  in  the 
Trinity,  being  very  and  eternal  God,  of  one  substance  and  equal  with  the 
Father,  did,  when  the  fulness  of  time  was  come,  take  upon  Him  man's 
nature,  with  all  the  essential  properties  and  common  infirmities  thereof, 
yet  without  sin  ;  ...  so  that  two  whole,  perfect,  and  distinct  natures,  the 
Godhead  and  the  manhood,  were  inseparably  joined  together  in  one  person, 
without  conversion,  composition,  or  confusion."  A  very  sweeping  clause  is 
found  in  the  chapter  on  repentance,  which  has  contributed  very  consider- 
ably to  strengthen  Scotch  severity  and  austerity.  "As  there  is  no  sin  so 
small  but  it  deserves  damnation,  so  there  is  no  sin  so  great  that  it  can 
bring  damnation  upon  those  who  truly  repent."  The  great  strength  of  the 
latter  clause  has  sometimes  been  obscured  by  the  terrors  of  the  former. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Sacraments  in  the  Westminster  Confession  is  that 
of  the  Calvinistic  and  of  the  Anglican  Churches,  at  least  before  modern  High 
Church  developments.  Baptism  is  declared  to  be  not  so  inseparable  from 
salvation,  that  no  person  can  be  saved  without  it,  or  that  all  baptised  persons 
are  regenerate.  The  Lord's  Supper  is  no  sacrifice,  but  a  commemoration, 
and  there  is  no  change  of  the  substance  of  the  elements.  An  elaborate 
description  is  given  of  what  is  lawful  in  public  worship,  corresponding  to 
Presbyterian  practice.  The  proper  observation  of  the  "  Christian  Sabbath  " 
is  defined  as  "  an  holy  rest  all  the  day  from  men's  own  works,  words,  and 
thoughts,  about  their  worldly  employments  and  recreations."  The  whole 
time  is  to  be  taken  up  in  public  and  private  worship  and  in  duties  of 
necessity  and  mercy.  Another  particular  in  which  the  "Westminster  Con- 
fession seems  to  contravene  its  own  principle  of  liberty  of  conscience,  is 
when  it  allows  that  persons  who  publish  opinions  against  the  civil  or  the 
ecclesiastical  power,  or  maintain  such  practices  as  are  contrary  to  the  light 
of  nature  or  the  known  principles  of  Christianity,  concerning  faith,  worship, 
or  conversation,  or  destructive  of  peace  and  order  in  the  Church,  may  be 
proceeded  against  by  the  censures  of  the  Church  or  the  power  of  the  civil 
magistrate.  The  latter  may  see  that  unity  and  peace  are  kept,  blasphemies 
and  heresies  suppressed,  corruptions  and  abuses  in  worship  and  discipline 
prevented  or  reformed,  and  may  call  synods  and  be  present  at  them.  These 
synods  may  determine  matters  of  faith,  conscience,  and  worship  ;  but  all 
synods  and  councils  may  err,  and  many  have  erred ;  as  also,  the  purest 
Churches  are  subject  both  to  mixture  and  error. 

The  Confession  acknowledges  no  intermediate  state ;  the  souls  of  the 
righteous  return  to  God,  into  the  "  highest  heavens,  where  they  behold 
the  face  of  God  in  light  and  glory,  waiting  for  the  full  redemption  of 
their  bodies  ;  and  the  souls  of  the  wicked  are  cast  into  hell,  where  they 
remain  in  torments  and  utter  darkness,  reserved  to  the  judgment  of  the 
great  day."  At  the  day  of  judgment  "  all  persons  that  have  lived  upon 
earth,   shall  appear  before  the  tribunal  of    Christ,  to  give  an  account  of 


876  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

their  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds."      The  righteous  will  then  enter   into 
everlasting  life  ;  the  wicked  into  eternal  torments. 

In  addition  to  the  Confession,  the  Assembly  prepared  two  Catechisms, 

a  Longer  and  a  Shorter,  the  latter  more  especially  for  children,  though  con- 

The        taining  much  matter  which  many  consider  unsuitable  for  the 

Westminster  young.      The  Apostles'  Creed  is  only  contained   in  the  shorter 

Catechisms  • 

'  form,  as  an  appendix,  with  a  caution  that  it  was  not  composed 
by  the  Apostles,  nor  to  be  received  as  though  it  were  canonical  scripture. 
The  Larger  Catechism  is  especially  minute  in  its  specification  of  what 
is  commanded  and  forbidden  in  the  Ten  Commandments.  Many  regard 
the  Shorter  Catechism  as  better  than  Luther's  or  the  Heidelberg ;  and  its 
adoption  by  Presbyterians,  Congregationalists,  and  many  Baptists,  in  Great 
Britain,  America,  and  elsewhere,  proves  its  adaptation  to  their  beliefs. 

Meanwhile  the  Church  of  Scotland  had  been  settled,  not  altogether  to 
the  liking  of  Knox  and  the  other  reformers,  on  a  basis  of  lay  patronage  of 
Patro  benefices,  and  of  considerable  governmental  control.    Lay  patron- 

age was  abolished  in  1649,  restored  in  1660,  abolished  again  in 
1690,  restored  in  1712,  and  again  abolished  in  1874.  During  the  first  130 
years  of  its  history  the  Scotch  Church  went  through  so  many  mutations 
and  trials  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  record  them  here.  From  1662  to 
1689  Presbyterianism  only  existed  in  opposition  to  the  Government,  which 
re-established  Episcopacy.  On  the  accession  of  William  III.,  it  again  became 
the  national  Church,  though  with  much  Government  control.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  a  series  of  schisms  began,  due  chiefly  to  the  ignoring  of 
the  wishes  of  congregations  in  the  appointment  of  ministers.  The  first 
The  separation  was  that  of  the  Cameronians,  really  the  continuing 
cameronians.  remnant  of  the  Covenanters  of  1643,  who  rejected  all  interference 
of  the  State  with  religion.  They  organised  a  Church  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  in  1743  formed  the  "Reformed  Presbytery."  In  1859  there 
Reformed  were  six  presbyteries,  containing  36  ministers.  In  1876  they 
Fresbytenans-had  7,500  members,  and  still  maintained  the  binding  force  of 
the  National  Covenant.  In  that  year  they  amalgamated  with  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland.  There  is  still  a  residual  body  known  as  "  Auld  Lichts." 
or  Original  Seceders,  who  stick  to  the  Covenants  and  protest  against  the 
defections  of  modern  times. 

The  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland,  formed  in  1847,  is  the 
result  of  the  union  of  two  Churches,  the  "  United  Secession,"  dating  form- 
United  a^  from  1820,  but  in  its  elements  from  1732,  and  the  "Relief 
Presbyterian  Church,"  which  had  been  formed  after  the  deposition  of  Thomas 
Gillespie  by  the  Established  Church  in  1752.  The  United  Pres- 
byterians believe  in  free  communion  with  other  Churches,  and  Church  inde- 
pendence of  the  State,  and  reject  all  compulsory  or  persecuting  or  intolerant 
teachings  of  the  Westminster  Confession.  Ministers  of  congregations  are 
chosen  by  the  members ;  but  they  are  ordained  by  imposition  of  hands  by 
the  presbytery. 

The  Free  Church  of  Scotland  was  formed  in  1843  as  the  result  of  a 


LUTHERAN,  REFORMED,  AND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES.  877 

legal  decision  that  the  Established  Church  General  Assembly  could  not  pre- 
vent the  intrusion  on  unwilling  congregations  of  ministers  ap-  Free  chm-ca 
pointed  by  lay  patrons.  This,  with  other  interferences  of  the  State  of  Scotland, 
with  the  Church,  so  moved  the  Scotch  people  that  474  ministers  with  a 
great  part  of  their  congregations  left  the  Establishment  and  formed  a  Free 
Church,  abandoning  their  endowments  but  no  religious  tenet.      Thus  we 


PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH,    DUNEDIN,    NEW    ZEALAND. 

have  in  Scotland  the  spectacle  of  three  powerful  Churches  professing  almost 
precisely  similar  tenets  ;  and  since  the  passing  of  the  Scotch  Patronage  Act 
in  1874  the  original  question  on  which  they  split  has  been  greatly  reduced 
in  force.  We  must  only  mention  that  Presbyterianism  is  strong  in  the 
United  States,  Canada,  and  North  Ireland,  and  has  very  considerable 
strength  in  England. 

We  need  say  little,  in  conclusion,  about  Presbyterian  forms  of  worship, 


878  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

which  are  extremely  simple,  including  the  reading  of  portions  of  Scripture, 
Presbyterian  extemporaneous  prayers  (often  carefully  prepared),  the  singing 
worship.  0f  pSalms  and  hymns,  and  a  sermon,  usually  long.  Of  late  years 
some  Presbyterian  Churches  have  adopted  choirs  and  organs,  long  strictly 
proscribed  and  condemned.  The  minister  wears  the  black  Genevan  gown 
and  white  bands.  All  signs  and  symbols  which  may  be  supposed  to  indicate 
superstition  are  eschewed  ;  and  so  far  is  this  carried,  that  the  Lord's  Supper 
is  received  sitting,  either  in  pews  or  at  long  tables.  The  Churches  are 
governed  by  elders,  the  minister  or  teaching  elder  administering 
'  "the  word"  and  the  sacraments,  with  a  number  of  "ruling  elders" 
to  assist  him  in  the  inspection  and  government  of  the  congregation,  and 
deacons  to  attend  to  its  financial  business.  These  constitute  the  "  Kirk  "  or 
church  session  ;  above  this  is  the  presbytery  of  a  district,  including  all  the 
ministers  and  one  elder  from  each  Kirk  session  ;  the  Synod  consists  of 
the  members  of  several  presbyteries.  The  General  Assembly  includes 
representatives  of  all  the  presbyteries  in  the  Church.  In  late  years  there 
have  been  numerous  movements  of  liberalism,  some  tending  to  rationalism, 
in  the  Presbyterian  Churches,  and  much  more  latitude  has  been  allowed  in 
the  interpretation  of  the  confessions,  and  in  speculation  and  criticism  on 
theological  matters. 

The  Dutch  Reformed  Church  sprang  from  early  study  of  the  Scriptures 
by  professors  such  as  Gansevoort  and  Agricola,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
even  more   from  the  tyranny   and  persecution  of  the    Spanish 
Reformed   power  in  league  with  the  Inquisition.     Two  Augustinian  monks, 
enure  '     Henry  Voes  and  John  Esch,  were  burnt  in  Brussels  in  1523 ;  and 
the  succeeding  martyr- roll  in  the  Netherlands  was  longer  than  that  of  any 
The  Beigic  °ther  Protestant  Church.    The  Belgic  Confession  was  drawn  up  in 
confession.   1561,  mainly  by  Guido  de  Bres,  who  in  1567,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
seven,   was   hung   for   his   Protestantism  ;  it  was   adopted  at  a  synod  at 
Antwerp  in  1566,  and  finally  at  the  famous  Synod  of   Dort  in  1619.     It 
follows  in  the  main  the  French  Confession  of  1559,  but  is  fuller  and  less 
polemical. 

The  most  interesting  controversy  in  the  Dutch  Church  was  that  which 

was  decided  (though  not  settled)  by  the  Synod  of  Dort.     James  Arminius 

(1560-1609),  a  student  under  Beza  at  Geneva,  professor  of  theology 

at  Leyden  (1603),  saw  reason  to  moderate  several  of  the  Calvin- 

istic  doctrines ;  and  his  views  were  adopted  by  his  successor  Episcopius,  and 

by  John  van  Barneveldt  and  Hugo  Grotius.     The  Arminians  set  forth  their 

views  in  five  Articles  in  1610,  under  the  name  of  "  Remonstrance  ;  "  the 

Calvinists  put  forward  a  Counter-Remonstrance.     The  Synod  of 

yno  0     or  •j-)orj.  wag  summoned  to  decide  between  them,  and  met  from  Nov. 

13,    1618,  to   May   9,    1619.      It   included,    besides   a   majority   of    Dutch 

divines,  representatives  from  the  Anglican,  Swiss,  and  German  Reformed 

Churches.     The   Remonstrants  were  in  a  great  minority,   and  Calvinism 

triumphed,  followed  by  the  deposition  of  about  200  Arminian  clergymen, 

and  the  arrest  of  Grotius  and   Barneveldt,  and  their  condemnation  by  the 


LUTHERAN,  REFORMED,  AND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES.  879 

State.  The  points  asserted  by  the  Arminians  will  be  mentioned  in  the  next 
chapter.  The  defeated  party  gradually  declined  in  Holland;  but  their 
doctrines  were  renewed  by  the  Methodists,  and  also  widely  adopted  in  the 
Anglican  Church.  The  Canons  of  Dort  represented  the  victory  of  a  narrow 
orthodoxy  and  scholasticism  ;  but  a  more  liberal  and  even  rationalising  tone 
gradually  spraad  widely  in  the  Dutch  Church. 

The  history  of  the  Reformation  in  France  is  one  of  deep   interest,  with 
many  tragic  details  which  we  cannot  give  here.     The  French  Church  had 
always  maintained    a   certain   independence   of  Rome,   and    the  Reformation 
University  of  Paris  had  been    the  nursery  of   much  theological    to  France, 
development  and  of  demand  for  reforms  in  the  Church  discipline.     In  1621 
the  first  reformed  congregation  was  formed  at  Meaux,  but  in  the  same  year 
Luther's  doctrines  were  condemned  by  the  Sor bonne.     Martyrdoms  began, 
and  the  Lutherans  were  generally  persecuted,  while  Francis  I.  expressed  himself 
in  favour  of  a  religious  reformation,  and  entered  into  communication  with 
the  German  reformers.     His  sister,  Queen  Margaret  of  Navarre,  favoured  the 
Reformation,  but  did  not  separate  from  the  Roman  Church.     Regular  con- 
gregations met  for  reformed  worship  in  spite  of  persecution  ;  and  in  1550,  a 
general  synod,  held  at  Paris,  agreed  to  the  French  or  Gallican  Confession  of 
faith,  drawn  up  by  Calvin,  and  revised  and  enlarged  by  his  pupilcaiiicanCon- 
Antoine    Chaudieu.     The   French   reformers    became   known  as     fession- 
Huguenots  ;  and  their  subsequent  history  belongs  mainly  to  general  politics. 
The  terrible  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  eve,  1572,  marked  the  beginning 
of  an  outburst  of  fanatical  cruelty  against  them,  during  which  over  30,000 
men,  women,  and  children  were  slain. 

The  organisation  of  the  French  Protestant  Church  was  strictly  Presby- 
terian, with  lay  elders  and  provincial  and  national  synods.  Deacons,  how- 
ever, had  a  more  important  sphere  than  in  Scotland,  the  office  being  regarded 
as  a  preparation  for  the  full  ministry  ;  but  the  congregations  had  compara- 
tively little  influence  in  Church  government.  The  Reformation  in  France 
received  another  severe  blow  by  the  "  conversion  "  of  Henry  IV.  to  Roman- 
ism in  1593  ;  but  in  1598,  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  he  practically  granted 
full  liberty  of  conscience  to  the  Presbyterians.  They,  however,  Edictof 
did  not  concede  the  same  liberty  to  others  ;  and  in  process  of  time  Nantes, 
they  became  more  embittered  against  the  Papal  Church,  and  more  austere 
in  their  own  discipline.  In  1G03  they  had  760  churches  and  5(30  ministers. 
By  the  skilful  management  of  Richelieu,  their  political  influence  diminished, 
and  they  came  more  and  more  under  royal  control.  Their  privileges  were 
gradually  restricted ;  they  entered  into  close  union  with  other  Protestants, 
accepting  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  and  also  holding  fellowship  with 
the  Lutherans.  In  1685  the  Edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked.  Horri-  Revocation 
ble  persecutions  and  civil  wars  followed,  and  it  is  estimated  that  of  Edict, 
several  millions  of  Protestants  left  France.  In  the  next  century  Presby- 
terianism  was  gradually  restored  by  the  skill  of  Antoine  Court :  persecution 
followed,  but  later  tolerance  gained  the  day.  Under  the  Revolution  Presby- 
terianism  spread  again ;  and  in  1801-2  Napoleon  framed  a  constitution  for 


8So 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  Protestant  Churches,  under  State  control,  abolishing  the  national  synod, 
and  practically  checking  their  progress.  After  an  imperfect  but  continuous 
existence,  in  1871  the  consistories  were  authorised  to  elect  deputies  to  a 
general  synod,  which  met  in  Paris  in  1872.  It  was  soon  evident  that  the 
Modern  G-allican  Confession  was  no  longer  fully  held  by  the  majority ; 
pFrte3t11iit-  but  the  medium  course  was  adopted  of  declaring  "the  sovereign 
ism.  authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  matters  of  faith,  and  salvation 
\>y  faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  only  begotten  Son  of  Grod,  who  died  for  our 
sins,  and  was  raised  again  for  our  justification."  The  Apostles'  Creed,  the 
Confession  of  Sins,  and  the  Order  for  the  Lord's  Supper  were  also  emphati- 
cally adopted.  A  large  minority  had  rationalistic  views,  and,  in  the  opinion 
of  some,  deserved  to  be  called  Unitarians.  They  asserted  the  right  of  each 
pastor  or  member  to  hold  whatever  creed  he  might  think  proper.  There  is 
also  a  Free  Church,  or  Union  of  Evangelical  Churches  in  France,  indepen- 
dent of  State  payment  or  State  control. 

A  brief  note  must  suffice  for  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches  of 
Huno-ary,  whose  early  establishment  was  due  to  the  Waldenses  and 
Bohemian  Brethren  who  took  refuge  there.  Luther's  writings 
cnurcnes  of  had  great  influence  in  Hungary,  and  the  German  population 
Hungary.  jmve  ]argely  remained  Lutherans.  The  Magyars  were  more 
influenced  by  Melanchthon  and  Calvin,  and  adopted  a  Calvinistic  Confes- 
sion at  the  Synod  of  Czenger  in  1557  or  1558 ;  this  was  superseded  by  the 
second  Helvetic  Confession  of  1566,  subscribed  in  Hungary  in  1567.  A 
Presbyterian  organisation  was  adopted,  and  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  almost  all  the  Magyars,  nobilit}1,  as  well  as  peasants,  had  accepted 
the  Reformation.  In  the  next  two  centuries  the  Jesuits  and  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  Hapsburg  princes  brought  continual  disasters  upon  the 
Reformed  Church  ;  but  in  1781  the  Edict  of  Toleration  secured  liberty  of 
conscience  and  public  worship  to  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches,  and 
other  restrictions  were  removed  in  1848.  The  Protestants  of  Hungary 
number  about  three  millions,  two-thirds  being  of  the  Reformed  Church. 


DRONTHEISI    CATHEDRAL,    NORWAY. 


TRINITY    CIIUItCH,    BOSTON,    U.S.A. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 
€\n  C!)tirrl)  of  englairtJ  anti  tl)e  ^onconformfete. 

Early  independence  of  English  Church— Resistance  to  Papacy— The  LolUrds— Henry  VIII.  and 
Luther— English  break  with  Rome— Henry  excommunicated— Tyndale's  Bitle— Later  Transla- 
tions—English  Prayer-Books— The  Thirty-nine  Articles— Gradual  restriction  of  English  Church 
—Evangelicals— High  Church  and  Ritualist  party— Broad  Churchmen— The  Baptists— Mennonites 
—Puritans— Independents— Emigration  to  New  England -Savoy  Conference  —  Congregational 
Union— Society  of  Friends— Hicksite  Friends— Arminianism— John  Wesley— George  Whitefield— 
Methodist  Episcopacy— Countess  of  Huntingdon's  Connexion— Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodists— 
Emanuel  Swendenborg— New  Church— Edward  Irving— Catholic  Apostolic  Church— Unitarians — 
Socinus— Priestley— Channing— Rationalism— Agnosticism. 

CLAIMING    a   history  dating   from   apostolic    or    sub-apostolic   times, 
Christianity  in  Great  Britain  is  only  partially  derived  from  the  papal 
mission   of  Augnstine    in  597.      Very  soon  after  the   organisation   of   the 

881  3   L 


882  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


Church,   by  the  Roman   missionaries,  a  strong  spirit   of  independence  of 

Early  inde-  Rome  was  found  in  Britain ;  and  as  early  as  747  a  synod  of  Eng- 

PeEngUsh°f  lisl1  bisnoPs  ordered  that  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  should 

church,     be  taught  to  the  people  in  the  vulgar  tongue.     "We  have  already 

referred  to  many  famous  British  missionaries  and   theologians;    to   these 

might  be  added  many  more.     There  was  always  an  extensive  practice  of 

explaining  the  Scriptures  in  the  vernacular,  and  a  very  moderate  statement 

of  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist.     Anselm  introduced  a  higher 

doctrine  of  the  Eucharist,  as  well  as  of  the  papal  power.     The  power  and 

abuses  of  the  monastic  orders  and  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  the  exactions  and 

oppressions  of   papal  legates,  and   the  claims  of  clerical   exemption  from 

Resistance  to  ordinary  law  again  and  again  roused  the  nation,  and  there  was 

Papacy,     seldom  a  complete  subjection  of  the  kingdom  to  the  Papacy,  the 

Inquisition   never  having    been   introduced.      The    statute    of     Mortmain 

(1279)  restrained  the  gifts  of  lands  to  monastic  orders  and  the  Church  ; 

the   statutes   of    Provisors   (1351)    and  Praemunire    (1353),    more   strongly 

enacted  in  1393,  forbade  the  excessive  drain  of  Church  and  monastic  money 

to  the  pope,  and  to  aliens,  and  papal  appointments  to  sees  and  benefices. 

The  clergy  were  compelled  to  pay  taxes  to  the  Crown ;    and  Wyclif,   in 

the  thirteenth  century,  both  roused  the  people  against  the  corruptions  of 

the  Church,  and  promulgated  a  teaching  which  to  a  considerable  extent 

anticipated   the   Reformation.     His   translation   of    the    Bible    could   not, 

however,  obtain  wide  circulation  before  the  era  of  printing. 

It  is  worth  noting  here  how,  in  1394,  the  Lollards  (followers  of  Wyclif) 

brought  forward  a  Bill  in  Parliament,  setting  forth  such  advanced  views  as 

the  following :  (1)  that  when  the  Church  of  England  accepted 
The  Lollards 

'  endowments,  faith,  hope,  and  charity  began  to  disappear,  and 

pride  and  mortal  sins  to  prevail ;   (2)  that  the  priesthood,  as  conferred  by  the 

Church  ritual,  is  a  sham  ;  (3)  that  the  vow  of  chastity  leads  to  sin  ;  (4)  that 

the  pretended  miracle  of  the  sacrament  leads  all  men,   save   a  few,  into 

idolatry  ;  (5)  that  exorcisms  and  blessings  of  various  things  are  practices 

of  necromancy  rather  than  theology ;  (6)  prelates  and  clergy  ought  not  to 

hold  secular  offices  ;  (7)  the  offering  of  prayers  for  special  dead  persons  is 

wrong  as  a  foundation  for  almsgiving  ;  (8)  pilgrimages,  prayers,  and  offerings 

to  crosses  and  images  are  very  near  to  idolatry ;  (9)  auricular  confession  and 

absolution  produce  many  evils.     The  fastening  of  this  Bill  upon  the  doors  of 

St.   Paul's    and   Westminster   Abbey   in    1394   anticipated    by   123   years 

Luther's  theses  at  Wittenberg.     After  this  followed  the  cruel  persecutions 

of  the  Lollards,  beginning  with  the  killing  of  AVilliam  Sawtrey  in  1401  ; 

but  this  only  intensified  the  popular  dislike  and  the  resistance  to  papal 

tyranny,  which  continued  active  during  the  weak  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and 

increased  during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  and  reign  of  Henry  VII. 

Early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  monks  and  monasteries  were  in 

ill  repute ;   the  clergy  preached  little,   and  many  of  them  lived  immoral 

Henry  viu.  lives ;    the  sale  of    indulgences    made  the    people  scoff  at    the 

and  Luther.  Church ;   and  a  reform  was  greatly  needed,  though  it  came  about 


THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  AND  THE  NONCONFORMISTS.  883 


in  a  way  which  brought  many  evils  along  with  it.     At  first,  antagonism 
to    Luther    was   prominent.      Wolsey   had    Luther's   books    burnt   at    St. 
Paul's  in  1521 ;   and  Henry  VIII.  wrote  a  book  in  favour   of  the  seven 
sacraments  and  abusing  Luther,   who  responded  in  a  violent  tone.     The 
king  was  gratified  by  receiving  from  Pope  Leo  X.  the  title  of  Defender  of 
the  Faith,  still  retained  by  the  English  sovereigns.    But  the  opinions  of  the 
Continental  reformers  were  widely  diffused  in  England,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  the  reforming  Parliament  of  152!),  in  which  Henry  compelled  the 
clergy,  besides  paying  large  sums  of  money  in  lieu  of  penalties     English 
for  breaking  the  Praemunire  statute,  to  accept  his  supremacy  break  with 
over  the  English  Church,   "  as  far  as  is  permitted  by  the  law  of 
Christ,"  thus  practically  breaking  with  Rome.     The  "  submission  of  the 
clergy"  in  1532  granted  that  no  new  canons  should  be  made  or  published 
without    the    king's   consent,    and 


that  a  revision  of  the  old  ones 
should  take  place.  In  1533  all  ap- 
peals to  Rome  were  forbidden,  as 
well  as  all  papal  dispensations  and 
appointments.  In  1536,  the  sup- 
pression of  the  smaller  monasteries 
was  authorised,  and  in  1539  that 
of  the  greater  monasteries.  Thus, 
not  without  bloodshed,  the  Church 
was  made  national,  under  royal 
supremacy,  and  its  reform  was 
made  possible  and  partially  accom- 
plished without  the  introduction  of 
any  new  doctrine  beyond  orthodox 
Romanism. 

After  Cranmer,  in  May,  1533, 
had  pronounced  the  divorce  of 
Catherine  from  Henry,  the  pope 
threatened  to  excommunicate  him. 

Cranmer  claimed  an  appeal  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council.  On  March 
23rd,  1534,  the  pope  proclaimed  Henry's  marriage  with  Catherine  lawful, 
and  excommunicated  him.  But  liberal  views  were  not  enthroned  Henry 
in  England  if  the  pope  was  dethroned.  Bishop  Fisher  and  Sir  excommuni- 
Thomas  More  were  executed  in  1535  for  denying  the  royal 
supremacy ;  Anabaptists  were  also  burnt ;  and  the  Real  Presence  in  the 
Eucharist  was  proclaimed  as  a  vital  doctrine. 

Meanwhile  "William  Tyndale  had  translated  and  printed  on  the  Conti- 
nent the  New  Testament  (1526),  and  the  Pentateuch  (1530).     In  1534  and 
1535,  he  issued  revised  editions,  enlarged.     In  1535  he  was  seized    Tyndaie's 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  after  a  year  and  a  half's  imprisonment      Bible- 
was  strangled  and  then  burnt,  on  Oct.  6,  1536,  under  the  decree  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V. 


884  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

In  1536,  Henry  VIII.  obtained  the  approval  of  Convocation  to  his 
"  Ten  Articles,"  which  have  been  termed  "  popery  with  the  pope  left  out." 

Later  Meanwhile  Coverdale's  translation  of  the  Bible  into  English  was 
translations,  published  in  1535.  In  1537  ''Matthew's"  Bible  appeared, 
edited  by  John  Rogers,  mainly  from  Tyndale  ;  and  a  copy  was  ordered 
to  be  set  up  in  every  church.  A.  revised  edition,  the  "Great"  Bible,  was 
issued  in  1539 ;  and  thus  a  beginning  was  made  in  the  popular  diffusion 
of  the  Scriptures.  The  injunctions  issued  by  the  king's  vicar-general  in 
1538  enjoin  the  reading  and  study  of  the  Bible  on  every  Christian  man ;  and 
the  clergy  are  bidden  to  preach,  at  least  once  every  quarter,  a  sermon,  "in 
which  they  are  to  declare,  purely  and  sincerely,  the  very  gospel  of  Christ, 
and  to  exhort  their  hearers  to  works  of  mercy  and  religion,  and  not  to 
trust  in  works  devised  by  man's  fantasies,  as  in  wandering  to  pilgrimages, 
offering  of  money,  candles,  or  tapers  to  images  or  relics,  kissing  or  licking 
the  same,  saying  over  a  number  of  becles  not  understanded,  or  in  such-like 
superstitions."  But  these  injunctions  mark  the  high-water  mark  of  the 
Reformation  under  Henry  VIII.,  who  became  more  bigoted  and  intolerant 
as  he  grew  older.  In  1539  he  issued  the  "  Six  Articles,"  affirming  transub- 
stantiation  on  penalty  of  the  stake,  the  necessity  of  private  masses  and 
auricular  confession,  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  the  obligation  of  vows  of 
chastity.  Many  were  tried  and  punished  under  the  Act  passed  in  pur- 
suance of  it,  and  many  for  denying  the  royal  supremacy  in  religion. 

Early  in  Edward  VI.'s  reign  the  "  Six  Articles  "  were  repealed ;  and 
Parliament,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Convocation  of  the  Church,  ordered 
that  the  Communion  should  be  administered  to  all  persons  in  both  kinds.  In 
Edward  vi  's  1548-9  the  First  Prayer-Book  of  Edward  VI.  was  issued  in  English, 
First  being  really  a  revised  translation  of  the  best  of  the  old  Latin 
service  books  used  in  England,  with  the  omission  of  many  things 
strongly  objected  to  by  reformers.  About  the  same  time  the  marriage  of  the 
clergy  was  permitted  by  law.  Later,  it  appeared  that  many  were  applying 
or  adapting  parts  of  the  new  service-book  in  a  Roman  sense,  and  injunctions 
to  the  contrary  were  issued.  In  reaction  Protestant  doctrines  came  more 
into  favour  among  the  people. 

The  Second  Prayer-Book  of  Edward  VI.  (1552),  which  is  substantially  in 
force  at  present,  was  largely  influenced  by  the  progress  of  reforming  opinions. 
Edward  vi 's  ^ie  Order  of  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer  was  changed ;  the  Sen- 
second  tences,  Exhortation,  Confession,  and  Absolution  were  prefixed  to 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  with  which  Services  had  previously  begun, 
and  prayers  were  added  after  the  third  collect.  In  the  Communion  Service 
important  alterations  were  made ;  the  reading  of  the  Commandments  was 
introduced,  the  name  of  the  Virgin  was  omitted  from  special  mention,  the 
invocation  of  the  "W  ord  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and  the  mix- 
ture of  water  with  the  wine  were  omitted  ;  instead  of  the  long  comprehensive 
Prayer  of  Consecration,  three  prayers  were  substituted,  those  for  the  Church 
Militant,  of  Consecration,  and  the  first  form  of  the  Prayer  after  Communion  ; 
at  the  delivery  of  the  elements  to  the  communicants,  the  second  clauses 


THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  AND  THE  NONCONFORMISTS.  885 

of  the  present  form  were  substituted  for  the  first  clauses.     In  the  rite  of 
Baptism  the  exorcism,  anointing,  and  triple  immersion ;    in  the  Service  for 


the  Visitation  of  the  Sick,  the  anointing,  directions  for  private  confessions, 
and  for  reserving  portions  of  the  elements  from  the  public  Communion ;  in 


SS6  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

the  Burial  Service,  prayers  for  the  dead,  were  omitted.  The  most  important 
change  was  in  the  Communion  Service,  supporting  the  view  that  the 
elements  had  no  new  virtues  imparted  in  consecration,  thus  allowing  the 
full  adhesion  of  the  extreme  Reformers.  Forty-two  Articles  of  Religion 
were  agreed  to  and  promulgated  in  1552-3. 

We  must  pass  over  the  restoration  of  Romanism  under  Queen  Mary, 
and  the  persecution  and  martyrdoms  associated  with  it.  In  1559  the  Second 
Revised  Prayer-Book  of  Edward  VI.  was  again  restored,  with  slight  alter- 
Prayer-Book.  ations,  one  being  that  the  clauses  used  in  both  Prayer-Books  ot 
Edward  VI.  in  delivering  the  elements  in  the  Communion  were  combined 
as  at  present  in  use.  Several  minor  alterations  went  counter  to  the 
desires  of  the  Puritans,  especially  in  restoring  some  ceremonies  and  vest- 
ments. 

In  1563  the  Forty-two  Articles  of  Edward  VI.  were  revised  and  amended, 
and  condensed  into  Thirty-nine.  They  have  been  the  subject  of  an  aston- 
ishing  variety  of  interpretation  and  latitude  of  subscription,  some 
Thirty-nine  representing  them  as  mainly  Lutheran,  others  reading  into  them 
much  of  the  theology  of  the  Council  of  Trent ;  Calvinists  finding 
in  them  substantially  their  own  creed,  whilst  those  possessing  a  much  less 
positive  and  dogmatic  belief  than  any  of  these  have  been  content  to  subscribe 
them.  We  will  briefly  state  their  effect,  mainly  following  Dr.  Schaff's 
analysis  as  that  of  a  competent  outside  judge.  The  Articles  are  Catholic  as 
to  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation,  agreeing  with  all  the 
Protestants  of  the  Reform  period  ;  indeed,  these  are  partly  given  in  the  words 
of  two  Lutheran  confessions,  the  Augsburg  and  the  Wurtemberg ;  they  are 
Augustinian  on  free-will,  sin,  and  grace,  agreeing  with  the  Continental 
Reformers ;  they  are  Protestant  and  Evangelical,  in  rejecting*  the  errors  and 
abuses  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  teaching  the  doctrines  as  to  Scripture 
and  tradition,  justification,  faith  and  good  works,  and  the  number  of  sacra- 
ments, held  in  common  Iry  Luther,  Zwingli,  and  Calvin  ;  they  are  moderately 
Calvinistic  as  to  predestination  and  the  Lord's  Supper :  they  are  Erastian l 
in  teaching  the  close  union  of  Church  and  State,  and  the  royal  supremacy  in 
ecclesiastical  as  well  as  civil  affairs.  Article  XXXVI.,  in  reference  to  the 
Prayer-Book  and  orders,  being  purely  Anglican  and  Episcopalian,  has  always 
b?en  opposed  by  the  Puritans.  The  Articles  have  been  adopted  by  the 
American  Episcopal  Church,  with  the  omission  of  the  Athanasian  Creed 
from  Article  VIII.,  and  modifications  applicable  to  the  separation  of  Church 
and  State. 

The  "  Bishops'  "  Bible,  issued  under  Archbishop  Parker,  in  1568,  not 
being  entirely  satisfactory,  a  committee  of  divines  was  appointed  to  draw  up 

1  Thomas  Erastus,  1524-1583,  author  of  a  treatise  on  the  power  of  excommunication, 
advocated  the  infliction  of  penalties  by  the  civil  magistrate,  not  by  the  Church,  and 
regarded  it  as  out  of  place  for  the  Church  to  excommunicate.  But  it  became  the  popular 
idea  that  he  maintained  the  power  of  the  magistrate  over  the  conscience  of  individuals, 
and  the  subjection  of  all  religious  bodies  to  State  regulation  and  control.  Thus  the  term 
Erastian  is  identified. with  the  control  of  the  Church  by  the  State,  and  with  the  principle 
of  Established  Churches. 


THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  AND  THE  NONCONFORMISTS.    887 

a  new  translation  which  was  published  in  1611,  and  has  ever  since  been 
recognised   as  a  masterly  work.     It  was  revised   in   1870-1885,     Bishops', 
by  a  commission   containing   representatives   of  Nonconformists  j^dJe^sed 
as  well  as  American  divines  ;   but  the  revised  translation  lias  not      Bibles. 
yet  been  "  authorised  "  for  use  in  churches. 

Without  following  the  stormy  history  of  the  English  Church  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  it  may  be  said  that  nearly  all  alterations,  though  com- 
paratively slight,  were  in  an  anti-Puritan  direction,  with  strict     Gradual 
State  control.     The  attitude  of  the  Royal  Government  and  of  the  ""SgSS 
Church  authorities  became  such,  that  at  successive  periods  very     Church, 
man}''  who  desired  to  remain  in  the  National  Church  were  excluded,  until  at  the 
present  time  it  is  claimed  that  only  one-half  of  the  nation  is  really  attached 
to  the  Established  Church.     Towards  the  end  of  the  last  century  a  number 
of  clergymen  who  had  at  first  sympathised  with  the  Methodist   revival 
adopted  a  strict  Calvinism  which  separated  them  from  Wesley's  movement. 
They   remained   in   the   Church,    and    formed    the   "  Evangelical "    party, 
remarkable  for  their  earnest  spiritual  sermons,  their  philanthropy, 
and    their    missions.      They    founded    the    Church    Missionary 
Society,    and   (with    the    Baptists,   Presbyterians,    and    Independents)   the 
Religious  Tract  Society,  and  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.     As  a 
reaction  from  their  moderate  statement  of  the  claims  of  the  Church,  and 
inattention  to  form  and  supposed  incompleteness  of  teaching  on  sacramental 
subjects,  the  High  Church  and  Tractarian  party  arose  (1833),  and  in  "  Tracts 
for  the  Times,"  insisted  on  the  Divine  authority  and  mission  of  the  Church  of 
England  as  a  branch  of  the  Church  Catholic,  possessing  continuity  High  Church 
from  apostolic  times,  unbroken  succession  of  the  ministry,  and    Rituaiist 
true  episcopacy.     They  directed  fresh  attention  to  the  Fathers      party, 
and  to  the  traditions  and  decisions  of  the  undivided  Church.     As  to  the 
Papacy,  many  of  them  were  more  inclined  to  revere  than  to  censure  it,  and 
the  name  of   Protestant  became  hateful   to  them.     They  endeavoured  bo 
re-introduce  the  doctrine  of  the  mass  as  a  sacrifice.     The  cry  arose  that 
they  were  Romanists  at  heart  and  wished  to  betray  the  English  Church  to 
Roman  Catholicism  ;  and  this  appeared  to  be  justified  by  the  secession  of 
many   prominent  Tractarians    to    Rome.      Later,   various    legal    decisions 
have   allowed    the    holding   within    the    Church   of    England    of    certain 
sacramental  doctrines  deemed  by  the  Evangelicals  to  be  contrary  to  the 
meaning  of  the  Articles,  and  susceptible  of  a  direct  Roman  interpretation  ; 
and  this  view  appears  to  be  confirmed  by  the  Romanised  ceremonial  intro- 
duced by  the  "  Ritualists,"  together  with  habitual  confession,  sisterhoods, 
limited  communions,  gorgeous  vestments,  etc.     The  rise  of  the  High  Church 
party  was  almost  simultaneous  with  that  of  a  Broader  school  of      Broad 
thought,  which,  partly  under  the  influence  of  German  rationalism,  Churchmen. 
partly  under  that  of  modern  science,  ascribed  a  lower  place  to  the  authority 
of  the  Bible  than  the  Reformers,  and  allowed  that  its  verbal  infallibility 
was  not  necessary  to  its  acceptance  as  containing  all  that  was  essential  to 
salvation.     While  some  of  them  firmly  believed  in  the  supernatural  aspects 


888  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

of  Christianity  and  the  Deity  of  Christ,  others  qualified  these  to  a  varying 
extent.  Some  few  Broad  Churchmen  have  left  the  Church  and  become 
Unitarians ;  but  on  the  whole  they  retain  their  positions,  giving  in  some 
cases  a  special  interpretation  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles. 

The  Church  of  England  is  by  some  called  a  bundle  of  divergent  sects ; 
but  there  is  a  very  large  number  of  members  who  hold  to  the  distinctive 
dogmas  of  no  one  school,  but  are  attached  to  the  plain  teaching  of  the 
Prayer-Book.  Next  to  these  the  High  Churchmen  are  apparently  the  most 
numerous  and  active  section. 

The  first  important  body  of  Nonconformists  in  England  were  the 
Baptists,  sometimes  called  Anabaptists  (rebaptisers),  as  requiring  those  who 
The  Baptists  kac*  ^een  baptised  ni  infancy  to  be  baptised  again  (by  immersion) 
in  adult  life,  on  making  a  voluntary  profession  of  Christianity. 
Their  fanaticism  on  the  Continent  against  all  who  supported  infant  baptism, 
as  well  as  against  papal  errors,  led  to  bitter  persecutions  by  all  parties,  lead- 
ing to  revolts,  such  as  the  Peasants'  War  in  Saxony  (1534).  The  earliest  con- 
fession of  Baptists  is  given  by  Zwingli,  and  includes  baptism  on  profession 
of  repentance,  belief  in,  and  forgiveness  of  sins  through  Christ,  accompanied 
with  change  of  life.  Those  who  fall  into  sin  after  baptism  are  to  be  ex- 
communicated. Their  other  doctrines  agree  with  the  Calvinistic  Eeformed 
Churches.  They  appeared  in  England  in  Henry  VIII. 's  reign,  and  some 
were  burnt.  In  Elizabeth's  and  James  I.'s  reign  no  tolerance  was  allowed 
to  Baptists ;  and  during  the  greater  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  except 
during  the  Commonwealth  time,  they  were  persecuted.  It  was  not  till 
after  the  Revolution  of  1688,  and  the  passing  of  the  Toleration  Act  in  1689, 
that  their  worship  was  free.  Their  tenets  gradually  spread ;  and  as  each 
Church  adopted  its  creed  without  control  by  any  organisation,  a  distinction 
Particular  gradually  arose  between  the  Particular  or  Calvinistic  Baptists, 
Baptists.  ancj  j.]ie  Q.enera]  or  Arminian  Baptists.  The  former  are  the 
majority,  and  are  Calvinists  in  doctrine,  while  independent  in  their  Church 
organisation.  "While  rejecting  infant  baptism,  they  believe  in  the  salvation 
of  all  children  dying  before  the  age  of  responsibility.  In  their  eyes  baptism 
is  not  a  regenerative  act,  but  an  outward  sign  of  a  grace  already  conferred. 
They  are  opposed  to  all  State  Churches,  and  advocate  voluntaryism  and 
religious  freedom.  No  Church  has  any  power  over  any  other  Church.  No 
minister  has  any  authority  in  any  Church  except  that  which  has  called  him 
General  to  be  its  pastor.  Deacons  are  the  Church  administrators  and 
Baptists,  pastors'  assistants.  The  General  Baptists  are  those  who  reject 
unconditional  election  to  salvation,  and  maintain  the  freedom  of  man's  will 
and  the  possibility  of  falling  from  grace.  Some  of  the  congregations  in  the 
last  century  tended  towards  Socinianism  and  have  joined  the  Unitarians. 
A  number  of  Particular  Baptists  have  become  more  moderate  in  their 
Calvinism,  and  more  liberal  in  their  theology. 

The  Mennonites  represent  the  original  Anabaptists,  collected  into  a 
peaceful,  unobtrusive  body  in  Holland  and  Western  Germany,  by  Menno 
Simonis,  about  1536.     The  Confession  of  Waterland,  which  they  for   the 


THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  AND  THE  NONCONFORMISTS.    SS9 

most  part  acknowledge,  shows  their  affinity  with  the  Quakers.  Agreeing 
with  the  other  Baptists  as  to  adult  baptism,  they  differ  in  using  The 
sprinkling  instead  of  immersion.  They  ;i<hnit  hereditary  sin,  but  Mennonites. 
deny  the  individual's  guilt  for  it.  They  believe  in  universal  redemption 
and  conditional  election.  Taking  oaths  and  holding  secular  offices  is  for- 
bidden, together  with  lawsuits,  revenge,  violence,  and  worldly  amusements. 
They  have  spread  very  considerably  in  Russia  and  the  United  States. 

The  term  "  Puritans  "  sometimes  covers  all  who  dissent  from  the  Church 
of  England,  and  adopt  a  narrow  principle  of  Church  government  and  more 

strictly  avoid  Roman   doctrine  and  ceremonies ;    but  it  properly 
,..  ir.-  ■       i        ■  in  ,  Tne  Puritans, 

designates  a  more  definite  party  m  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 

centuries.  The  introduction  of  Calvin's  followers  into  important  positions 
in  the  latter  part  of  Henry  VIII.'s  and  in  Edward  VI.'s  reign,  had  much  in- 
fluence in  spreading  the  doctrines  of  the  Swiss  Reformers ;  and  during  the 
Marian  persecutions  many  English  divines  went  to  Geneva  and  other  Pro- 
testant centres,  and  on  their  return,  in  Elizabeth's  reign,  brought  back  a 
strong  attachment  to  Genevan  simplicity  and  hatred  of  Romish  vestments 
and  ceremonies.  Some  of  their  proposals  were  accepted,  but  others, 
especially  about  vestments,  were  rejected  ;  and  in  1560,  those  who  refused 
to  conform  began  to  be  deprived  of  their  cures,  but  great  difficulty  occurred 
in  supplying  their  places.  Some  of  the  Puritans  chose  to  remain  within  the 
Church,  conforming  as  little  as  might  be  to  the  regulations  they  disliked, 
while  others  separated  themselves,  though  not  supported  by  Knox,  Beza, 
and  Bullinger.  Thomas  Cartwright,  a  notable  Cambridge  professor,  became 
their  chief  literary  exponent,  his  "Second  Admonition,"  addressed  to  Parlia- 
ment in  1572,  being  a  powerful  attack  upon  the  Church;  and  the  "  Book  of 
Discipline"  drawn  up  by  him  and  Travers  about  1580,  contains  a  complete 
organisation  for  Church  government  on  the  Genevan  model.  Several 
Churches  with  presbyterian  discipline  were  formed  from  1572  onwards,  but 
soon  suppressed,  or  only  carried  on  in  secret.  The  troubles  of  those  who 
desired  to  continue  Puritans  within  the  Established  Church,  and  of  those 
who  left  it  for  the  sake  of  Puritan  principles,  increased  during  the  latter  part 
of  Elizabeth's  and  the  early  Stuart  reigns.  Many  took  refuge  in  America, 
the  first  ship,  the  Mayfloicer,  leaving  Plymouth  on  6th  Sept.,  1620.  Their 
numbers  were  greatly  increased  by  Laud's  arbitrary  discipline  in  Charles 
I.'s  reign,  and  they  constituted  a  powerful  basis  for  the  new  free  EmigTation 
reformed  Churches  of  America.  Under  the  Commonwealth  the  to  New 
National  Church  was  largely  given  up  to  freedom  and  irregular  Engla 
proceedings,  the  surplice  being  extensively  discarded  and  extemporaneous 
prayer  being  frequent  in  the  parish  churches.  The  old  Puritanism  now 
became  extinct,  and  the  opponents  of  the  Established  Church  fell  into  two 
main  groups,  the  Presbyterians  and  the  Independents.  After  the  passing  t>l 
the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1662),  the  name  of  Nonconformist  was  generally 
applied  to  those  clergymen  (with  their  adherents  who  refused  to  conform 
to  the  Church  of  England.  Nearly  2,000  ministers  were  then  ejected  as 
Nonconformists. 


890 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


The  origin  of  the  Independents  is  traced  to  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and 
more  especially  to  Robert  Browne  (1550-1631),  who  wrote  strongly  against 
The  the  evils  of  Churches  containing  evil  livers  and  preachers,  and  the 
independents.interference  of  the  civil  power  with  religion  ;  but  after  suffering 
much  from  persecution  and  imprisonment,  he  returned  to  the  ministry  of 
the  English  Church.  Many  others  by  private  study  of  the  Bible  came  in 
his  time  to  believe  in  the  separate  organisation  and  equal  authority  of  every 
congregation  of  believers.  They  endured  much  persecution  for  their  opinions, 
and  formed  many  private  Churches  or  assemblies.  Many  took  refuge  in 
Holland,  and  formed  Churches  at  Amsterdam  and  Leyden.     In  1606  Henry 

Jacob  returned  to  Eng- 
land from  Leyden  and 
formed  an  Independent 
Church  in  Southwark, 
having  previously  de- 
fined his  position  in  a 
petition  to  King  James, 
that  every  particular 
Church  should  be  al- 
lowed to  elect,  ordain, 
and  deprive  her  own 
ministers,  and  to  ex- 
ercise all  other  lawful 
ecclesiastical  jurisdic- 
tion. Growing  apace, 
though  constantly 
drained  of  their  best 
blood  by  the  New  Eng- 
land emigration,  the 
Independents  exercised 
considerable  influence 
in  the  "Westminster  As- 
sembly. Under  the  Pro- 
tectorate of  Cromwell 
they  became  the  most 
important  religious 
body,  and  in  1658  ministers  and  delegates  of  more  than  100  congregations 
Sa  met  at  the  Savoy  and  subscribed  a  "  Declaration,"  which  set  forth, 

conference,  besides  the  Westminster  Confession  in  a  slightly  modified  form,  a 
"Declaration  of  the  Institution  of  Churches  and  the  Order  appointed  in  them 
by  Jesus  Christ."  It  stated  that  "  a  particular  Church  consists  of  officers 
and  members  ;  the  Lord  Christ  having  given  to  His  called  ones, — united  in 
Church  order, — liberty  and  power  to  choose  persons  fitted  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
to  be  over  them  in  the  Lord.  The  officers  appointed  by  Christ  to  be  chosen 
and  set  apart  by  the  Church  are  pastors,  teachers,  elders,  and  deacons."  The 
call  to  the  ministry  by  the  Church  is  to  be  followed  by  fasting  and  prayer, 


JOHN    WESLEY. 


THE  CHURCH  OP  ENGLAND  AND  THE  NONCONFORMISTS.    891 

and  the  imposition  of  hands  by  the  eldership  of  the  Church.  A  Church 
furnished  with  officers  has  full  power  to  administer  all  Christ's  ordinances. 
Admonition  and  excommunication  are  within  the  power  »of  the  Church. 
These  Savoy  Declarations  have  no  binding  power  upon  any  Church,  but 
were  substantially  approved  by  most  Independent  Churches.  The  Indepen- 
dents were  fiercely  persecuted  under  the  Conventicle  Acts  of  L663  and  1670, 
and  other  oppressive  regulations.  In  1689  they  gained  toleration,  and 
flourished  considerably  in  the  18th  century.  In  1833  an  impulse  towards 
united  action  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  Congregational  Union 
of  England  and  Wales,  which  drew  up  a  moderately  Calvinistic  congTega- 
declaration.  It  is  not  imposed  on  any  Church,  and  the  Union  tlonai  Union- 
does  not  assume  legislative  authority  or  the  functions  of  a  Court  of  Appeal. 
A  number  of  ministers  hold  opinions  considered  to  be  "liberal"  if  not 
rationalistic.  The  term  "Congregational "  has  been  adopted  by  the  majority 
of  Independent  Churches,  to  emphasise  their  positive  aspect,  rather  than 
the  opposition  to  establishments,  popery,  prelacy,  parliament,  signified  by 
the  word  "  Independent." 

The  Society  of  Friends,  popularly  known  as  the  "  Quakers,"  takes  its 
rise  from  George  Fox,  son  of  a  weaver,  who  in  1G48  began  to  preach 
repentance  and  the  universality  and  sufficiency  of  the  light  of  society  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  The  term  Quakers  was  given  to  his  followers  Friends, 
by  a  magistrate  whom  Fox  had  bidden  to  "  tremble  at  the  word  of  God." 
He  taught  that  the  gift  of  preaching  came  directly  from  the  operation  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  soul,  and  needed  no  other  authorisation.  Thus  every 
one,  male  or  female,  might  preach  when  "  moved  by  the  Spirit."  Fox  gave 
up  all  rites,  ceremonies,  and  forms  of  worship,  holding  that  silent  communion 
with  God  was  as  acceptable  as  the  utterance  of  prayer  and  praise.  Naturally 
the  Quakers  were  opposed  by  men  of  all  parties  ;  but  their  principles  made 
way  against  much  persecution,  notwithstanding  man}''  eccentricities  and 
extravagances.  They  have  never  become  a  Church  imposing  by  numbers, 
though  the  character  of  individual  members  has  had  remarkable  influence. 
The  doctrines  of  the  Friends,  other  than  those  already  given,  are  the 
universal  love  of  God  to  man,  revealed  to  the  soul  of  the  heathen  as  well  as 
the  Christian ;  denial  of  the  lawfulness  of  war,  oaths,  amusements  ;  the  use 
of  the  plainest  language  and  dress.  They  recognise  in  a  modified  way  the 
offices  of  minister,  elder,  and  overseer ;  but  in  their  meetings  they  frequently 
sit  silent  unless  any  member  is  "  moved  "  to  speak  or  pray.  All  members  are 
entitled  to  watch  over  one  another  for  good.  It  is  in  assigning  supremacy 
to  the  "Inward  Light"  that  they  most  differ  from  the  Reformers.  In 
America  they  became  very  numerous ;  and  owing  to  the  views  put  forward 
by  Elias  Hicks,  approaching  nearly  to  Arianism,  a  large  body  seceded 
in  1827,  and  are  known  as  Hicksite  Friends.  They  assert  their  belief 
in  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  "the  immaculate  Son  of  God,"  but  Hicksite 
they  do  not  hold  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  They  wends, 
affirm  that  "  the  Scriptures  do  not  teach  that  we  inherit  any  fault  from 
Adam  or  any  of  our  ancestors  ;  nor  do  we  feel  any  compunction  for  their 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


sins.     The  language  of  our  Saviour  clearly  implies  that  little   children  are 
innocent,  for,  He  says,  '  of  such  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven.'  " 

We  will  here  summarise  the  leading  points  of  Arminianism  (see  p. 
878),  which  have  been  to  a  large  extent  adopted  by  the  Methodists.  They 
are,  (1)  that  predestination  is  conditioned  by  God's  foreknow- 
ledge of  the  faith  or  unbelief  of  men.  (2)  That  Christ  died 
for  all  men,  and  His  salvation  is  intended  for  all ;  but  (3)  God's  grace  is  not 
irresistible,  and  only  those  who  accept  it  by  faith  are  saved.  (4)  Man  can 
only  attain  saving  faith  by  regeneration  by  God  in  Christ.  (5)  Believers 
are  capable  of  falling  from  grace.  Arminianism  was  held  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  the  Church  of  England  (and  still  is),  before  Wesley  adopted  it. 

John  Wesley  (1703-1791),  the  founder  of  Methodism,  was  a  learned 
Oxford  graduate  and  Church  of  England  clergyman,  who  in  1729  formed  a 
small  society  for  cultivating  personal  religion  at  Oxford,  on  some- 
what High  Church  principles,  and  nicknamed  "  Methodists."  It 
was  not  till  after  he  had  been  on  a  mission  to  Georgia,  that  he  realised  his 
need  of  "  conversion,"  and  through  the  teaching  of  Peter  Bohler,  a  Mora- 
vian, gained  a  personal  trust  in  Christ  and  a  conscious  assurance  of  his  sins 
George  being  forgiven  (1738).  Meanwhile,  George  Whitefield,  one  of  the 
wintefieid.  Oxford  Methodists,  had  become  an  open-air  preacher,  and  pro- 
duced wonderful  effects  by  his  eloquence.  The  two  joined  heartily  in 
evangelistic  work,  and  formed  societies,  at  first  intended  solely  to  be  within 
the  Church  of  England.  But  in  numerous  cases  Wesley's  converts  were 
repelled  from  communion  by  the  Anglican  clergy,  and  Wesley  was  generally 
prohibited  from  preaching  in  parish  churches.  In  1740  Wesley  separated 
both  from  the  Moravians  and  from  Whitefield,  the  latter  adopting  Calvin- 
istic  views.  Perhaps  the  point  most  insisted  on  in  early  Methodism,  was 
the  necessity  of  distinct,  usually  instantaneous,  "  conversion,"  after  repent- 
ance from  sin ;  but  the  possession  of  a  consciousness  of  forgiveness  and  of 
the  Divine  favour  (known  as  "  the  witness  of  the  Spirit  "),  justification  by 
faith  alone,  and  Christian  perfectibility,  or  the  possible  attainment  of  a 
state  of  sinlessness,  or  freedom  from  the  power  of  sin  (though  not  from 
"  involuntary  transgressions  "),  are  almost  equally  prominent.  Wesley  set 
himself  "  to  reform  the  nation,  more  particularly  the  Church,  and  to  spread 
Scriptural  holiness  over  the  land."  To  his  "  genius  for  godliness,"  he  added 
a  remarkable  power  of  organisation,  which,  well  seconded  by  his  successors, 
has  made  the  Methodist  bodies  as  important  and  active  as  any  section  of 
Protestantism.  The  doctrinal  standard  rather  than  the  creed  of  Methodism 
is  contained  in  fifty-three  of  Wesley's  sermons  and  his  "  Notes  on  the  New 
Testament."  It  was  not  till  1784  that  Wesley,  though  long  convinced  that 
the  office  of  a  bishop  was  originally  the  same  with  that  of  a  presbyter, 
ordained  the  Rev.  Dr.  Coke  as  superintendent  or  bishop  for  America,  Coke, 
Methodist  ^n  ms  turn,  ordaining  Francis  Asbury  as  presbyter  and  bishop. 
Episcopacy.  Asbury  was  an  indefatigable  evangelist,  and  largely  instrumental 
in  building  up  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  America,  whose  bishops, 
however,  are  but  chief  among  the  presbyters  they  superintend.     In  1788 


THE  CHURCH  OE  ENGLAND  AND  THE  NONCONFORMISTS.   893 

Wesley  ordained  a  number  of  his  lay  preachers  to  assist  him  in  administer- 
ing the  saqraments  to  his  societies ;  and  in  L796  the  "Conference"  of  his 
ministers  authorised  the  administration  of  the  sacraments  wherever  desired. 
In  1836  the  practice  of  ordination  of  ministers  by  imposition  of  hands  of 
senior  ministers  was  adopted.  In  the  present  century  there  has  been  a 
gradual  growth  of  the  power  of  the  lait}^  in  Methodism,  after  several  excit- 
ing controversies,  attended  by  considerable  secessions  and  the  formation  of 
large  but  minor  Methodist  bodies.  The  tendency  now  is  towards  reunion. 
Class-meetings  of  a  few  members  for  religious  conversation  under  "  leaders," 
lay  local  preachers,  quarterly  meetings  of  leaders  and  office-bearers  in  every 
society,  district  committees  with  ministerial  chairmen,  and  animal  confer- 
ences of  ministers  and  laymen,  constitute  some  of  the  special  features  of 
Methodism.  Various  minor  modifications  are  found  among  the  Primitive 
Methodists,  the  United  Methodist  Free  Churches,  the  "  New  Connexion,"  the 
Bible  Christians,  etc.  An  (Ecumenical  Methodist  Conference  (without  legis- 
lative power)  was  held  in  London  in  1881. 

Whitefield  became  closely  associated  with  Selina,  Countess  of  Huntingdon, 
who  from  1748  set  up  chapels  under  her  own  management,  appointing  her 

numerous  "  chaplains"  to  be  their  ministers.      At  first  desiring  to    * 

.  .  ,~  r         ,    ■     Countess  of 

remain  in  connexion  with  the  Church  of  England,  she  found  it  Huntingdon's 

necessary,  in  1781,  to  claim  the  privileges  and  status  of  Dissenters.     onnexion- 

She  adopted  Calvinistic  views,  and  her  society  was  known  as  the  Countess 

of  Huntingdon's  Connexion.     In  1791,  when  she  died,  it  included  04  chapels, 

most  of  which  since  her  death  have  become  Independent  or   Congrega- 

tionalist,  though  retaining  a  portion  of  the  English  Liturgy. 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodism  arose  about  1735-6  in  several  counties  of 
Wales,  Howel  Harris,  Daniel  Rowlands,  and  Howell  Davies  being  its  chief 
leaders,  at  first  in  connection  with  the  Church  of  England.     Ex-      Welsn 
temporaneous   preaching   and    revivalism    became   its  prominent  calvinistic 
characteristics.     The  first  Calvinistic   Methodist   Conference  was 
held   at  Waterford,  in  Glamorganshire,  under  Whitefield's   presidency,  in 
1743.     It  was  not  till  1811   that  the  preachers  became  pastors  and  were 
ordained  to  administer  the  sacraments,  although  an  Order  of  Church  Govern- 
ment and  Rules  of  Discipline  had  been  adopted  in  1801.     The  present  form 
of  government  is  described  as  "  modified  Presbyterianism." 

Emanuel  Swedenborg  (1688-1772)  was  a  Swede,  son  of  a  Lutheran 
bishop,  who  in  1745  gave  up  secular  pursuits,  believing  himself  called  in  a 
miraculous  manner  to  a  holy  office,  after  having  had  spiritual  Emanuel 
revelations  and  talk  with  spirits  and  angels.  He  promulgated  a  Swedenborg. 
series  of  "revelations,"  including  many  dicta  on  spiritual  things  which  only 
his  followers  can  accept  as  authoritative.  One  of  his  chief  doctrines  is  thai 
of  "correspondences"  between  the  natural  and  spiritual  worlds,  leading  him 
to  discard  much  of  the  Old  Testament  and  all  the  New  except  the  Gospels 
and  the  Revelation;  others  are,  that  the  last  judgment  has  already  taken 
place  (in  1757),  and  that  the  New  Jerusalem  has  already  come  down  in  the 
shape  of  the  "New  Church."     His  views  on  the  Trinity  resembkd  those  of 


894 


THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 


the  Sabellians  (p.  747).  Rejecting  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  only^ 
he  said,  "  To  fear  God  and  to  work  righteousness  is  to  have  charity ;  and 
whoever  has  charity,  whatever  his  religious  sentiments  may  be,  will  be 
New  saved."  In  1787  the  "  New  Church  "  was  first  formed  in  London, 
church,  -with  an  elaborate  creed,  depending  mainly  upon  the  members'  dis- 
cernment in  the  Scriptures  of  a  "spiritual  sense  heretofore  unknown,  whence 
it  is  Divinely  inspired  and  holy  in  every  syllable,  as  well  as  a  literal  sense 


EMANUEL    SWEDENBOKG. 


which  is  the  basis  of  its  spiritual  sense."  On  the  whole,  the  creed  of  the 
New  Church  is  an  Evangelical  Christian  one,  qualified  by  its  own  peculiari- 
ties.    The  Church  is  administered  by  conferences  of  ministers  and  laymen. 

The  "  Irvingites,"  or  Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  arose  mainly  in  con- 
nection with  the  ministry  of  Edward  Irving,  a  singularly  gifted  and  earnest 
Edward     minister  of  the  Scotch  Established  Church,  in  Regent  Square 
Irving.      Church,   London,   who    had    preached   largely    on    the   hope   of 
Christ's   speedy  coming,   and   the  revival  of  the  miraculous  gifts  of    the 


THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  AND  THE  NONCONFORMISTS.   895 

Spirit  manifested  in  the  early  Church.     In  1830,  in  his  own  Church  and  in 
western  Scotland,  prophetic  utterances  and  speaking  in  unknown 
tongues  occurred  to  several  members  and  caused  great  excite-   Apostolic 
ment.     Irving  was  expelled  from  the  ministry  of  the  Church  of     Church- 
Scotland  in  1833,  and  in  1834  was  re-ordained  by  one  of  the  "  apostles  " 
of  the  new  system.     The  main  tenets  of  the  New  Church  are  that  all  the 
gifts  of  the  Apostolic  age  are  revived,  and  that  they  have  apostles,  prophets, 
evangelists,  angels  or  bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons;  all  except  the  deacons 
being  "called"   by  the  Holy  Spirit  through  the  mouth  of   its  prophets. 
They  hope  for  the  speedy  coming  of  Christ.     The  Church  has  ritualistic 
worship   and  an   elaborate  liturgy,   going  in  several   respects  beyond  the 
Church  of  England.     It  believes  in  baptismal  regeneration  and  the  spiritual 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  which  is  not  only  a  sacrament,  but  also 
a  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving,  connected  with  the  memory  of  the  dead.     In 
many  points  they  agree  with  the  Church  of  England.     They  adopt  the  term 
"  Catholic  Apostolic,"  not  as  an  exclusive  one,  but  to  signify  that  they  are  a 
part  of  the  one  Church,  adopting  the  literal  teaching  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  Unitarians  claim  that  their  beliefs  accord  with  primitive  Christi- 
anity, and  have   always   been   held   by  larger  or  smaller  sections  of  the 
Church.    Their  modern  origin  has  been  traced  to  Faustus  Socinus 
(1539-1604),  an  Italian,  who  in  the  sixteenth  century  taught  that    m  ar  ans' 
Christ  did  not  exist  before  His  birth  ;  that  God  is  One,  and  that  Christ  and 
the  Holy  Spirit  are  not  God ;  that  Christ  died  for  the  infirmities  of  human 
nature,  which  He  had   assumed  ;    and  that  He  did  not  become 
immortal  till  His  ascension ;  that  the  good  will  have  eternal  happi-      °c   us' 
ness,  while  the  evil  will  be  punished  for  a  limited  time.     No  definite  organi- 
sation on  this  basis  was  formed  in  England ;  but  many  Anti-Trinitarians 
suffered  for  their  opinions.     Unitarian  views  were  adopted  by  a  number 
of  English  Churchmen  in  the  eighteenth  century  ;  many  of  these  resigned 
their  benefices.     Joseph  Priestley  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last 
century  expressed  the  belief  that  the  Bible  was  not  an  inspired        es  ey' 
book,  that  Christ  was  no  more  than  a  man,  and  that  it  was  idolatry  to 
worship  Him.     It  was  not  till  1813  that  the  Unitarians  were  placed  by 
law  in  the  same  position  as   other  Dissenters,  it  having  been  previously 
reckoned  blasphemy  to  speak  against  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.     Many 
Independent  and  Presbyterian  Churches  in  England  and  America  became 
more  or  less  Unitarian.     William  Ellery  Channing  (1780-1842), 
was  the  great  apostle  of  Unitarianism  in  the  United  States.    Uni-    ChanniI1^ 
tarians  conspicuously  advocate  free  inquiry  and  criticism  of  the  Bible  and 
all  religious  belief's,  with  progressive  modifications  according  to  the  advance 
of  knowledge.     They  believe  in  the  fatherhood  and  benevolence  of  God 
who   wills   the   salvation   of  all  who  will   accept  it.     Man's  nature  they 
regard  as  not  essentially  corrupt,  but   imperfect,  needing  regeneration  and 
renewal  by  that  Divine  influence  called  the  Holy  Spirit.     Jesus  Christ  they 
term  at  once  Son  of  God  and  Son  of  Man,  man's  true  Teacher,  Leader,  Life, 
and  Example.     Many  shades  of  belief,  with  a  claim  of  valid  Christianity, 


896  THE    WORLD'S  RELIGIONS. 

are  included  in  Unitarianism.    Lack  of  space  prevents  us  from  referring  to 

such   bodies   as    the    "Brethren,"    the    Sandemanians,   the   Mormons,  the 

Shakers,  the  Salvation  Army,  and  many  others. 

In  concluding  this  survey  of  religions,  we  may  take  note  of  modern 

rationalism,    seeking    to    explain     every    feature    of  religion   on    natural 

principles,  apart  from  any  supernatural  manifestation.  Its 
Rationalism.  . 

growth  during  the  present  century,  since  the  laws  of  nature  have 

become  better  known,  has  been  enormous,  both  in  Germany  and  in  Great 

Britain.     Its  determination  to  accept  no  explanation  involving  an  unknown 

law  or  cause,  when  a  known  law  or  cause  will  satisfactorily  account  for  the 

phenomenon,  has  been  carried  by  some  into  the  extreme  of  refusing  to 

believe  in  any  unknown  or  "  supernatural  "  cause  of  religious  phenomena. 

Lastly,  in  reaction  from  over-credulity,  bibliolatry,  and  papal  infalli- 
bility, men  have  professed  themselves  "Agnostics"  in  religion,  believing 

L.  .       that  nothing  can  be  truly  known  beyond  facts  perceptible  by 

Agnosticism.  .       .  J  J  r  r  j 

the  senses,  or  principles  deducible  therefrom.  The  old  biblical 
utterance,  "  Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  God  ?  "  has  been  converted 
by  them  into  a  dogma,  that  "Man  cannot  know  God,"  and  even  into 
an  assumption  that  God  cannot  reveal  Himself  to  the  rational  creature 
He  has  made.  Yet  in  the  testimonies  they  furnish  to  Christ,  we  find  some 
of  the  strongest  statements  as  to  His  teaching.  The  following  quotation 
from  one  of  the  most  notable  recent  works  against  miracles  and  the  super- 
natural in  religion  contains  the  following  expressions  : — 

"  The  teaching  of  Jesus  carried  morality  to  the  sublimest  point  attained,  or  even 
attainable,  by  humanity.  .  .  .  Such  morality,  based  upon  the  intelligent  and  earnest 
acceptance  of  Divine  law,  and  perfect  recognition  of  the  brotherhood  of  man,  is  the  highest 
conceivable  by  humanity  ;  and  although  its  power  and  influence  must  augment  with  the 
increase  of  enlightenment,  it  is  itself  beyond  development,  consisting  as  it  does  of 
principles  unlimited  in  their  range  and  inexhaustible  in  their  application.  ...  No 
supernatural  halo  can  heighten  its  spiritual  beauty,  and  no  mysticism  deepen  its  holi- 
ness. In  its  perfect  simplicity  it  is  sublime,  and  in  its  profound  wisdom  it  is  eternal." 
— Supernatural  I?eligio7i,  ii.  487-489. 

We  may  take  this  as  representing  the  sure  and  undoubted  ground 
that  has  been  reached  in  religious  and  moral  truth,  although  very  many 
hold  far  fuller  creeds.  The  ages  since  Christianity  arose  are  but  a  small 
portion  of  the  life  of  the  earth,  even  since  man  appeared  ;  and  in  spite  of 
contradictory  appearances  and  movements,  we  may  safely  say  that  human 
progress  in  all  philanthropy  has  been  far  greater  during  these  ages  than  in 
any  equal  period  before.  Therefore  we  may  be  reasonably  certain  that  the 
same  cause,  the  same  Divine  Cause,  will  in  future  ages  bring  about  still 
further  progress  and  enlightenment. 


THE    END. 


INDEX. 


Aaron,  621. 

Abadites,  575. 

Abbaside  caliphs,  540. 

Abelard,  82-1. 

Abeokuta,  59. 

Ablutions,  Mahometan,  550. 

Abraham,  592,  593. 

Absorption  in  Deity,  21C. 

Abu  Bekr,  514,  523,  542,  525,  527. 

Abu,  Mount,  340. 

Abyssinian  Church,  773. 

Acaba,  Pledge  of,  511,  512. 

Actions,  Book  of,  154,  155. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  712. 

The  Apocryphal,  713. 
Adam,  Descendants  of,  5S9. 
Adar,  486. 
Aditi,  179,  187. 
Adonis,  497. 
Adoptionism,  792. 
iEger,  444. 
Afa,  58. 

African  aboriginal  religion,  43. 
Mohammedans,  582. 

Africans,  East,  45. 
West,  -19. 
North,  CO. 

Agni,  181,  183,  186,  191. 

Agnosticism,  896. 

Ahriman,  347,  352,  353,  354. 

Ahuras,  348. 

Akals,  579. 

A  Kempis,  Thomas,  839. 

Albigenses,  S36,  837- 

Alcuin,  787- 

Ali,  "  the  Bab,"  575. 

Allah,  503. 

Altar,  Eastern  Church,  806. 
of  Grain,  132. 
Greek,  396. 
of  Heaven,  132. 

Ambrose,  759,  8(>2. 

Amen-ra,  Hymn  to,  463. 

American  aboriginal  religious,  61 
Indians,  23. 

Americans,  Central,  70. 

Amesha-Spentas,  350. 

Amitabha,  329,  336. 

Amos,  639. 

Amun-ra,  468. 

Ana,  484. 

Anabaptists,  844. 

Analects  of  Confucius,  115. 
Buddhism,  275,  277. 

Ananda,  263,  264. 


Ancestor  worship,  7.  27,  29,  34, 
35,  42,  45,  50,  59,  90,  94,  99, 
100,  112,  120,  124,  134,  L58. 
168,  207.  252,  872,  377,   W0, 
451. 
Ancestors,  Temples  of,  135,  L36. 
Ancestral  tablets,  134,  140,  168. 
Angakoks,  <>2. 
Angels,  7,529,530. 
Animal  worship,  230,  468. 
Animals,  clean  and  unclean,  616. 
Animism,  6,  22,  56,  61,  168,  310, 

440,  469. 
Anselm,  815. 
Ansknr,  794. 
Anthony,  St.,  761. 
Anthropomorphism,  8,  348. 
Annbis.  468. 
Anvamhia,  49. 
Aphrodite,  380. 
Apis,  467. 
Apocrypha,  650. 
Apollo,  378. 

"  Apology"  of  Plato,  41 1. 
Apostles,  Acts  of.    See  Acts. 
Apostolic  times.  71". 
Aqninas,  Thomas.825. 
Arabian .  early  religion,  501. 
Arabs,  503,  505. 
Araucaniaus,  76. 
Archbishop,  753. 
Ares,  383. 

Arianism,  75(5.  757,  759. 
Aristotle,  415. 
Arius,  756,  758. 
Arjuna,  215. 

Ark  of  the  Covenant,  602,  625. 
Armenian  Church,  775. 
Arminianism.  892. 
Arminius,  878. 
Arnanld,  858. 
Artemis,  379. 
Articles  of  Smalcald,  866. 
The  Six,  884. 
The  Thirty-nine,  886. 
Aryan  myths,  159. 
religions.  176-461. 
and  ZoroaatrianiBm,  8 17- 
Aryans,  L76,  182,  1--"..  188. 
Asceticism,    152,   198,    208,    227 

832. 
A  shan  ti  fetishmen,  51. 
Asha-vahishta,  350. 
Ashtoretb,  497- 
Asian  aboriginal  religions,  83. 
Asoka,  King,  2:<l. 
Assam,  96-99. 

897 


Assnr,  490. 
\  ssyrian  relieion,  483. 
Astrology,  175,  492. 
Asvins,  184 
Athanasian  Creed,  759. 
Athanasras,  757.  758. 
Atharva-Veda,  189,  190. 
Atheism,  18. 

Al  henagoras,  7:>7. 

Athene,  877- 

Athos,  Mount,  811. 

Atin-bodnn,  58. 

Atman,  193. 

Atonement,  Day  of,  607, 60S,  675. 

Atua,  29. 

Augsburg  Confession,  8  16. 

Augurs.  480. 

Augustine,  766,  785. 

Augustas,  The  Emperor,  l".7. 

Aurelins,  The  Emperor  Marcus, 

438,  730,  781. 
Australians,  25,  26. 
Avah  ikitesvara ,  315. 
Avatar,  216,  224. 
Avesta,  8 13,  3  17,  356,  357,  361. 
Aztecs,  70. 


B. 


Baal,  497,498. 

Babel,  Tower  of,  493. 

Rabism,  57 I. 

Babylonian  Captivity,  818. 

religion.  483. 
Bacchus,  883,  186,  493. 
Bacon,  Roger,  826. 
Badagas,  85. 
Bagdad,  Pall  of,  542. 
Paginates,  458. 
B  lirara  festival.  565. 
Baker,  Sir  S.,  C  nversation  with 

African  chief,  2  1. 
Balder,  HI. 
Balonda,  16. 
Bancroft,  If.  11..  on  Pa 

races,  6 '.  68. 
Banqnets,   Egyptian  custom 
482. 

Baptism,  713.  760,  B50. 

Baptists,  (iener.il,  888. 
Particular,  888. 

Barnabas,  Epistle  of,  7"!' 

Basil.  762. 

B  isilican  ohurches,  77'-1- 

Basilides,  7  1 1- 

Basle,  Confessions  of,  818. 

3    M 


898 


INDEX. 


Bates,  Mr.,  on  Indian  beliefs,  76. 
Beal,       Prof.,      Translation       of 

Chinese  hymn,  32S. 
Beatific  vision,  818. 
Bechuanas,   14. 
Beghards,  83  i. 
Beguines,  834. 
Bel  and  the  Dragon.  493. 
Belgic  Confession,  878. 
Bellarmine,  854. 
Bel-rnerodacb,  488. 
Benares,  239. 
Benedictine  orders,  "79. 
Benedict,  St..  77'.'. 
Beni  Israel,  fit',!). 
Berne,  Theses  of,  847. 
Bhagavad-gita,  215-21". 
Bharata.,  218. 
Bhils,  85. 
Bible,  The,  850. 

Authorised  Version,  88". 

Bishops'  The,  SS7- 

Revised  Version,  SS7. 

Sikh,  246. 

Taoist,  155. 

Tyndale's,  883. 
Bik,  M.,  on  Papuans,  23. 
Births,  Brahman,  210. 

New,  203,  250,  2S2. 
Bisheshwar,  240. 
Bishopric  of  Rome,  753. 
Bishops,  752,  764,  802. 
Bobowissi,  52. 
Bodhidharma,  326. 
Bodhi-satvas,  314,  316. 
Bodo,  99. 
Bohsurn,  12. 
Bonaventura,  832. 
Boniface  VII I.,  818. 
Boniface,  St.,  786. 
Book  of  Actions,  154,  155. 

of  Blessings,  154. 

of  Changes,  125. 

of  the  Dead,  476. 

of  the  Great  Decease,  271. 

of  Historical  Documents,  120. 

of  Poetry,  118,  123. 

of  Rewards  and  Punishments, 
154. 

of  Rites,  126,  127. 
Books,    Ancient    Egyptian,   476, 
478. 

Sacred  Buddhist,  256. 

Zoroastrian,  356,  .'ML. 
Borneo,  Dyaks  of,  39. 
Bossuet,  855. 
Bo-tree,  Worship  of,  299. 
Bragi,  445. 
Brahmanaspati,  184. 
Brabmanism,  176,  189,  190,  193, 
195,  197,  204,  208,  213,  215, 
218,  219,  224,  234,  254,  256, 
274. 
Brabmanism  of  the  Codes,  196. 
Brahman   ceremonies,   205,    206, 
220. 

morality,  210. 

penances  and  penalties,  200. 

philosophy,  !!>:;. 

The  True,  284. 
Brabmans  and  Buddha,  266,  270. 

Four  orders  of,  198. 
Brahmo  Somaj,  247. 

Brazilian  triors,  76. 
Brethren  of  St.  John,  82S. 
of  the  Common  Life,  839. 


Brett,  W.  II.,  on  Indians  of  Gui- 
ana, 74. 
Breviary,  Roman,  863. 
British  Church,  Early,  "85. 
Broad  Church,  8*7. 
Buddha,  Life  of,  255,  2S2. 

travels,  258. 

enlightenment,  25S. 

temptation,  25S. 

commences  his  work,  25S. 

Characteristics  of,  259. 

Alternate  rest  aud  travels  of, 
260. 

and    the   courtesan  Ambapali, 
260. 

bis  answer  to  a  king,  262. 

and  socialism,  262. 

his  principal  adherents,  263. 

and  Brahmans,  266. 

renunciation,  257,  267. 

his   method  of   teaching,    267, 
268,  270. 

converts  a  noble  youth,  269. 

prepares  for  his  final  discourse, 
271. 

bis  last  temptation,  2"2. 

his  death,  273. 

his  funeral,  273. 

Doctrines  and  moral  teachings 
of,  258,  274,  278. 

his  personal  claims,  282. 

Reverence  for,  289. 

Images  of,  297,  298,  308,  311. 

Relics  of,  299. 

impression  of  his  foot,  299,  311. 

Chinese  Life  of,  324. 
Buddhas,  Solitary,  314. 
Buddhism,    152,    160,   169,    214, 
223,  226,  250,  255-336,  337- 

Burmese,  302. 

Chinese,  322. 

Doctrines  of,  274-292. 

Esoteric,  292. 

Japanese,  336. 

Modern,  293-336. 

Precepts  of,  223,  25S,  263,  278, 
283,  284. 

Reformed  sects  of,  311. 

Siamese,  310. 

Singhalese,  297. 

Tibetan,  313,  316. 
Buddhist  councils,  285,  286,  294. 

grades  of  attainment,  2«2. 

monks,  262,  278,  282,  284,  300, 
302,321,  331. 

nuns,  264,  291,  332. 

orders,  284-292,  298. 

school,  302. 

scriptures,  256,  274,    283,  300, 
325. 

state  of  abstraction,  281. 
Biihler,  Prof.,  on  Manu,  200. 
Bulgarian  Church,  798. 
Bulloms,  50. 
Bundahish,  362. 
Burial  of  American  Indians,  69. 

Ancient  Greek,  404. 

Australian,  26. 

of  Bhils,  86. 

Bodo  and  Dhimals,  99. 

Burmese,  310. 

Chinese,  127,  163. 

of  Comanches,  70. 

Creek  Indian,  70. 

Dyak,  40. 

Eastern  Church,  809. 


Burial,  Egyptian,  475,  478. 

Fijian,  38. 

of  Gold  Coast  tribes,  51. 

of  Gonds,  88. 

Hindu,  251. 

Jewish,  616,  680. 

Kaffir,  45. 

Karen,  94. 

of  Kukis,  97- 

Mahometan.  554. 

Malagasy,  42. 

Maori,  3*0. 

of  Mexicans,  72. 

of  Mishmis,  99. 

of  Nagas,  98. 

New  Caledonian,  29. 

Papuan,  39. 

Parsee,  367- 

Patagonian,  79. 

Roman,  431. 

Santal,  92. 

Siamese,  311. 

of  S.  American  Indians,  76. 

Tasmauian.  27. 

of  Todas,  85. 

Veddah,  84. 
Burmab,  British,  93. 
Burmese  ceremonies,  308. 

monasteries,  302,  303. 

pagodas,  306,  308. 

■worship,  30". 
Burning,    Chinese   ceremony  of, 
135. 

of  widows,  253. 
Burton,   Sir  R.,  on  West  African 

religions,  48,  58. 
Bushmen,  43. 
Butler,  Major,  on  Kukis,  9S. 


C. 


Caesar,  Julius,  437,  457,  460. 
Cairo,  Mosque  at,  563. 
Calendar,  Buddhist,  332. 

of  Roman  festivals,  432. 
Californian  tribes,  65. 
Caliphs,  The  first,  539. 

in  Spain,  542. 
Calvin,  868. 

Institutes  of,  S69._ 
Calvinistic    Methodism,     Welsh, 

893.  _ 
Cameronians,  876. 
Camulos,  457- 
Cardinals,  College  of,  814. 
Car  festival,  Hindu,  242. 
Carmelites,  829. 
Caroline  books,  790. 
Carthusians,  828. 
Caste,  190, 196,  200,  203,  210,  214. 
Catechisms,  Heidelberg,  872- 

Luther's,  866. 

Parsee,  367. 

Roman,  854. 

Westminster,  877. 
Catechumens,  750. 
Cathari,  836. 

Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  S95. 
Catholics,  The  Old,  863. 
Caturix,  457. 
Causal  nexus,  276. 
Causality,  Buddhist  doctrine  of, 

277- 
Ca.-e  temples,  298. 


INDEX. 


899 


Celsus,   Origen's   "Answer"  to, 

741. 
Celtic  Church,  786. 

religion,  45(i. 
( 'antral  Americans,  70. 
Centuries,    Second    and    Third, 
730-751. 

Fourth,  755-705. 

Seventh  to  Tenth,  784. 
Ceremonies,  Buddhist,  300. 

-Burmese,  308. 

Chinese,  120,  126,  133,  134,  135, 
130,  104,  Kit). 

Hindu,  232,  252. 

Mithraic,  864. 

Parsee,  307,  309. 
Ceylon,  300. 

Chaitanya,  223,  220,  240,  241. 
Chalcedon,  Council  ofj  771- 
Chaldsean  sacred  literature,  483. 

tablets,  493. 
Changes,  Book  of,  125. 
Chanuing,  895. 
(Jhao  Phya  Phraklang,  311. 
Charlemagne,  787. 
Charms,  152,  102,  455. 
Chemosh,  499. 
Cherubim,  The,  025. 
Chibchas,  79. 
Children  and  Jesus,  095. 

Beliefs  about,  311. 

Jewish  treatment  of,  G7S. 

of  the  Sun,  80. 
Chinese  Buddhism,  322,  326. 

conception  of  God,  124. 

conservatism,  143. 

feasts,  124. 

modern  State  religion,  132. 

Mohammedans,  580. 

morals,  142. 

prayers,  135. 

punishments,  120. 

religion,  102-132. 

sacred  books,  115. 

sacrifices,  124,  132. 
Chin,  Marquis  of,  123. 
Chin-jin,  151. 
Chow,  The  dynasty  of,  122. 

The  great  duke  of,  122,  123. 
Christ.     See  Jesus. 
Christian     religion,    History   of, 

087-890. 
Christians,  Influence  of,  on  Arabs, 
504. 

Persecution    of,    in    First  cen- 
tury, 719,  727,  729. 
in  Second  andThird  centuries, 
730-754. 
Christianity,  3, 

Advance    of,    in     Seventh    to 
Tenth  centuries,  794. 

Spread  of,  in  Fourth  century, 
703. 

Rammohun  Roy  on,  247. 

and  the  Talmud,  050. 

Spread  of,  in  Second  century, 
731. 

as  a  State  Church,  755-766. 
Chrysostom,  702. 
Chung-yung,  The,  117,  118. 
Church,  The,  749. 

Admission  of  Gentiles  to,  719. 

Celtic,  780. 

Early  British,  785. 

Early,  foundation  of,  717- 

Eastern,  788. 


Church,  English.     See  English. 

in   Fifth  and   Sixth  centuries, 

766. 

r  1  leoution  of,  719. 

Unity  (if,  7~<  I. 
Churches,  Christian,  7  IS,  Mi,",,  82  !. 
Chwang-tze,  151. 
Circamoifiion,  552. 
Cistercians,  si's. 
Clara,  St.,  882. 
"Classic  of  Filial  Piety,"  125. 

Classics,  Great   Hall  of,   1  10. 

Classification  of  religions,  20,  22. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  739. 

of  Rome,  708. 
Clementine, pseudo-, writings,  738. 
Clergy,  Power  of,  701. 
Clericalism,  778. 
Clovis,  777. 

Cluniac  Congregation,  828. 
Code  of  Yajnavalkya,  212. 
Codex,  Alexaiidrinus,  715. 

Bezae,  716. 

Ephraemi,  715. 

Sinaiticus,  715. 

Vaticanus,  715. 
Coelestius,  70S. 
Columba,  St.,  785. 
Columban,  780. 
Comanches,  70. 
Communion,  Holy,  751,807. 
Comus,  420. 
Concord,  Form  of,  867. 
Concordat  of  Worms,  815. 
Concubinage,  534,  553,  018. 
Confession,  810,  852. 

and  penance,  Buddhist,  285. 
"Confessions"  of  St.  Augustine, 

707. 
Continuation,  750. 
Confucianism,  102,  132,  110,  112, 

150. 
Confucius,  Life  of,  102. 

Birth  and  early  life  of,  103. 

aud  Lao-tze,  103,  145,  140. 

Contemporary  opinions  of,  104. 

his  son  Le,  104. 

made  a  magistrate,  105. 

Manner  and  demeauour  of,  105. 

Dress  of,  105. 

his  resignation  of  office,  106. 

his  travels,  100,  lt»7- 

his  life  in  danger,  107- 

his  pupil  Yen  Hwuv,  108. 

Recall  of,  to  Lu,  108. 

Later  years  of,  109. 

Death  aud  hurial  of,  109. 

Tomb  of,  109. 

Influence  of,  110,  124. 

Personal  appearance  of,  110. 

his  guarded  speech,  110. 

Self-confideuce  of,  110. 

his  public  views,  110. 

his   compromise  of  principles, 
111. 

doctrines,  111. 

Modern  worship  of,  111,  138. 

his  love  of  antiquity,  112. 

special  themes,  112. 

his  belief  in  Personal  God,  112. 

his  belief  in  a  future  life,  113. 

inconsistency,  113. 

"  Family  Sayings,"  113. 

views  respecting  the  position  of 
women,  113. 

on  power  of  example,  114. 


Confucius  on  filial  obedience,  1  1  1, 

L16. 
and  the  Golden  Kale.  Ill,  110. 

n,-.  Legg 1.  L09,  112,  11  1. 

Sympathy  of,  127. 

1 1  ."1 . 
Discourses   and   dialogues   of, 

lie. 

M.nal  teachings  of,  1  16,  1  12. 
Sayings  of,  L16,  118. 
••  Rules  "i  Propriety  "  of,  1 16. 
on  duty  of  cheerfulness,  1  L6. 

on  love  ami  bate,   1  L6. 

on  virtue,  1  Hi. 

on  personal  training,  117- 

on  family  life,   I  L8,   1  17- 

on  spiritual  being,  1 L8. 
on  antiquity,  1 12. 
on  divorce,  113. 
Idea  of  virtue  held  by,  11  1. 
•  if  revenge,  L14. 

OU  treatment   of  enemies,  1  1  1. 

compared  with  Mencius,  130. 
Temple  to,  188. 

Invocation  of,  139. 
Congo  tribes.   17. 

igal  ionalists,  891  • 
Consecration  of  churches,  780. 

.lew  Lsh,  615. 
Constantine,  734,  755. 
Constantinople,  750. 

Council  of,  7">9. 

Mosque  at  ,  568. 
Conventuals,  833. 
Copts,  773. 

Cordova,  Mosque  at,  .",1;:!. 
Corpse,  Customs  of  Zoroastrians, 

359,  301. 
Cosmogony,  Early,  374,  192. 

of  Genesis,  587. 

The  Teuton,    lit',. 

Council,  Fifth  General,  771. 
Sixth  General,  772. 
Seventh  (  Feum    liical,  788. 
of  Frankfort,  790. 
Eighth  (Roman),  791. 
Eighth  (Greek),  792. 
of  Quiercv.  791. 
The  First  Far,  ran,  815. 
The  Second  Lateran.  816. 
The  Third  Lateran,  816. 
The. Fourth  Lateran,  816. 
Second  of  Lyons,  B18. 

of  Col  ^ 11. 

of  Hash',  8  12. 
of  Trent,  8  1!'. 
Countess  of   Huntingdon's  Con- 
nexion, 893. 
Covenant,  National,  87 F 
Cox,  Sir  G.  W.,  on  Myths,  874, 
Cranmer,  888. 

Creation,  Account  of,  in  Koran, 
528. 

Jehovist  narrative  of,  589. 
Creeds.  782,  850. 
t  Iremal  ion.  251 ,  311. 

Crosses,  780. 

Crucifixes,  780. 

( 'rusades,  .".  12. 

Cybele,  486. 
Cynics,  415. 
Cyprian,  7 12. 
1  li  iwardice  of,  782. 

Cyrenaies,  11.".. 
Cyril  of  Moravia,  7',,;. 
of  Alexandria,  709. 


900 


INDEX. 


Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  762. 
Cyras,  643. 

Czar,  810. 

D 

Dadistan-i-Dinik,  362. 
Daevas,  353. 
Dagobas,  299. 
Dagon,  499. 
Daliotnans,  57. 
Dakotas,  65. 
Dalai  Lamas,  31". 
Damaras,  44. 
Damascus,  John  of,  788. 

Mosque  at,  5(i.'3. 
Damooda,  92. 
Dauces,  Hindu,  230. 
Dancing  dervishes,  569. 
Dandis,  244. 
Danh-ghwe,  57. 
Daniel,  646. 
Darazi,  578. 

Darmesteter  on  Zoroaster,  347. 
Darwin,  Definition  of  religion  by, 
2. 

on  non-religious  races,  23. 
David,  626. 
Dav-kina,  4S5. 
Day  of  Atonement,  607,  603  67 

of  Judgment,  531. 

of  Repentance,  675. 

of  Sacrifice,  517. 
Days,  Sacred,  495. 
Dazhbog,  452. 
Deacons,  764. 
Dead,  Abode  of,  30,  32,  172. 

Book  of,  the,  476. 

Ceremonies  for  the,  252. 

Disposal  of,  by  Mangaians,  31. 

Egyptian  idea  of,  476. 

Exposure  of,  359,  361,  369,  370. 

Heathen  reverence  for,  29,  35. 

Immediate  fate  of,  554. 

Interrogation  of,  51. 

Invocation  of,  84,  127. 

Jewish  treatment  of,  679. 

Recitals  for  the,  477- 

Sacrifices  for,  206. 
Dead-land,   Dahoman   belief  in, 

57. 
Death  caused  by  sin,  34. 

Early  Greek  idea  of,  403. 

Hindu  idea  of,  251. 

Mahometan  idea  of,  553. 

penalty  for  sin,  90. 

Slavonian  idea  of,  454. 

Spirit  of,  87. 
Death-talk,  The,  35. 
Decalogue,  598. 
Decius,  733. 

Decretals,  Isidorian,  792. 
Deified  kings,  470. 

men,  34,  158,  184,  230. 

powers  of  Nature,  158. 
Deism,  18. 

Deities,  Abstract,  of  Rome,  432. 
Deity,    Hindu     incarnations    of, 

216,  218. 
Delphian  Oracle,  379,  397. 
Demeter,  380. 

Demoniacal  possession,  12,  40. 
Demonology,  12. 
Demons,  7,  99,  2i'9. 
Dervishes,  568,  569,  570,  574. 


Devadatta,  263. 

Devendra  Nath  Tagore,  247. 

Devil,  530. 

Dhamniapada,  275,  276,  283. 

Dhimals,  99. 

"Dictate,"  The,  S14. 

Diocese,  753. 

Diocletian,  733. 

Dionysos,  383. 

Dioscurus,  770. 

Discipline,  Early  Christian,  750. 

Discourses  and  Dialogues  of  Con- 
fucius, 115. 

Disease,  Spirit  of,  87. 

Dissenters,  810. 

Dissolution,  The  final,  355. 

Divination,  14, 42,  46,  78,  119, 120, 
430. 

Divorce,  113,  534,  553,  679,  854. 

"  Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  117. 
of  Buddha,  274. 
of  the  Logos  711. 

Dome  of  the  Rock,  562. 

Dominic,  St.,  830. 

Dominicans,  831. 

Donaldson,   Dr.,   on    the    Greek 
Theatre,  400. 

Donar  (or  Thor),  442. 

Donatists,  756. 

Do-nothing  Buddhist  sect,  334. 

Dort,  Synod  of,  S78. 

Ddseh,  570. 

Drama,  The  Greek,  400. 

Dreams,  6,  26,  42,  46,  67. 

Driver,  Prof.,  on  Isaiah,  641. 

Druids,  460. 

Druj,  353. 

Druses,  578. 

Drvants,  353. 

Dualism,  Zoroastrian  doctrine  of, 
347. 

Duality  of  soul,  67. 

Duchoborzi,  811. 

Duns  Scotus,  826. 

Durand,  William,  827. 

Durga,  228,  238. 

Dutch  Reformed  Church,  878. 

Duties  of  the  Four  Castes,  203. 
of  kings,  208. 

Duw,  The  Welsh,  458. 

Dyaks,  39. 

Dyaus,  178,  182. 

Dying,     The     treatment    of,    by 
Damaras,  45. 
by  Hindus,  251. 
by  Hottentots,  44. 

Dynasty  of  Chow,  122. 


Ei,  484,485. 
Easter,  752. 
Eastern  Church,  797. 
Ebionism,  743. 
Ecclesiastes,  632. 
Ecclesiasticus,  650. 
Eclipse,  Heathen  ideas  of,  75,  76. 
Eddas,  The,  439. 
Edkins,  Dr.,  on  Chinese  morality, 
142.  # 

on  Taoism,  159. 
Edward  VI.'s  Prayer-Books,  884. 

Articles,  884. 
Egypt,  Israelites  in,  595. 

Plagues  of,  597- 


Egyptian  religion,  462-482. 

El,  497. 

Eleusinian  mysteries,  401. 

Elihu,  635. 

Elijah,  638. 

Elisha,  638. 

Ellis,   Major,    on   West    African 

religion,  51,  54,  55. 
Elohim,  586. 
Emperor  of  China  as  high  priest, 

133,  137- 
Emperors,  777- 
Empire,  Holy  Roman,  787- 
Encratites,  7-16. 
England,  Church  of,  881. 
Ephesus,  Council  of,  769. 
Ephraem,  762. 
Epic  of  Izdubar,  491. 
Epicurus,  415. 
Epiphanius,  762. 
Episcopacy,  Methodist,  892. 
Episcopal  Church,  882,  8s7- 
Epistle  to  Hebrews,  713. 

of  James,  714. 

of  Jude,  714. 
Epistles  of  Barnabas,  709. 

of  Ignatius,  70S. 

Pauline,  705. 

of  Peter,  714. 
Erastianism,  886. 
Erastus,  886. 
Erda,  445. 
Eskimo,  The,  61. 
Esoteric  Buddhism,  292. 
Essenes,  660. 
Esus,  458. 

Etruscan  religion,  420. 
Eucharistic    doctrine,   699;    and 
passim   throughout    Christi- 
anity. 
European  Aryan  religion,  371- 
Eusebius,  762. 
Eutyches,  770. 
Evaugelicals,  887. 
Exarchs,  764. 
Exorcism,  12,  88,  300,  484. 
Ezekiel,  640. 


F. 


Faber,  856. 

Pa-hien,  295. 

Faith,  691,  724,  726. 

Fakirs,  568. 

Fall,  The,  588. 

Fantis,  50. 

Fast,  New  Year,  675. 

Fasts,  191,  322,  510,  533,  565,  567, 

614,  678,  753,  807. 
Fatalism,  249. 
Father,  The  Divine,  690. 
Fatimite  dynasty,  542. 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  613,  676. 

of  Trumpets,  613. 
Feasts,  Funeral,  97. 

Chinese,  124. 

Jewish,  613,  676. 

Pagoda,  308. 

Sacramental,  16. 

Samaritan,  686. 

for  spirits,  27,  95. 
Feng-shui,  162. 
Festivals  of  Creek  Indians,  69. 

of  Iroquois,  69. 

of  modern  Islam,  567. 


INDEX. 


901 


Festivals  of  Peru,  81. 
of  Santals,  92. 

Ancient  Greek,  387,  394,  400. 
Bairam,  505. 
Buddhist,  322. 
Chaldaean,  495. 
Egyptian,  474. 
Harvest,  453. 
Hindu,  236,  238,  212. 
Barsee,  307. 
Roman,  423. 
Roman  Calendar  of,  432. 
Sacrificial,  101. 
Fetishes,  Forms  of,  4". 
Alleged  coercion  of,  56. 
as  mediators,  59. 
Fetishism,  10,  54. 
among  Congo  tribes,  47,  50. 
among  Dahomans,  58. 
Fetish  priests  on  Gold  Coast,  50. 

Initiation  of,  59. 
Fijians,  37. 
Filial  piety,  Brahman,  200. 

Chinese  idea  of,   114,  125,  120, 

140. 
Egyptian,  480. 
Finns,  The,  1(11. 
Fire,  Sacred,  45,  101. 
Sacrificial,  191. 
Walking  through,  154. 
Fire-god,  Egyptian,  487- 
Fire-worship,  365. 
Flamens,  429. 

Flood,  Hindu  tradition  of,  189. 
Flora,  425. 

France,  Reformation  in,  879. 
Franciscans,  or  Minorites,  832. 
Francis,  St.,  of  Assisi,  831. 
Fraticelli,  833. 
Fravashis,  354. 
French    Protestantism,    Modern, 

880. 
Freyja,  443. 
Friendly  Islanders,  31. 
Friends,  The,  891. 
Frigg  (Frigga),  440. 
Fro  (or  Frey),  443. 
Fuegians,  79. 

Future  life  and  Judaism,  600. 
Confucius  on,  112,  143. 
Heathen  idea  of,  23,  27,  36,  37, 
42,  44,  45,47,  51,59,68,69, 
74,   78,  82,   91,  94,   96,    101, 
143,   185,  312,  354,403,  412, 
475,  491,  530. 
Jesus  on,  691. 
Job  on,  635. 
Fsalnis  on,  629. 
Socrates  on,  412. 


Gaboon,  49. 

Galerius,  734. 

Gallican  Confession,  879. 

Gallienus,  733. 

Gall,  St.,  786. 

Galton,  Francis,  on  the  Damaras, 

44. 
Games,  Ancient  Greek,  400. 

Olympic,  4(10. 

Bythian,  400. 
Ganesa,  2 is. 
Ganga,  228. 


Ganges, Hindu  superstition  about , 
251. 

Gathas,  357. 

Gautama,  198,  21  1,  257,  2*2,  2!»7, 

314. 
Gayatri,  234. 
Geiger,  Dr.,    on  Zoroastrianism 

;\  hi. 
( temara,  656. 
Genii,  42S. 
Geraon,  .John,  819. 
( icush-urvan,  352. 
Ghosts,  26,  51. 
Gifts,  Sacrificial,  15. 
( raosticism,  7  1 1- 
God,  Arab  idea  of,  502,  503. 
Chinese  conception  of,  121. 
Definition  of,  by  Matthew  Ar- 
nold, 8. 
Hindu  conception  of,  221. 
Karen  traditions  of,  94. 
of  the  Koran,  528. 
Mencius's  conception  of,  129. 
Moslem  idea  of,  548. 
Bersonal,  Confucius  on,  112. 
God  and   goddess  of    the  Wind, 

170. 
Gods  of  Africans,  East,  46. 
American  Indians,  fi3,  64. 
Ancient  Greece.  371,  375,  386. 
Araucanians,  76. 
Aryans,  1 77- 
Bechuanas,  45. 
Bhils,  85. 
Bodo,  98. 
Celtic,  457. 
Congo  tribes,  47. 
Dahomans,  57- 
Dakotas,  65,  66. 
Damaras,  44. 
Dhimals,  93.     . 
Dyaks,  39. 
Egyptian,  482. 
Fijians,  38. 

Friendly  Islanders,  31. 
Gold  Coast  tribes,  52,  5  1,  55. 
Hindus,  194,  195,  216,  219,  221, 

224,  226-229. 
Hottentots,  44. 
Household,  of  Japau,  172. 
Iroquois,  63. 
Japan,  170,  172. 
Kaffirs,  45. 
Kalmucks,  100. 
Kitchen,  164. 
Kukis,  96. 
Local,  372,  463. 
Malagasy,  41. 
Mann,  203. 
Masai,  46. 
Mpongwe,  49. 
Nagas,  97- 
Fatagonians,  78. 
Peru,  80. 
Philistines,  499. 
Polynesians,  34. 
Roman  household,  426. 
Samoans,  31. 
Santals,  91. 
Slavonian,  453. 
Society  Islanders,  35. 
Sumatrans,  40. 
Taoists,  157,  158,  164. 
Teuton,  115.  417. 
Tribal,  375,501. 
Tutelary,  of  Gold  Coast ,  5  1. 


Cods  of  Vedas,  17S,  171'.  1*1    IS5. 

Whydah,  68. 

Zbrubas,  59. 
Goddes  ',w.  Teutonic,  1  16. 
( rold  Coast  bribes,  50. 
( ion. Is,  86. 

(. Iwin,    Bishop    Harvey,    on 

1  lenesis.  5*7. 
Gospels,  Origiu  of,  706  7"7- 

when  written,  705. 

synoptic,  700,  710. 

The  internal  evidence  to,  709. 

the  Fourth,  710,  712. 
t  be  Apocryphal,  713. 
Versions  of,  7 1 ' > ■ 

first  successes  of,  718. 
( roths,  768,  770. 
GoM  achalk,  7-'  I. 

Grand  "  oastoms  "  of  1  lahomey, 
57. 
Lamas,  .".16-318. 
•'  ( treat  Learning,"  Tin',  1 16. 
Greater  Vehicle,  i'."i,  ".1  1. 
Greek  Chnrch,  797,  842, 
morals,  405,406,416. 
philosophers,  407. 
religion,  Ancient,  .".71  - 
and  Vedio,  170,  W->- 
Greeks  and  the  Magi,  344. 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  762. 

of  Nyssa,  7<>2. 
Gregory  1 .,  Pope,  7s  t- 

VII.,  Pope,  814. 
Grimm  Jacob,  on  Teuton  myth- 
ology, 439. 
Grote,  Mr.,  on  Greek  myths,  375. 
Groves,  Worship  in,  92. 
Guardian  spirits,  93. 
Guiana,  Indians  of,  74. 
Guru,  232. 


II. 


Hades,  385. 

Haggai,  646,  647. 

Haidahs,  64. 

Hajj,  559. 

Hakim,  578. 

Hamza,  578. 

Hanbalito<.  5  11. 

I  [anifites,  544. 

Happy  hunting-grounds  of  Qjib- 

was,  67- 
Hardy,  Spence,  onViharas,  297, 

300. 
Haruu-al-Ra^chid,  510. 
Harvest  festival,  Slavonic,  153. 
Harvey  Islanders.  '12. 
Hathor,  468.   _ 
II aunt ini;  spirits,  46  1. 

Head -worship  of  Dahomans,  68. 
Heaven,  Tin1  Buddhist,  815. 

and   earth  as  oreative  powers, 
484. 

Heathen  idea  of.  27,  •"''''■  18,  6/ 

Moslem  ideo  ■  if,  580. 

Slavonian  idea  of,    Ifi  1. 

The  Son  of.  120. 

Hebrews,  The  Epistle  to.  71:;. 
Heidelberg  Ca)  tohism,  872. 
Heimdal,  415. 
Heitjeebib,  44. 

II. 1  and  her  domain.   146. 
Helios,  378. 

Hell,  Chinese  idea  of,  331. 


902 


INDEX. 


Hell,  Hindu,  250. 

Mahometan,  530. 

Mandan,  67. 

in  Maim,  203. 

Slavonian,  454. 

Teutonic,  449. 
Hellenism,  435. 

Helvetic  Confession,  The  Second, 
870. 

Consensus,  871. 
Henry  IV.,  The  Emperor,  814. 
Henry  VIII. ,  882. 
Hephaistos,  382. 
Hera,  377. 
Heraclius,  512. 
Hermes,  383. 

Hermit,  The  Brahman,  198,  208. 
Hermits,  760. 
Hestia,  382. 
Hicksite  Friends,  891. 
Hierarchy  of  Eastern  Church, 803. 
High  Church,  887. 
Hildebrand,  814. 
Hillel,  655. 
Hincmar,  794. 
Hindu  doctrines,  188. 

ideals,  202. 

morals,  189,  252,  254. 

pilgrimages,  239. 

religiousness,  232. 

ritual,  198. 

sects  243. 
Hinduism,  Modern,  212,  231. 
Hippolytus,  742. 
Hirata,  169-171. 
Hislop,  Rev.  Mr.,  on  Aboriginal 

Tribes,  87,  88. 
Holy  War,  567. 
Horus,  468. 
Hosain,  540. 
Hosea,  639. 
Hospitallers,  828. 
"Host,  the,"  Adoration  of,  823, 

851. 
Hottentots,  43. 
House-spirit,  Slavonian,  455. 
Hsiao-King,  125. 
Hu,  58. 
Huaca,  80. 
Huen-Siang,  295. 
Hungary,  Reformed  Churches  of, 

880. 
Hunter,  Sir  W.,  on  Vishnu  wor- 
ship, 220. 
Huss,  John,  840. 
Hvmns,  Babylonian,  491. 

Early  Vedic,  178-180,  182-188. 


1. 


Iblis,  530. 
Ibrahim,  576. 
Ideals,  Hindu,  202. 
Idolatry,  8,  50,  532. 
Idols,  Arab,  503. 

Balonda,  46. 

Malagasy,  42. 

Mpongwe,  49. 

Papuan,  39. 
Ignatius,  728,  790. 

Epistles  of,  708. 

Martyrdom  of,  729. 
Images,  Babylonian,  496. 

of  Buddha,  297,  298,  304,  311, 
327,  328. 


Images,  Chinese,  166,  327,  328. 

in  churches,  780, 788,  805. 

Hindu,  236,  241. 

of  Peruu,  452. 

Roman,  854. 

Slavonic,  453. 

Teutonic,  448. 
Imams,  547. 

Immaculate  conception,  860. 
Immanuel,  641. 
Immortality,  24,  190. 

Hindu  doctrine  of,  217. 

Jesus  and,  691,  702. 

Job  and,  635. 

Moses  and,  600. 

the  Psalms  and,  629. 

Zoroastrian  teaching  of,  354. 
Incas,  80. 
Independents,  890. 
India,  Aboriginal  religions  of,  83. 

Mahommedans  of,  580. 
Indian  Mosques,  564. 
"Indian    Wisdom,"    by    Monier- 

Williams,  215. 
Indians,  Creek,  63,  69,  70. 

of  Guiana,  74. 

North  American,  62,  63. 

South  American,  23,  74. 
Indra,  178,  181,  195. 
Infallibility,  Papal,  861. 
Innocent  III.,  816. 
Iuquisition,  838. 

Institutes  of  the  Sacred  Law,  198. 
Instructions  of  I-yin,  121. 
Intermediate  state,  531. 
Invocation  of  the  dead,  84. 

of  the  Nile,  474. 
Ipalnemoau,  71. 
Irenams,  738. 
Irminsal,  449. 
Iroquois,  63,  69. 
Irving,  Edward,  627,  894. 
Irvingites,  895. 
Isaac,  Sacrifice  of,  594. 
Isaiah,  639-t>42. 

The  second,  642-644. 
Ise,  Temples  of,  174. 
Isidorian  Decretals,  792. 
Isis,  467. 
Islam,  532. 

Modern,  539,  565. 
Israel,  History  of,  591. 

Prophets  of,  637-648. 

Religious  growth  of,  626. 
Israelites,  481,  483. 
I  star,  487. 
I-yin,  121. 
Izdubar,  494. 


Jabarites,  544. 

Jackson,  Dr.  H.,  on  Socrates,  408. 

Jacob,  594. 

Jacobi,  Prof.,  on  Mahavira,  339. 

Jacobites,  Syrian,  773. 

Jagannath,  226,  232,  242. 

Jaimini,  198. 

Jainism,  337. 

Jains,  Beliefs  of,  339. 

James,  St.,  72<>. 

Epistle  of,  714. 
Jansen,  858. 
Janus,  423. 
Japan,  Deities  of,  172. 


Japan,  Religion  of,  102,  167. 
Japanese  Buddhism,  336. 

prayers,  171,  173. 
Jehovah,  586. 
Jeremiah,  645. 
Jerome,  763. 

of  Prague,  841. 
Jesuits,  856,  858-860. 
Jesus,  682,  687. 

and  the  Koran,  531. 

History  of,  687-704. 

contrasted  with  other  teachers, 
688. 

the  originality  of  His  teaching, 
689.    _ 

the  originality  of  His  character, 
689. 

His  ideal  of  love,  690. 

His  teaching  of  a  Divine  Father, 
690. 

and  the  future  life,  691. 

His  teaching  about  faith,  691. 

and  forgiveness  of  sin,  691. 

and  the  truth,  692. 

and  the  law  of  kindness,  692. 

His  relation  to  God  the  Father, 
693. 

His  relation  to  mankind,  693. 

the  affection  He  inspired,  694. 

His  treatment  of  women,  694. 

His  treatment  of  children,  695. 

Voluntary  limitation  of,  695. 

His  miracles,  695. 

and  salvation  from  sin,  696. 

and  liberation  from  lower  na- 
ture, 698. 

the    purpose   of   His   life   and 
death,  698.     ■ 

the  Society  He  founded,  699. 

the  Sacraments,  699. 

His  mode  of  teaching,  699,  700. 

His  parables,  700. 

Hia predictions,  700. 

His  passion,  701. 

His  resurrection,  702. 

St.  Paul's  testimony  to,  702. 

His  ascension,  703. 
Jewish  modern  ritual,  670. 

modern  religion,  601-686. 
Jews,  Dispersion  of,  649,  661. 

and  Mahomet,  516,  519. 

Moral  condition  of,  620. 

Persecution  of,  664,  665. 
Jinn,  502. 

Job,  Book  of,  632-636. 
Joel,  639. 
John,  St.,  726. 

St.,  Gospel  and  Epistles  of,  710. 

Chrysostom,  St.,  762. 

of  Damascus,  788. 

XXII.,  Heresy  of,  818. 
Jovinian,  781. 
Jubilee,  Year  of,  611. 
Judaism  after  the  Prophets,  649- 

669. 
Jude,  Epistle  of,  714. 
Judgment,  Day  of,  531,  635. 
Juggernaut  worship,  223. 
Julian  the  Apostate,  758. 
Jummoo  Musjid,  564. 
Juno,  422. 
Jupiter,  372,  420. 
Jurupari,  76. 
Justification ,  850. 
Justinian,  771. 
Justin  Martyr,  709,  735-737. 


INDEX. 


9°3 


Kaaba,  Rebuilding  of ,  505. 
Kabbalah,  680. 
Kabir,  222. 

Panthis,  244. 
Kabiri,  498. 
Kaffirs,  23,  45. 
Kalevala,  The,  101. 
Kali,  87,  22s. 
Kalki  avatar.  220. 
Kalmucks,  inn. 
Kami-no. niichi,  108. 
Kang-hi,  140. 
Kanishka,  295. 
Ean-ying-peen,  154. 
Kao-yao,  121. 
Karaites,  070,  082. 
Karens,  93. 
Karma,  2!)2. 
Kasias,  98. 
Kenaima,  The,  75. 
Kerbela,  580. 

Kesliub  Chunder  Sen,  248. 
Khadijah,  504,  511. 
Kbariiites,  514. 
Khonds,  88. 
Khshathra-varya,  350. 
King-deification,  208,  470. 
Kisweh,  507. 
Knox,  John,  872. 
Ko-hung,  152. 
Koran.  527-538,  547. 
Koreish,  514,  519,  520. 
Kotas,  85. 
Kremlin,  798. 
Krishna,  215-217,  220. 
Kronos,  373. 
Kshatriya,  203,  204. 
Kuenen  on  the  Prophets,  037. 
Kukis,  90. 
Kullavagga,  290. 
Kumarila,  214. 
Kwan-ti,  100. 
Kwan-yiu,  328. 

L. 

La.  9:1. 

La-brang,  The  monastery  of,  319. 

Lactautius,  702. 

Lada,  454. 

Lado,  45  k 

Lake,  Sacred,  of  the  Egyptians, 

47S._ 
Lakshmi,  227. 
Lamas,  310,  3 17- 
Lanfranc,  815. 
Laos,  311. 

Lao-tze,  103, 144-149,  151,  153. 
Lares,  420. 
Latins,  The,  419. 
Law  of  Manu,  200. 

Mosaic,  004. 

Reading  of, '  >  7 •">  - 
Le,  sou  of  Confucius,  104. 
Legge,  Dr.,  109,  112,  114,124,102. 
Lemures,  427. 
Leo  I.,  777. 

IX.,  814. 

the  Armenian,  790. 
"  Lesser  Vehicle,"  290. 
Levites,  02 I. 
Libitina,  426. 
Lieh-tze,  150. 
Li-ki,  or  Book  of  Rites,  110,  120. 


Linga,  221.  22^. 

Lithuanians,  796. 

Liturgies,  in,  860,  684,  782,  783, 

MM. 

Lo,  Foundation  of.  122. 
Local  deities,  Hindu,  229. 

gods,  -■'.72,  875. 

religion,  Egyptian,  485. 
Logos,  The,  054,  711- 
Loki,  446. 
Lollards.  8111.  882. 
Lord's  Supper,  751,  8G9.       I 

also  Communion.) 
Louis,  St.,  818. 
Love-feast,  751 . 
Loyola,  Ignatius,  851). 

Luther,  627.  843  847,  882. 
Lutheran  Church,  865  880. 
Lyons,  Second  Council  of,  81S. 

M. 

Mabnchi.  109. 

Madras,  214. 

Magi,  313,  301. 

Magic,  151,  483. 

Magistrates  and  augurs,  431. 

Mahabhax-ata ,  215. 

Mahavagga,  285. 

Mahavira,  338. 

Mahtnal,  507. 

Mahometanism,  60,  222,  500-584. 

Mahomet,  Life  of .  500-526. 

Family  of,  51)1. 

birth  and  early  life,  501. 

bis  marriage,  504,  511,  519._ 

the    awakening  of    bis   spirit, 
500. 

and  the  vision  of  Gabriel,  506. 

receives  the  command  to  preach, 
506. 

his  nervous  disorders,  507. 

his  early  adherents,  507- 

and  the  first  pledge  of  Acaba, 
511. 

his    vision    of    Jerusalem    and 
heaven,  512. 

and  the  second  pledge  of  Acaba, 
511. 

leaves  Mecca,  514. 

at  Medina,  514,  515. 

his  later  life,  517- 

his  wars  and  politics,  517,  518. 

fights  at  the  battle  of   Badr, 
518. 

visits  Mecca,  520. 

marches  on  .Mecca,  520. 

destroys  the  Meccan  idols,  521. 

Mecca  submits  to,  521. 

wins  battle  of  Honein,  522. 

and  the  Coptic  maid,  522. 

his  dominion,  522. 

proclaims      ban     against      un- 
believers, 523. 

his  last  pilgrimage,  523. 

his  last  illness,  52  1. 

his  death  and  burial,  525. 

Personal  characteristics  of,  525. 

his  frailties.  525. 

his   character    and     influence, 
526. 
Maimonides,  0i*>2. 
Maitreya,  314. 
Makohi,  647. 
Malagasy,  41. 


Mahkites,  5  1  1. 

Manes,  127,  7  16. 

.Maii'-t  1  ■-•.  67< 

Mangaians,  82. 
Mamchaeism,  7  10,  886. 
Manjn-sri,  815. 
Maim.  L89,  200,  208. 

.  2'.i. 
Maponos,  157. 

Mara.  280. 

Marang  Burn,  91. 

Marburg,  I  lonference  of,  - 16. 

Marcion,  7  10. 

Marduk,  186. 

Mariolatry,  781,  n22. 

Maronites,  775. 

Marriages,  L99,  206,207,810,811, 

367,  l"2.   181,  534,  552,  616, 

618,  678,  854. 

Mars.    122. 

Martin  of  Tours,  St..  701. 

Martyrs, Christian,  718,  727,  729, 

731,  7:12. 
Maruts,  182. 

Masai,    10. 

Mass,  852. 

Massacres  of  Dahomey,  57. 

Mathurins,  830. 

Matlose,  til. 

Matu,488. 

Man,  57,  5'.). 

Maui,  29,  :;i. 

Maxims  of  Emperor  Kang-hi,  1  10. 

Maya,  219. 

Mayas,  7  l. 

Mazda  (.st'C  Ahura).  349. 

Ma/. la  ism,  Farly  riles  of,  300. 

Mbwiri  worship,  49. 

Mecca,     501,   507,    512,   510,   519, 

520,  521,  52:;,  556,  559,  576. 
Mediatory  animals,  v5. 
Medicine  men,  40,  63,  76,  x,;_ 
Medina,  51 1  516,  519,  562,  576. 
MegariansJ  415. 

Mehemet-Ali.  570. 

Melanchthon,  865. 

Melchizedek,  592. 

Melito,  737- 

Melkarth,  197. 

Mencius,  his  life  and  teaching, 

L28. 
Mendelssohn,  Moses,  605. 
Mennonites,  889. 
Mercy,  <  ►rders  of,  830. 
Merodach,  486. 
Meshed,  580. 
Mesopotatnians,  196. 
Messianic  prophecies,  647. 

hope,  651  • 
Methodists,  892,  893. 
Methodius,  790. 
Metropolitan,  753. 
Mexicans,  7b 
Mezuzah,  079. 
Mfumo,  16. 
Mganga.  40. 
Micah,  oi l. 
Mikado,  L68. 

Milan,  Edict  of,  755. 

Millenarians,  7  19. 

Minerva,  421. 
Minims.  838. 
Miracle-plays,  288. 
Miracle-.  587,  095.  S22_. 
Mirror,  Sacred,  109,  1,  I. 
Mishmis,  '■''■'. 


9°4 


INDEX. 


Mishna,  656. 

Missal,  862. 

Missionary  religions,  293. 

Missions,  5,  802. 

Mistletoe,  458. 

Mithraism,  356,  363. 

Mitra,  1/9,  ISO,  351,  352,  360. 

Moharram,  567. 

Mohler,  856. 

Mollabs,  573. 

Moloch,  498. 

Molokani,  811. 

Mouimsen    on    Roman    religion, 

434. 
Monarchism,  747. 
Monasteries,  303,   304,  306,  318, 

319,  331,  799. 
Monastic  lite,  778. 
Monasticism,  827. 
Mongol  emperors,  316,  326. 
Monier- Williams,  Sir,  Quotations 

from,  179,  185,  188,  215,  226, 

293. 
Mouks,  Buddhist,  262,  278,  282, 

300. 
of  Eastern  Church,  805. 
Monophysite  controversy,  771- 
Monotheism,    18,   187,  224,   463, 

496. 
Monothelites,  772. 
Montanists,  748. 
Monuments,  Mithraic,  363. 
Monumental  stones  of  Kasias,  98. 
Moon-god  of  Ur,  486. 
Moon,  New,  Jewish  observation 

of,  675. 
Moon  worship,  44,  57,  80. 
Moravia,  796. 
Moravians,  841,  842. 
Moscow,  798. 
Moses,  585-600. 
Moslem  bell,  531. 

paradise,  530. 
Mosques,  Indian,  564. 
Mahometau,  516,  554,  556,  562, 

563. 
Motazilites,  543. 
Motoori,  169. 
Motoro,  54. 
Mount  Abu,  340. 
Mountain,  Sacred,  of  Tai-shang, 

141. 
Mourning,  27,  31,  35,  127,  166. 
Mpongwe,  49. 

Muir,  Dr..  179, 180,  516,  517. 
Miiller,    Prof.    A.,     on     modern 

Islam,  573. 
Miiller,  Max,  178,  193,  195. 
Mul-lil,  484,  486. 
Mulungu,  46. 
Mythology,  39. 
Shinto,  168. 
Mysteries,  Eleusinian,  401. 
Mystics,  839. 
Myths,  Aryan,  459. 
Growth  of,  3~4. 

N. 

Nagas,  97. 

Namaquas,  44. 

Nanga,  39. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  879. 

Napoleon  and  the  Jews,  666. 

National  coveuaut,  874. 


Nature  gods,  498. 
Nature-personification,  372,  373. 
Nature-religions,  22,  465. 
Nature-worship,  8,  91,  178,  372, 

451. 
Nat- worship,  309. 
Nazarites,  615. 
Nebo,  489. 

Negroes  and  Mahometauism,  582. 
Neitb,  468. 
Nergal,  487,  490. 
Nerthus,  445. 
Nestoriaus,  769. 
Nestorius,  769. 
New  Caledonians,  27. 
Church,  894. 
Year  fast,  675. 
Nicasa,  Council  of,  757. 
Nicene  Creed,  850. 
Nicolas  of  Basle,  839. 
Nicon,  799. 

Nile,  Invocation  of,  474. 
Nin,  490. 
Nirvana,  258,  273,  274,  277,  2S2, 

289,  339. 
Njord,  444. 
Noah,  590. 
Nodens,  458. 

Noldeke,  Dr.,  on  Koran,  536. 
Nonconformists,  881. 
Non-religious  races,  23,  60. 
Nootkas,  64. 

Norwegian  worship  of  Thor,  442. 
Nuns.  Buddhist,  264,  332. 
Nyankupon,  52. 
Nyaya,  197- 
Nymphs,  Prophetic,  426. 


0. 


Oak,  Sacred,  452. 
Oaths,  41,  90,  549,  802. 
Oath-stone  of  the  Kasias,  98. 
Observants,  833. 
Occam,  William  of,  827. 
Odes,  Book  of,  123. 

Chinese,     Extract    from,    124, 
136. 
Odin,  440. 
Offerings,  Fruit  and  drink,  448. 

Human,  81. 

Jewish,  606. 

Trespass,  607. 

Votive,  388. 
Ogmios,  457. 
Oko-kuni-nushi,  171. 
Olaf,  796. 
Old  Believers,  The,  810. 

Catholics,  863. 
Oldenburg,    Prof.,    on    Buddha, 

256,  261,  262,  280. 
Olorun,  59. 
Olympic  festival,  400. 
Om,  The  syllable,  192,  198,  205, 

234. 
Omakuru,  44. 
Omar,  Mosque  of,  562. 
Omens,  11,  14,  97,  119. 
Ommvads,  540. 
On,  466. 
Onkteri,  65. 
Onyambo,  49. 
Oracles,  397,  475. 
Order,   The  Buddhist,   274,   2S4, 
294. 


Orders  of  Brahmans,  198. 

Modern  Islam,  568. 

Roman  Catholic,  854. 
Origen,  739. 
Original  sin,  850. 
Origin  of  things,  Vedic,  179. 

of  world,  193. 
Ormuzd,  347,  348,  350.  354. 
Oro,  59. 

Osiris,  466,  475-477. 
Ostiaks,  99. 
Oukko,  101. 

Outcasts,  Brahman,  200. 
Ove,  38. 

P. 

Pachomius,  761. 

Pagahn,  The  pagodas  of,  307. 

Pagodas,  Burmese,  306,  307. 

feasts,  308. 
Pahlavi,  343,  361. 
Pales,  425. 
Pali  books,  283,  285. 
Pallas  Athene,  377- 
Panchen  Lamas,  317- 
Pantheism,  18,  187,  193,  194,  203, 

215,  572. 
Papacy,  787- 
Papal  "infallibility,  861. 

legates,  819. 
Papias  on  the  origiu  of  the  Gos- 
pels, 707. 
Papuans,  23,  39. 
Parables,  700. 

Buddhist,  270. 
Paradise,  530,  554. 
Parasnath,  341. 
Parsees,  365-367,  369,  370. 
Parted  spirits,  171- 
Pascal,  858. 
Paschasius,  793. 
Passion  plays,  574. 
Passover,  613,  C77- 
Patagonians,  78. 
Patriarchs,  325,  595,  753,  799. 
Patrick,  St.,  785. 
Patripassians,  747- 
Patronage,  876. 
Paul,  St.,  702,  720. 

bis  early  life,  720. 

bis  conversion,  720. 

bis  labours,  720. 

at  Antioch,  721. 

at  Corinth  and  Epbesus,  722. 

is  arrested  at  Jerusalem,  722. 

imprisoned  at  Rome,  722.' 

bis  character,  722. 

bis  writings,  723. 

his  theology,  723. 

his  teaching  about  Christ,  724. 

his  teaching  about  faith,  724. 

on  the  penalty  of  sin,  724. 

on  the  Christian  spirit,  724. 

on  sacrifice,  725. 

<m  the  church,  725. 

on  the  sacraments,  725. 
Paul  of  Samosata,  747. 
Paulicians,  836. 
Pauline  epistles,  705. 
Peai-man,  76. 
Pelagianism,  768. 
Pelagius,  767. 
Pelasgians,  372. 
Penance,  200,  820,  851. 


INDEX. 


9°5 


Penates,  42G. 

Penitential  psalm,  Egyptian,  484. 

Pentateuch,  586,  587,  004. 

Samaritan,  68  I. 
Pentecost,  G13,  678. 
Perowne,  Dean,  on  Genesis,  587. 
Perroue,  85G. 

Personification  of  Nature,  373. 
Perun  (or  Perkunos),  452. 
Peruvians,  80. 

Peshito  version  of  Gospels,  716. 
Peter,  Epistles  of,  714. 

St.,  718,  720. 
Peter  the  Great,  801. 
Petrobusians,  83G. 
Pharisees,  G59. 
Philaret,  802. 
Philippists,  8GG. 
Philistines,  The  gods  of,  499. 
Philo  of  Alexandria,  652-654. 
Philosophers,  Greek,  407. 
Philosophy,  Brahman,  193,  194. 

Sankhya,  197. 

Vedautist,  215. 

Yoga,  198. 
Phoebus,  378. 
Phoenician  religion,  483. 
Phon-gyees,  304. 
Photius,  790. 
Phylacteries,  G72. 
Pictures  in  churches,  780. 
Pilamas   297. 
Pilgrimages,  239,  240,   340,   502, 

534,  559,  781. 
Pillan,  76. 

Pirit,  the  ceremony,  300. 
Pisa,  Council  of,  819. 
Plato,  407,  413,  414,  803. 
Pliny,  727. 
Pluto,  385. 
Poles,  799. 
Polybius,  417. 
Polycarp,  729. 
Polynesians,  23. 
Pomeranians,  796. 
Pomona,  425. 
Pontiffs,  430. 

Popes,  The,  777,  818,  819. 
Poseidon,  385. 
Prajapati,  187,  195. 
Prayer  Book,  88G. 

cylinders,  321. 

walls  and  flags,  321. 
Prayers,  Brahman,  200. 

Chinese,  125,  135. 

Japanese,  170, 171,  173. 

Jewish,  G13. 

Mahometan,  528,  533,  550,  569. 

Mexican,  72. 

New  Caledonian,  28. 

Teuton,  447- 

to  ancestors,  136. 

to  saints,  854. 
Praying  by  machinery,  319,  321. 
Predestination,  532,  794,  869. 
Presbyterians,  Reformed,  87G. 

United,  876. 
Priesthoods,  15,  34. 
Priestley,  895. 
Priestly  orders  in  Early  Church, 

752. 
Priests,  Ancient  Greciau,  387, 390, 
392. 

of  the  Battas,  41. 

of  the  Bechuanas,  45. 

of  the  Bodo  and  Dhimals,  98. 


Priests,  Buddhist,  300. 
Chakkean,  191. 
Chinese,  L88. 
of  tlic  Congo  tribes,  48. 
Dakota  11,  66. 
Egyptian,  172. 
Fetish,  50,  .",!». 
Hereditary,  623. 
Hindu,  188,  2:;r>. 
Hottentot,   I  I. 
Jewish,  621,  628,  624. 
The  Karen,  94. 
of  the  EQtonds,  90. 
of  the  Kukis,  9G. 
Maori,  30. 
of  the  Ostiaks,  100. 
Parish,  805. 
Parser,  366. 
Peruvian,  81 . 
Rain-making,  28. 
Roman,  42: ). 
Samoan,  32. 
oftheSantals,  92. 
Shiuto,  173. 
Slavonic,  455. 
Tahitian,  36. 
Taoist,  154,  1G2,  164. 
Teuton,  449. 

Primates,  76  1. 
Prithivi,  178. 
Processions,  471. 
Prophetic  nymphs,  42G. 
Prophets  of  Israel,  G37-6  Is- 

of  Koran,  531. 
Protestantism,  3,  8S0. 
Proverbs  of  Solomon,  G31,  632. 
Psalms,  627-631. 
Psalter  of  Solomon,  652. 
Pseudo-Clementine  writings,  739. 
Ptah,  468. 
Punishment,  Brahman,  209. 

Chinese,  120. 

Future,  96,  161,  162,  18G,  250 
27G,  869. 
Puranas,  22ll,  222. 
Purgatory,  160,  85  1. 
Puri,  239,  240. 
Purification,  191,  198,  616. 
Puritans,  889. 

Purity  and  impurity,  Jewish,  656. 
Pu-sa,  161,  322. 
Pusban,  183. 
Puthen,  96. 
Pyrrho,  416. 

Q. 

Quabootze,  6 1. 
Quakers,  891. 
Quartodecimans,  "52. 
Quesnel,  858. 
Quiches,  74. 

R. 

Ra,  465. 

Rabbi  chief,  670. 

Races,  Non-religious,  23. 

Ragnarok.  149. 

Rama,  218,  22*;._ 

Ramadan  fast,  516,  533,  565. 

Bamanand,  222. 

Ramanujas,  243. 

Ramayana,  215;  218. 

Rammohun  Roy,  247. 


ion,  Tbegreat temple  of, 806. 
l.'.ii  ionalism,  896. 

h'.it  lamn,  ~'X\. 

mibiilu,  ,".s, 

P  esence,  798,  828,  851. 
Reohabites,  615. 
Red  Sea,  Passage  of,  598. 
Reformation,  The,  819,  885. 
Refnge,  Cities  of,  617. 
Relics,  7s'i,  821.  854. 
Religion,  Aboriginal,  13,61,88 
ification  of,  20,22. 

Definition  1  if,  2. 

Development  of,  :;. 

1  mportani f  study  of,  f,  5. 

and  missions,  ■">,  293. 

Natuiv,  22. 

Science  of,  20. 

Universal,  2(t,22. 
Religious  persecul  ion.  885. 
I!. 'mission  ,,f  sins,  Taoist  idea  of, 

L60. 
Renaissance,  8 12. 
Repentance,  Days  of,  r>7-V 
Republic  of  Plato,  11  I. 
Revelation,  The,  71  t- 
Revenge,  II  1,  til  ~ . 
Rewards,  L86,  202,  250. 

and  Punishments.  Book  of,  154. 
Rhys,  Prof.,  on  Celtic   Heathen- 
dom, 456. 
Rifayeh,  568. 

Rig-Veda,  177,  L83,  1S5-187,  195. 
Rimmon,  490. 
Rishis,  178. 

Rites,  Book  of,  12G,  127- 
Ritual,  170.   L75,    L98,  205,   2uG, 
2211,  2:U,  2:;:..  321,  322,  453, 
476,  569,  <;7".  686. 
Ritualists,  887. 
Roman  books,  -s62. 

Catholics,  Number  of,  862. 

Church  in  middle  ages,  811-834. 

Congi-egations,  862. 

Early  Empire,  437- 

Empire,  7S7- 

Early  Republic,  43G. 

names  of  Celtic  gods,  137. 
Romanisatiou  of  Greek  gods,  126. 
Romanism,  Modern,  849  864. 
Rome,  ancient.  Religion  of,  176, 
179,  418-438. 

Bishopric  of,  , .",.",.  7<'">. 
Kongo,  •">  1. 

Roumanian  Church,  ~w<. 
Russian  Church,  7'<7.  798. 
Russians,  799. 


Sabbath,  The,  609,  655,  671/.686. 
Sabbatic  year,  Gil. 
Sabbatniki,  811. 
Sabellius,  74". 
Sacramental  feast  1,  1  * ■  - 
Sacraments,  699,  808,  820,  851. 
Sacred  animals,  35,  12,  14,50,58,, 

84 
books  of  Chinese,  115. 

of  Karens,  !»l. 

days  of  Chaldaeans,  495. 

tire.   15,  101. 

lake  of  the  Egyptians,  178. 
mirror,  169,  17  1- 
mountain  of  Tai-Shan,  1  11. 


3    N 


906 


INDEX. 


Sacred  places  of  the  Arabs,  5u2. 

rivers,  '.12. 

stigmata,  832. 

syllable  OM,  192,  198,  205. 

tree,  44,  58,  230,  452. 
Sacrifices,   42,  65,   123,  134,  267, 
387,  388. 

Animal,  10,  41,  45,  50,  52,  63, 
68,  81,  86,  120,  126,  134,  138, 
188,  189,  447,  -174,  495,  498, 
502,  517. 

to  ancestors,  121. 

to  the  dead,  136. 

for  the  dead,  206. 

Expiatory,  15, 16. 

Household,  191. 

Human,  16,  35,  38,  57,  5S,  64, 
72,  87,  89,  90,  ls:>,  242,  447, 
495,  498,  502. 
Sacrificial  fires,  191. 

gifts,  15,  63,  503. 
Saddueees,  660. 
Saints,  Prayers  to,  854. 

Worship  of,  571,  781. 
Saktas,  244. 
Sakvamuni,  324. 
Saladin,  542. 
Salagram,  224. 
Samaritans,  670,  683. 
Samas,  487. 
Sama-Veda,  189. 
Samoans,  31. 
Samoyedes,  101. 
Samuel,  026. 
Sandwich  Islanders,  36. 
Sanhedrim,  655. 
Sankara,  219. 
Sankhya,  197- 
San-kwan,  160. 
Santals,  91. 
Sasabonsum,  52. 
Satapatha-Brahmana,  189. 
Savitri,  182. 
Savonarola,  843. 
Savoy  Conference,  890. 
Scandinavian  religion,  439. 
Scapegoat,  The,  607. 
Schools,  Buddhist,  302,  331. 
Schuyler,  Mr.  Eugene,  on  Turke- 
stan, 569. 
Scotch  Confession,  872. 
Scotland,  Free  Church  of,  877. 
Scottish  Reformation,  872. 
Scott,  Mr.    ("Shway  Toe")  on 

Buddhism.  302,  307. 
Scotus,  John,  793,  794. 
Scribes,  655. 
Scriptures,  Buddhist,  256,  283. 

Christian,  705-716. 

Jewish,  604,  627-648. 

Moslem,  527. 

Tibetan,  314. 
Sculpture,  Greek,  395. 
Se,  of  the  Dahomans,  57. 
Sects,  Sivaitic,  244. 

of  Taoism,  154. 

of  Vishnu,  244. 
Seen -j  in,  160. 

Self-existent,  The  Upanishad  doc- 
trine of  the,  193-195,  211. 

-discipline,  Buddhist,  281. 

-repression,  Hindu,  202. 
Semi-pelagianism   ^69. 
Semitic  religion,  4615. 
Seneca,  438. 
Sepharvaim,  487. 


Septimius  Severus,  731. 

Septuagint,  649. 

Serapis,  467. 

"  Servant  of  the  Lord,"  642-644. 

Servetus,  870. 

Services  of  Eastern  Church,  804. 

Seven  Sacraments,  851. 

Seventh  month  of  the  Jews,  611. 

Shafiites,  544. 

Shamanism,  14,  62. 

Shamans  of  Ostiaks,  100. 

Shammai,  655. 

Shango,  59. 

Shang-ti,  124,  130,  142. 

Shastras,  The  six,  197. 

Shayast,  362. 

Shechinah,  608. 

Shiites,  542,  572. 

Shi-king,  The,  123, 124. 

Shin-shin,  336. 

Shin-toism,  167-169,  173. 

Shu,  466. 

Shu-king,  120-122. 

Shway  Dagohn  Payah,  306. 

Siamese  Buddhism,  310. 

Sibylline  books,  435. 

Sick,   The   treatment  of,  45,  51, 

99, 165,  302,  679. 
Sidgwick,  Pi'of.,  on  Socrates,  410. 
Sikh  Bible,  246. 
Sikhs,  247. 
Sikidy,  42. 
Siliditya,  295. 
Silvanus,  425. 
Sin,  Ancient  Greek  idea  of,  390. 

Forgiveness  of,  691. 

Moslem  idea  of,  548. 

Original,  850. 

Salvation  from,  696. 
Singhalese  Buddhism,  297. 
Siva,  219,  224,  227,  240. 
Sivaitic  sects,  244. 
Siza,  167. 
Slaves,  Jewish,  618. 

Mahometan,  553. 
Slavonian  religion,  451,  453,  454. 
Smalcald,  Articles  of,  866. 
Small-pox,  Spirit  of,  87. 
Smartas,  220. 
Smith, Mr.George,  his  discoveries, 

492. 
Smith,  Prof.  Robertson,  on  sacri- 
ficial worship,  6. 

on  Isaiah,  641. 

on  the  Pentateuch,  604. 
Snake  worship,  57. 
Society  Islanders,  35. 
Socinus,  895. 
Socrates,  407. 

his  mode  of  life,  407. 

his  discharge  of  religious  duties, 
408. 

his  sign  or  daemon,  408. 

not  a  sceptic,  409. 

and  the  Deity,  409. 

his  view  of  Providence,  409. 

a  moral  teacher,  410. 

his  ardour  for  knowledge,  410. 

personal  appearance,  411. 

and  his  judges,  411. 

bis  condemnation,  411. 

his  death,  413. 

on  the  future  life,  412. 
Solomon  Islanders,  27- 
Soma,  182. 
"  Son  of  Heaven,"  The,  126,  132. 


Sophers,  671. 

Sorcery,  14,  25,  26,  62. 

Soudan,  60. 

Soul,  Buddhist  doctrine  of,  276. 

"  Soul  of  the  Bull,"  352. 

South  American  Indians,  74. 

Spenta-Armati,  350. 

Spiers,  Diet  of,  846. 

Spirit,  House,  Slavonian,  455. 

of  Wisdom,  Opinions  of  362. 

world,  Heathen  idea  of,  35,  74, 
83,  84,  91. 

worship,  112, 120,  168,  170. 
Spirits,  Chinese  ideas  of,  155. 

of  the  departed,  6,  84,  172. 

Evil,  Chinese  dread  of,  162. 

Guardian,  93,  125. 

Haunting,  454. 

Heathen  idea  of,  33,  75,  79. 

Inferior  Slavonian,  454. 

of  Land  aud  Grain,  136. 

of  natural  objects.  91. 

Parted,  121. 

Scolding  of,  by  Kukis,  98. 
Spiritual   beings,    Confucius   on, 
118. 

chiefs  of  Friendly  Islanders,  31. 
Spiritualism,  6. 
Srahinantin,  52. 
Sraosha,  352. 
Stanley,  Dean,  on  Abraham,  593. 

on  Russian  pictures,  809. 
Star- worship,  159,  492. 
State  religion  of  China,  132. 
Stephen,  Martyrdom  of,  718. 
Stephen,  St.,  of  Hungary,  796. 
Stoics,  416. 
Stonehenge,  458. 
Storm-gods,  Vedic,  182. 
Sublime  way  of  heaven,  147. 
Substitution,  16. 
Sudra,  203. 

Suffering,  Buddhist  idea  of,  259, 
269. 

Vicarious,  643. 
Sufism,  571,  572. 
Suhman,  54,  55. 
Suinatrans,  40. 
Sun,  Brahman  idea  of,  190. 

gods,  182,  487. 

Spirit  of,  64. 

worship,  80,  101. 
Sunnites,  542,  573. 
Superior  man,  the,  Chinese  idea 

of,  115,  117,  120,  145. 
Superstitions,  2,  40,44,49,  50,  60. 
Supremacy,  Royal,  883-885. 
Supreme  Brahman,  219. 
Surya,  182. 
Sutras,  196. 
Suttee,  253. 
Svantovit,  453. 
Svarog,  451. 
Svetasvatara,  194. 
Swedenborg,  Emanuel,  893. 
Swiss  Old  Catholics,  864. 

Reformed  Churches,  872. 
Symbols  of  gods,  87- 
Symeou  Stylites,  St.,  761. 
Synagogue,  610,  611,  671. 

government,  670. 
Synod,  The  Holy,  801. 

"The  Robber,"  771. 
Synoptic  gospels,  706,  710. 
Syriac  version  of  gospels,  716. 
Syrian  Jacobites,  773. 


INDEX. 


907 


T. 


Tabernacle,  The,  602. 

Feast  of,  613,  676. 
Tablets  to  ancestors,  134, 140, 168. 

Chaldaio,  498. 
Taboo,  The,  12,  36. 
Tai-Shan,    Sacred   mountain  of, 

141. 
Taj  Mehal,  564. 
Talmud,  656-658. 
Tama-dasuki,  171. 
Tammuz,  487. 

Sects  of,  154. 
Tando,  52. 
Tantras,  246. 
Tao,  147. 

Taoism,  141,  149,  150,  152. 
Taoist  temples,"  158,  160. 
Tao-te-King,  146. 
Tashi  Luupo,  319. 
Tashkend,  569. 
Tasmanians,  2(!. 
Tatian,  737,  746. 
Tauler,  839. 

"Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apos- 
tles," 734. 
Tefnut,  466. 
Templars,  The,  828. 
Temple  of  the  Accomplished  An- 
cestor, 120. 

of  Ancestors,  135,  136. 

Delphian,  379. 

of  Frey  at  Trondheim,  443. 

of  Herod,  626. 

to  Lao-tze,  151. 

to  Meucius,  131. 

of  Merodach,  488. 

at  Pekin,  132,  133. 

The  great  Rangoon,  306. 

at  Rugen,  453. 

to  Son  of  Heaven,  127. 

Tanfana,  448. 

of  Zerubbabel,  625. 
Temples,  15. 

of  ancient  Greece,  387,  394-396. 

Aztec,  72. 

Burmese,  306,  307. 

Cave,  298. 

Chinese  Buddhist,  327,  329. 

to  Confucius,  138. 

Egyptian,  470. 

Hindu,  235,  239,  240,  243,  247. 

of  Ise,  174. 

Jain,  340,  341. 

Japanese,  168,  172. 

at  Jerusalem,  624-626. 

Mongolian,  318. 

Mpongwe  idol,  49. 

at  Palitana,  340. 

Peruvian,  81. 

Private,  of  ancient  Greece,  393. 

Rock,  212. 

Roman,  428. 

on  Sacred  Mountain,  141,  142. 

Shinto,  173. 

Siamese,  311. 

Slavonian,  455. 

Taoist,  158,  160. 

Teuton,  443,  448. 

Tibetan,  318,  319. 
Teocallis,  72. 
Tertullian,  742. 
Testament,  New,  705. 

Manuscripts  of  New,  715. 

Old,  586. 


..  169. 

Teutonic  cosmogony,  I  U>. 

goddet  9es,  1 16. 

gods,   1 17. 

mythology,  439. 

religion,  189. 
Thang,  The  Emperor,  121. 
Theism,  18. 
Themis,  •l/.s. 

Theodora,  The  Empress,  790. 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  769. 
Theodore,  the  Studite,790. 
Theodoric,  771. 
Theology,  20,  824. 
Theophany,  686. 
Theophilus  of  Antioch,  739. 
Theosophy,  20. 

Theses  of  Union  Conference,  863. 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  886. 
Thor,  442. 
Thoth,  468. 
Thommim,  622. 
Ti,  120,  133. 
Tibetan  Buddhism,  313,  316,  322. 

Scriptures,  314. 
Tiele,  Prof.,  on  Universal  religion, 

22. 
Ticn-tai,  329. 
Timmanees,  50. 
Tiu,  443. 

Tlocjuenhuaque,  71- 
Todas,  84. 
Tombs  at  Cairo,  563. 

Indian,  564. 
Tongaus,  31. 

Tongues,  Confusion  of,  590. 
Tonquoa,  44. 
Torii,  174. 
Tornarsuk,  62. 
Torquemada,  838. 
Totems,  11,  67- 
Tower  of  Babel,  493. 
Towers  of  Silence,  369,  370. 
Tractarians,  887. 
Trajan,  727. 
Transmigration  of  souls,  84,  160, 

195,  203,  210,  250. 
Transubstantiation,  751,  816,  851. 
Trees,  Reverence  of,  by  Damaras, 

44. 
Tree  worship,  58,  230,  452. 
Trent,  Council  of,  849. 
Triad,  Tibetan  worship  of,  314. 
Tridentine  profession,  854. 
Trinity,  Doctrine  of,  18,  532. 

The  Taoist,  157,  160. 
Troitza  monastery,  799. 
Trumpets,  Feast  of,  613. 
Tsaug,  140. 
Tshi-speaking    people    of    West 

Africa,  51. 
Tsze-tsze,  117-119,  140. 
Tu-metua,  33. 
Tuonela,  101. 
Tupanau,  76. 
Turkey,  580. 
Tvashtar,  184. 

Tylor,  Dr.  E.  B.,  on  Animism,  6. 
Typho,  735. 


U. 


Uaupes,  76. 
U-dengei,  38. 
Uji-gami,  172. 


Dlema,  ~>l  l  5 1, . 

Ullilas,  763. 

□  Sanctam  Hull,  818. 
1.  Iv-:t  reme,  <s<i". 
I'lel.  r-world  of  Finns,  KM  . 

irians,  895. 
"Unity  of  the  Church,"  743. 
Universal  religions,  20,22. 

Somaj,  848. 
Universe,    Mangaian    conception 

of,  88. 
Qpamshads,  191,  L98-196. 
I  1.  186. 

and  Thnmmim,  622. 
CJshas,  188. 


Vaira-pani,  315. 

Vaiseshika,  197. 

Vaisya,  203. 

Valenturas,  745. 

Valhalla,   1 17- 

Vancouver's  Island,  Tribes  of,  64. 

Varnna,  179,  180. 

Vasaa,300. 

Vatea,  38. 

Vatican  Council,  860. 

Vavu,  351. 

Veda,  177,  199,  202,  203. 

Vedanta,  198. 

Veddahs,  The,  88. 

Vedic  deities,  179,  181-185. 

hymns,  178   L80,  1*2-186,  188. 

literature,  1!*0\ 

religion,  176,  348. 
"Vehicles,    The    Greater"    and 

"The  Lesser,"  296,314. 
Vendidad,  358. 
Vertumnus,  425. 
Vesta,  382,  124 
Vestal  virgins,  429. 
Viharas,  297,  302. 
Virgins  of  the  Sun,  82. 

Vestal,  429. 
Virgin  worship,  781,  822. 
Virokana,  195. 

Vishnu,  185,  215,  217,  220,  224, 
226. 

Parana,  221. 

sects,  243. 

Temple  of,  2  13. 
Vispered,  859,  860. 
Visvakarman,  L87« 
Vladimir,  796. 

II.,  798. 
Voguls,  101. 
Vohu-mano,  350. 
Volcanic  deities,  86. 
Votive  offerings,  388. 
Vows,  Jew  ish,  614. 
Vulcan,  882. 


W. 

Wahhahis,  576,  578. 

Wakan,  65, 

Wakinyan,  65. 

Waldenses,  887- 

Waldo,  837. 

Wallace,  A.  R.,  on  the  Uaupes, 

76. 
Wan-chang,  151,  157. 
War,  God  of,  90. 
The  Holy,  567. 


908 


INDEX. 


Way,  Tne  Sublime,  or  Tao,  147, 

148. 
Weeping  songs,  35. 
Wei,  122. 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodisrn,893. 
Wends,  796. 
Wesley,  John,  892. 
West  Africans,  49. 
Western  Church,  792. 
Westminster  Assembly,  8/4. 

Catechism,  876. 

Confession,  874. 
Whitefield,  George,  892. 
Whitney,   Prof.,   on  the  Vedic 

religion,  178, 183. 
Whitsuntide,  "52. 
Widows,  Hindu,  253. 
Williams,  Rev.  T.,  on  Fijians,  37. 
Wilson,  H.  H.,  on  Hindus,  254. 

on  Vishnu  Purana,  221. 
Wind,  God  and  goddess  of,  170. 
"  Wisdom  of  Solomon,"  650. 
Witch-burning,  48. 
Witchcraft,  14,  46,  62, 455. 
Witch  doctors,  86. 
Woden,  440. 
Woman,  Buddhist,  264. 

Confucius  on  position  of,  113. 

Egyptian,  480. 

Hindu,  199,  207,  252. 

and  Jesus,  694. 

Mahometan,  535. 


Woman,  Parsee,  369. 
Woods,  Worship  in,  448. 
World,  Origin  of,  193. 
Worms,  Concordat  of,  815. 

Dietof,  844. 
Worship,  Early  Christian,  751. 

Public,  Taoist,  152. 
Wu-wei-Kian,  334. 
Wycliff,  839. 


Xavier,  856. 
Ximenes,  83£ 


Yajnavalkya,  212. 
Yajur-veda,  189. 
Yama,  185. 

Yasa  and  Buddha,  269. 
Yasna,  349,  359,  360. 
Yatis,  342. 
Yatus,  353. 
Yazatas,  351. 
Yen,  140. 
Ygdrasil,  447. 
Yi-King,  125. 
Yin-chi-wan,  154. 
Yoga  philosophy,  198. 
Yogis,  244. 


Yorubas  of  Abeokuta,  59. 

Youmala,  101. 

Yuh-hwang  Shang-ti,  157,  160. 


'A. 


Zechariah,  647. 
Zeidites,  575. 
Zend-avesta,  343. 
Zernabog,  454,  647. 
Zeus,  372,  373,  375. 
Zion,  644. 
Ziu,  443. 
Zohar,  681. 
Zoroaster,  343-355. 

Mythical  development  of,  346. 

Miracles  attributed  to,  346. 

Contrary  opinions  about,  347. 

Doctrines  of,  347. 
Zoroastrian  books,  356,  361. 

conception  of  Deity,  349. 

doctrines  of  good  and  evil,  352- 
354. 

hymns,  351. 

liturgies,  360. 
Zoroastrianism,  and  early  Aryan 
religions,  347. 

and  Vedic  religions,  348. 
Zulus,  23. 
Zurich,  844. 
Zwingli,  844,  847. 


■  rt-° 


V 


